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John  3wett 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/andersonhistoryOOanderich 


A  COMPLETE  COURSE  IN  HISTORY. 


New  Manual 

OF 

General  History 


WITH  PARTICULAR  ATTENTION  TO 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


WITH  NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS  AND  MAPS. 


FOR  THE  USE  OF 

Colleges,  High  Schools,  Academies,  etc. 


BY 

JOHN    J.    ANDERSON,    Ph.D., 

kuthor  of  a  "Grammar  School  History  of   the   United  States,"  a  "Popular  School 

History  of  the  United  States,"  a  "Junior  Class  History  of  the  United 

States,"  a  "  History  of  England, "  a  "History  of  Franee,"  etc. 


PART  FIRST -ANCIEXT  HISTORY. 
PART  SECOiXD-MEDIiEVAL  AND  MODERN  HISTORY. 


Mayn^ard,  Merrill,  &   Co.,   Publishers, 

45,  47,  AND  49  East  Tenth  Street. 

1893. 


■■Andee-soin's  Historical  Series. 


A  Junior  Class  History  of  the  United  States.    Illiistraie^  with 

hundreds  of  portraits,  views,  maps,  etc.    306  pages.    16mo. 

A  New  Grapimar  School  History  of  the  United  States.  Sup- 
plemented by  maps,  enif  ravings,  chronological  summaries,  tabulated  analyses, 
reWew  questions,  appendix,  etc.    360  pages.    12mo. 

A  Grammar  School  History  of  the  United  States.  Anno- 
tated ;  and  illiistnited  with  numerous  portraits  and  views,  and  with  more  than 
forty  maps,  many  of  which  are  colored.    340  pages.    16mo. 

A  Pictorial  School  History  of  the  United  States.  Fully  lUus- 
trated  with  maps,  portraits,  vignettes,  etc.    439  pages.    12mo. 

A  Popular  School  History  of  the  United  States,  in  which  are 
Insei-ted,  as  a  part  of  the  narrative,  selections  from  the  writings  of  eminent 
American  historians,  and  other  American  writers  of  note.  Fully  Illustrated 
with  maps,  colored  and  plain;  portraits,  views,  etc.    381  pages.    12mo. 

A  Manual  of  General  History.  Illustrated  with  numerous  en- 
gravings and  with  beautifully  colored  maps  showing  the  changes  in  the 
political  divisions  of  the  world,  and  giving  the  location  of  important  places. 
500  pages.    Ir^mo. 

A  New  Manual  of  General  History,  with  particular  attention  to 
Ancient  and  Modern  Civilization.  With  numerous  engravings  and  colored 
maps.  68o  pages.  12mo.  Also,  in  two  parts.  Part  I.  Ancient  History  :  300 
pages.    Part  II.  Modern  History  :  385  pages. 

A  School  History  of  England.  Illustrated  with  numerous  en- 
gravings and  with  colored  maps  showing  the  geographical  changes  in  the 
country  at  different  periods.    378  pages.    12mo. 

A  Short  Course  in  English  History.  With  numerous  engravings 
and  maps.    215  pages.    12mo. 

A  School  History  of  France.  Illustrated  with  numerous  en* 
gravings,  colored  and  uncolored  maps.    373  pages.    12mo. 

A  History  of  Rome.  Amply  illustrated  with  maps,  plans,  and  en- 
gravings.   554  pages.    By  R.  F.  Leiqhton,  Ph.D.  (Lips.). 

A  School  History  of  Greece.    In  preparation. 

Anderson's  Bloss*s   Ancient  History.    Illustrated  with  engrav* 

ings,  colored  maps,  and  a  chart.    445  pages.    12mo. 

The  Historical  Reader,  embracing  selections  in  prose  and  verse, 
from  standard  writers  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Historj- ;  with  a  Vocabu'ary  of 
Difficult  Words,  and  Biographical  and  Geographical  Indexes.  544  pages.  12m<). 

The  United  States  Reader,  embracing  selections  from  eminent 
American  historians,  orators,  statesmen,  and  i)<>et«,  with  explanatory  obser- 
vations, notes,  etc.  Arranged  so  as  to  form  a  ('lass-manual  of  ITnitod  States 
History,    Illustrated  with  colored  historical  maps.   436  pages,    12mo. 

Maynaki),    Merrill,    &    Co.,    Piiblisliers, 

46,  47,  and  49  East  Tenth  Street,  New  York. 

Ct)j>yriiiht,  1881,  by  .John  .7.  Andersitn. 


-^ 


PREFACE. 


The  prominent  and  characteristic  features  of  the  Author's 
series  of  school  histories  have  won  for  these  books  a  large 
share  of  public  favor,  and  have  secured  their  introduction 
into  a  great  number  of  schools  in  every  part  of  the  country. 
Of  these  books  the  Manual  of  General  History  lias  been,  per- 
haps, the  most  conspicuously  successful,  having  been  for  many 
years  used  in  a  large  number  of  colleges,  preparatory  schools, 
academies,  and  seminaries,  and  having  been  commended,  after 
a  mature  practical  test  of  its  merits,  by  many  intelligent  and 
accomplished  educators,  as  a  work  that  contains  not  only  a 
clear  and  brief  statement  of  all  the  facts  needed  to  afford  a 
basis  for  a  complete  course  of  historical  study,  but  also  such 
aids  to  teacher  and  pupil  as  are  requisite  to  facilitate  the  work 
both  of  instruction  and  of  acquisition. 

It  is  not  intended  to  supersede  this  work  by  the  Neio  Man- 
ual, here  presented  to  the  public,  but  to  supply,  by  means  of 
it,  a  somewhat  more  extended  course  of  history,  especially  with 
regard  to  the  progress  of  civilization  among  mankind,  so  as 
to  show  the  distinguishing  traits  of  each  separate  people  in 
respect  to  religion,  manners  and  customs,  and  advancement 
in  literature  and  the  arts. 

There  has  been,  for  some  time,  a  growing  tendency  in  the 
public  mind  to  study  rather  those  things  that  directly  concern 
tlie  life  of  the  people,  as  such,  than  the  facts  of  national  or  po- 
litical history.  Certainly,  this  department  of  knowledge  has  a 
most  fascinating  interest;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  great  movements  of  mankind  are  connected  rather  witli 
their  national  than  their  social  history;  and,  hence,  it  is  a 
false  system  that  makes  the  former  subordinate  to  the  latter, 

54!fe-55 


Preface, 


dwarfing  it  below  its  proper  proportion,  or  keeping  it  out  of 
view  altogether.  Tlie  political  history  of  nations  must  consti- 
tute the  mam  groundwork  of  historical  study;  and,  hence,  it  has 
seemed  to  the  Author  that  a  school  manual  on  this  subject, 
however  charming  in  its  sketches  of  popular  traits,  or  graphic 
in  its  painting  of  ideal  scenes  of  every-day  life,  usually  consid- 
ered to  belong  to  the  province  of  romance,  cannot,  and  should 
not,  take  the  jjlace  of  that  which  every  student  imperatively 
needs  to  render  his  subsequent  reading  of  history  profitable 
and  satisfactory.  The  **  old  masters"  of  education,  though 
more  severe  than  those  of  the  present  time,  in  their  imposi- 
tion of  tasks,  and  less  anxious  to  consult  the  uncultured  pal- 
ate of  their  pupils,  probably,  on  that  account,  often  imparted 
more  solid  and  enduring  accomplishments. 

The  present  work,  while  giving  a  brief  sketch  of  the  political 
history  of  every  nation,  ancient  and  modern,  aims  also  to 
afford,  in  a  pleasing  and  instructive  style,  all  the  information 
needed  by  the  young  student  in  regard  to  the  social  peculiar- 
ities of  the  people  and  their  progress  in  each  department  of 
civilization;  but  care  has  been  exercised  to  keep  this  branch 
of  the  subject  within  its  just  limits. 

As,  in  most  programmes  of  study  in  this  country,  the  his- 
tory of  the  United  States  precedes  the  study  of  general  his- 
tory, and  as,  therefore,  that  subject  is  fully  treated  in  more 
elementary  books,  it  has  been  deemed  unnecessary  to  include 
it  in  the  present  work. 

The  geographical  features  of  the  work,  including  copious 
maps  and  map  exercises,  with  constant  references  to  the  same 
in  the  text,  accprd  with  the  plan  uniformly  pursued  by  the 
Author  in  his  other  works,  and  strongly  commended  by  tlio 
most  successful  teachers.  Indeed,  tliis  plan  has  been  followed 
in  all  the  Author's  historical  text-books  published  since  the 
date  of  his  first  work. 

The  treatment  by  nationalities  rather  than  by  periods  has 
been  retained,  as  being  the  most  suitable  for  beginners, 


Preface, 


inasmuch  as  ib  prevents  the  confusion  that  is  necessarily 
caused  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  by  a  constant  interruption 
of  the  current  of  events  in  pMSsing  from  nation  to  nation. 
Synchronistic  exercises  and  reviews  are,  however,  freely  giveUj 
which  will  serve  to  bring  into  intimate  relation,  and  give 
unity  of  aspect  to,  all  the  great  contemporaneous  events  in 
the  national  life  of  each  separate  people. 

In  the  cuts  inserted  to  illustrate  the  text,  the  object  has 
been  not  merely  embellishment,  but,  by  addressing  the  eye,  to 
afford  information  to  the  pupil  in  regard  to  matters  a  verbal 
account  or  description  of  which  would  necessarily  be  imper- 
fect or  insufficient. 

It  has  been  also  the  aim  of  the  Author,  himself  a  practical 
teacher,  to  render  this  work  a  valuable  and  effective  instru- 
ment in  imparting  instruction.  Hence,  it  has  been  provided 
with  outline  reviews,  topical  synopses,  and  chronological  ta- 
bles, designed  to  facilitate  the  labors  of  both  instructor  and 
student.  To  this  object  the  analytical  table  of  contents  and 
pronouncing  index  will  be  found  to  contribute. 

The  latest  and  best  authorities  have  been  consulted  in  the 
compilation  of  this  work;  and  every  effort  has  been  made  to 
give  it  all  the  freshness  of  interest,  and  clearness  of  expression, 
possible  in  such  a  work. 

The  New  Manual,  it  is  confidently  believed,  will  be  found 
to  contain  all  the  requirements  for  a  complete  course  of 
history  for  all  institutions  of  every  grade,  above  that  of  the 
grammar-school,  that  have  not  the  time  to  devote  to  the  study 
of  the  minute  history  of  different  nations  in  separate  volumes. 
It  consists  of  two  parts, — the  first  devoted  to  ancient,  and  the 
second  to  mediaeval  and  modem  history.  These  parts  are 
issued  together  in  a  single  book,  as  well  as  in  two  separate 
volumes,  the  first  being  confined  to  ancient  history,  the 
second  comprehending  both  mediaeval  and  modem. 

New  Yobk,  Feb.  1,  1882. 


LIST  OF  MAPS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

The  Parthenon  (Frontispiece). 
TheWorld  as  known  to  the  Ancients. 

— Majpl 24,2.5 

Map  or  the  Ancient  Monarchies 26 

Warrior  and  Horses  (Khorsabad) ....    33 

A  Babylonian  Brick.  .35 

From  the  Palace  of  Sennacherib 36 

Interior  of  an  Assyrian  Palace 37 

Ancient  Warrior 42 

Ruins  of  an  Egyptian  Temple 46 

Map  of  Ancient  Egypt 47 

Cart/Ouche  of  a  King 49 

Memnonian  Statues 52 

Egyptian  Mummies 55 

The  Obelisk,  New  York 56 

Diagram  of  the  Great  Pyramid 58 

Map  of  Phoenicia  and  Palestine 62 

Phoenician  Ship 63 

Head  of  Baal 64 

Antique  Vessels 68 

Hebrew  Costume 69 

The  Persian  Empire. — Map  U 74 

Persian  War-Chariot 78 

Greece.— Map  III 35 

Map  of  Hellas  and  her  Colonies 86 

Map  of  the  Greek  Colonies  in  Italy. .    87 

Menelaus 90 

Solon 97 

Ruins  of  Areopagus  and  the  Acrop- 
olis     98 

Plan  of  the  Battle  of  Marathon 100 

Miltiades 101 

MapofSalamis 102 

Aristides 104 

The  Acropolis  at  Athens. 105 

Socrates Ill 

Map  of  the  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thou- 
sand   113 

Xenophon 114 

Epaminondas 115 

Empire  of  Alexander   the   Great.— 

Map  IV 117 

Map  showing  the  Marches  of  Alex- 
ander    121 

Battering- Ram 122 

Plan  of  the  Battle  of  Arbela 123 

Map  of  Asia  Minor 125 

The  P^ast.— Map  V 129 

Ruins  of  Baalbec 134 

Pharos 137 

Map  of  the  Port  of  Alexandria 138 

Mausoleum  at  HalicamaHSUs 140 

A  Urwiuu  Temple , , 146 


PAOki 

Zeus,  or  Jupiter 147 

Colossus  of  Rhodes 148 

The  Foot-Race 158 

Homer 155 

Demosthenes 160 

Writing  Materials  of  the  Greeks 162 

The  Three  Orders  of  Greek  Archi- 
tecture    163 

An  Ionic  Capital 164 

The  Parthenon,  Restored 165 

A  Grecian  Vase  166 

Athenian  Female  Costume 169 

Greek  Jewelry 170 

Greek  Instruments  of  Music 178 

Italy.— Map  VI 181 

Map  of  the  Vicinity  of  Rome 186 

Cloaca  Maxima 186 

Celtic  Arms 197 

Via  Appia 308 

Map  of  the  Countries  subject  to  Car- 
thage  205 

War-Ship  of  Hiero 206 

Map  of  the  Territory  of  Syracuse 211 

Map  of  Nuraidia  and  the  Old  Prov- 
ince of  Africa 216 

The  Siege  of  Numautia 218 

Temple  of  Concord 222 

Pompey  the  Great 235 

Julius  Ctesar 238 

Mark  Antony 240 

Cicero 241 

Roman  Formn,  Restored 248 

Temple  of  Jiipiter  Capitolinus 250 

Aqueduct  oi  the  Pont  du  Gard,  at 

Nimes 251 

Racing  Chariots 252 

The  Colosseiun 253 

Mausoleum  of  Augustus 254 

Temple  of  Vesta 256 

Horace 268 

Virgil 258 

The  Pantheon 269 

SuovcUiurilia S61 

Roman  Implements  of  Writing 964 

R<  .man  Toga 265 

Empress  Livia 986 

Honiaii  Soldiers  and  Lictor 267 

Besieging  Tower 288 

Roman  Standard 969 

Triumph  of  Titus 970 

Roma  II  Em i)ire.— Map  VII 971 

The  Arch  of  Titus 878 

Alexander Scvorus. S7Q 


List  of  Maps  and  Illustrations, 


PAGE 

Arch  of  Constantine 281 

Europe  in  tlie  Reign  of  Theodoric, 

A.D.  500.— Map  VIII Facing  297 

Europe  at  the  Death  of  Justmian, 

A.D.  565.— Map  IX Facing  301 

Empire  of  Charlemagne. — Map  X. 

Facing  315 
Map  of  France  after  the  Treaty  of 

Ve rd  un 320 

Saxon  England.— Map  XI. .  ..Facing  3:33 
Map  of  Great  Bi-itain  and  Ireland. . .  339 

A  Feudal  Castle 343 

A  Norman  Castle 'MA 

A  Knight  in  Complete  Armor 346 

A  Knight  in  the  Lists 348 

Map  of  the  Dominions  of  the  Ange- 

vlns 350 

A  Paragraph  in  Magna  Charta 357 

Mihtary  Accouterments  of  the  Black 

Prince 364 

Knight  of  the  Garter,  Gentleman, 

and  Citizen 374 

Hats  and  Caps 374 

Ladies'  Head-Dresses  {Froissart) —  375 

Chaucer 376 

Europe    at    the  Death   of   Charle- 
magne.—Map  Xn Facing  379 

Map  of  France  and  the  Neighbor- 
ing Countries 380 

A  Crusading  Knight 383 

Ramparts  of  a  Town  in  the  Middle 

Ages 389 

France  under  Hugh  Capet,  a.d.  987. 

—Map  Xni Facing  392 

France  at  the  Time  of  Valois,  a.d. 

1328.— Map  XIV Facing  392 

Cannon  of  the  Fourteenth  Century.  393 
Fortified  Gate  of  a  French  Town  in 

the  Middle  Ages  396 

Cathedral  of  Rheims 397 

Feudal  Castle  in  France,  Fifteenth 

Century 398 

Froissart 404 

Europe  in  the  Time  of  the  Crusades. 

—Map  XV 406,  407 

Crusaders 407 

Peter  the  Hermit 408 

Knights  Templars 409 

Knight  Hospitaller 410 

Map  of  the  Christian  Kingdoms  in 

Syria  and  Palestine 411 

War-Ships  of  the  Thirteenth  Century  414 
Map  of  Central  Europe,  about  1200. .  419 
A  Summons  to  a  Town  to  Surrender  421 

Gregory  VII 423 

Albert  Durer 435 

Map   of    the    Spanish    Kingdoms, 

about  ia50 449 

Map  of  Southeastern  Europe,  about 

1200 453 

Map  of   Southeastern  Europe  and 

Asia  Minor,  ^54 454 

Map  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  1460. . .  457 
Modern  England.— Map  XVI. Facing  461 
Ship     in    which    Henry   VIII.    em- 
barked for  France,  1520 464 

Maiy  Stuart 473 


PAGE 

Raleigh 479 

Musketeer  and   Pikeman,  Time  of 

James  1 480 

Milton 490 

William  of  Orange,  King  of  England  498 

Prince  Eugene 500 

Cavalier  and  Puritan 503 

Ships  of  War,  Time  of  Charles  H. . ..  504 

Shakespeare 506 

Bacon 507 

Washington 513 

York  Minster 518 

Map  of  the  Crimea 520 

Victoria GUI 

Gladstone 523 

Franklin 530 

Morse 531 

Goldsmith 532 

Burns 532 

BjTon 532 

Wordsworth 533 

Scott 534 

Tennyson 534 

Macaulay 535 

George  Eliot 535 

Dickens 536 

Thackeray 536 

Carlyle 537 

Modern  France. — Map  XVH 541 

Pope  Juhus  II 542 

Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold 544 

Francis  1 545 

Richelieu 555 

Mary  de'  Medici 556 

Louis  Xrv 558 

Pavilion  of  Henry  IV.  at  St.  Germain  565 

Fountain  Moliere,  Paris 567 

F6n61on 568 

Voltaire 569 

Marie  Antoinette 570 

TheBastile 572 

Lafayette 573 

Robespierre 575 

Madame  Roland , .  576 

Napoleon  1 579 

Murat 581 

Victor  Hugo 595 

Europe  at   the  End  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century.— Map  XVHI. 

Facing  598 

Members  of  Maximilian's  Court 599 

Charies  V 601 

Wallenstein 603 

Maria  Theresa 605 

Bismarck 607 

Central  and  Southern  Europe,  Mod- 
ern.—Map  XIX Facing  609 

Frederick  the  Great 610 

William  of  Orange 612 

Map  of  Spain  and  Portugal . .  617 

Peter  the  Great 628 

Catharine  I 629 

Beethoven 640 

Copeniicus , .  642 

SchUler 644 

Richter 645 

Goethe m 


ANALYTICAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

PAGK 

History  defined  and  classified 17 

Origin  of  Nations 17 

Aids  to  History 17 

Different  Races 18 

Comparative  Philology 19 

Classification  of  Languages 19 

Chronology 20 

Different  Epochs 21 

Ancient  Monuments 21 

Ancient  Writings  22 

Divisions  of  History 23 

Philosophy  of  History 23 

Ethnological  Synopsis 24 

CHAPTER  I. 

Ancient  Monarchies. 

I.  Babylonians  and  Assyrians. 

Babylonia  or  Chaldea 25 

Chaldean    and    Babylonian    Monar- 
chies  27 

The  Chaldees 27 

Babylon ; 27 

Berosus 28 

Early  Dynasties 29 

Later  Babylonian  Monarchy 29 

Assyrian  Empire 31 

Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Civilization.  35 
Review  Outline 39 

n.  Median  Monarchy. 

Early  History 40 

Cyrus  the  Great 40 

Median  Civilization 41 

ni.  Kingdoms  in  Asia  Minor. 

The  Phrygians 41 

Cilicia 41 

The  Lydian  Monarchy  42 

Chronological  Synopsis 44 


IV.  The  Ancient  Egyptians. 

Origin 45 

Sources  of  Egyptian  History 45 

Dynasties 47 

Topography  and  Civilization 51 

The  Ethiopians 61 

V.  The  Phoenicians. 

Sidon  and  Tyre 61 

Navigation  and  Commerce 63 

Literature  and  Religion 64 

Syria 65 

VI.  The  Hebrews. 

Situation  of  Palestine 66 

Tribes  of  Israel 66 

Early  Kingdom  of  Israel 66 

Later  Kingdom  of  Israel 67 

Kingdom  of  Judah 68 

Later  Jewish  History 69 

Vn.  The  Hindoos. 

Invasion  of  the  Aryans 70 

Religion 70 

Wealth  and  Trade 71 

Vm.  The  Chinese. 

Origin  and  History 72 

Chinese  Civilization 73 

IX.  The  Persians. 

Origin ..,..  74 

Conquests  of  Cyrus 75 

Cambyses 76 

Darius , 77 

Other  Kings 78 

Civilization 78 

Review  Outline 81 

Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah 83 

The  Persian  Monarchs 84 


10 


Contents, 


CHAPTER  n. 

Orkecb  and  Macedonia. 

L  Geographical  Sketch. 

**     ^  PAGE 

Divisions 85 

States  aud  Islands 65 

Colonies 86 

Physical  Features 87 

n.  First  Period— to  776  B.C. 

Legendary  or  Traditional  History, . .  88 

The  Pelasgi 88 

Hellenes 89 

Heroic  Age 89 

Trojan  War 90 

State  of  Society 91 

Amphicty onic  Council 91 

Migrations 92 

Colonies 92 

m.  Second  Period-77^500  b.c. 

Dawn  of  Authentic  History 93 

Olympiads 93 

Laws  of  Lycurgus 93 

Messenian  Wars 95 

Attica  96 

Draco 96 

Solon 97 

Pisistratus 97 

Clisthenes 98 

Ostracism 98 

rV.  TJiird  PeWod— 500-449  B.C. 

The  Persian  War 99 

Revolt  of  the  Colonies 99 

First  Persian  Expedition  100 

Second  Expedition 100 

Battle  of  Marathon 101 

Expedition  of  Xerxes 101 

Battle  of  Tlu-rmopylfiP 103 

Battle  of  Salarais 102 

Burning  of  Athens 103 

Battle  of  Plata?a 103 

Treason  of  Pausanias 103 

Confederacy  of  Delos. 104 

Themistocles 104 

Cimon 106 

Pericles....    , 100 


V.  Fourth  F€riod-4i9-SS8B,o. 

PAOB 

Interstate  Dissensions 107 

Height  of  Athenian  Glory 107 

Peloponnesian  War 108 

Thu-ty  Tyrants Ill 

Condemnation  and  Death  of  Socrates  112 

Expedition  of  Cyrus 113 

ThebauWar 115 

VI.  Fifth  Period— 358^1  a.a 

Macedonian  Supremacy 117 

Philip 117 

Condition  of  the  Grecian  States.  .117 

SocialWar 117 

Sacred  War 118 

Subjugation  of  Gi-eece 119 

Destruction  of  Thebes 119 

Conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great. . .  120 

Lamian  War 125 

Alexander's  Successors 126 

Disposition  of  the  Empire 126 

Death  of  Perdiccas 126 

Battle  of  Ipsus 127 

Partition  of  the  Empu-e 128 

VII.  Sixth  Period-301-UQ  BX 

Macedon  and  Greece 129 

Syrian  Kingdom  of  the  Seleucidai. . .  133 
Egyptian  Ivingdom  of  the  Ptolemies.  186 

The  Minor  Kingdoms 141 

Pergamus 141 

Bithynia 142 

Paphlagonia 142 

Pontus 148 

Cappadocia 142 

Armenia 142 

Bactria 1« 

Parthia 143 

VIII.  Grecian  Civilization. 

Early  Customs  and  Institutions 148 

Religion  of  the  Greeks 146 

Greek  Literature 154 

First  or  Early  Period 164 

Second  or  M  iddle  Period 166 

Third  or  Later  Period 160 

Greek  Art 168 

Social  Life  and  Manners 16? 


Contents, 


11 


PAGE 

Review  Outline 175 

Topical  Review 179 

CHAPTER  m. 

Roman  History. 

I.  Early  History  of  Italy. 

Early  Races 181 

lapygians,  Italians 181 

Latins,  Etruscans,  Romans 182 

Synopsis  of  the  Races  of  Italy 183 

H.  The  Roman  Kingdom. 

Foundation  of  Rome 184 

Government 184 

Patricians  and  Plebeians 185 

Kings 185 

Traditional  Chronology  of  the  Kings.  187 

HI.  The  Roman  Republic. 

Period  of  Internal  Struggles 187 

Legends  of  the  Period  of  the  Tar- 
quins...  189 

Agrarian  Laws 193 

Decemvirs 195 

MiUtary  Tribunes 197 

Invasion  by  the  Gauls 197 

Licinian  Laws 199 

Triumph  of  the  Plebeians 200 

Period  of  Italian  Conquests 200 

Conquest  of  Italy 200 

Samnite  Wars 201 

War  with  the  Gauls 201 

War  with  Pyrrhus 201 

Military  Roads 203 

Aqueducts 203 

Period  of  Foreign  Conquests 203 

History  of  Syracuse 204 

First  Punic  War 206 

Second  Punic  War 209 

Conquest  of  Macedon  and  Greece..  214 
Third  Punic  War 216 


PAGE 

War  in  Spain 217 

Review  of  the  Period 219 

Effects  of  the  Conquests 220 

Period  of  Internal  Dissensions  and 

avilWar 221 

The  Gracchi 221 

Jugurthine  War 223 

Invasion   of  the   Cimbrians    and 

Teutons 224 

Mithridatic  War 225 

Fu-st  Civil  War 227 

Servile  War 229 

Conspiracy  of  Catiline 231 

First  Triumvirate 233 

The  Great  Civil  War 234 

Second  Triumvirate 241 

Octavius  Master  of  the  Empire 243 

Review  Outline 244 

Table  of  Contemporanecus  Events..  247 

IV.  Roman  Civilization. 

Change  in  Roman  Manners 249 

Description  of  Rome 249 

Roman  Art 255 

Roman  Literature 257 

Roman  ReUgion 258 

Manners  and  Customs 262 

Military  System 266 

V.  The  Roman  Empire. 

Reign  of  Augustus 271 

Birth  of  Christ 272 

The  Twelve  Caesars 272 

Praetorian  Guards 274 

Rise  and  Progress  of  Christianity. . .  279 
The  Irruptions  of  the  Barbarians. ...  283 

List  of  the  Roman  Emperors 288 

Topical  Review . .  289 

Topical  Review  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire    290 

General  Chronological  Review 291 

Synoptical  View  of  the  Rise  and  Fall 
of  Nations 296 


12 


Conttnts. 


PART  II. 


L  Medieval  Histoey. 

CHAPTER  I. 
General  View  of  Europe. 

PAGE 

Conquering  Races 297 

Burgundians  297 

Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths 298 

Sueves,  Alans,  and  Vandals 298 

Saxons,  Gepidae,  and  Lombards 299 

Aryans,  Basques,  etc 299 

Ethnological  Synopsis 300 


CHAPTER  IL 
The  Eastern  Empire. 

Foundation 301 

Reign  of  Justinian 302 

Bulgarians  and  Slavonians 303 

Conquest  of  Italy  by  Narses 303 

Avars,  Lombards,  and  Gepidaj 304 

Conquest  of  Italy  by  thie  I^mbards.  304 

Persia 305 

Saracen  Conquests 305 

Kingdom  of  Bulgaria 306 

Russians  and  Turks 307 

I^tin  Emperors 308 

Mongols  and  Ottomans 309 

Byzantine  Civilization ,  310 

Principal  Greek  Emperors 314 

Summary  of  Events  and  Dates 814 


CHAPTER  m. 

The  Con<juerino  Races. 

I.  The  Franks  and  ihe  Normans. 

Dark  Ages 315 

The  Franks 315 

Clovls 316 

Frankish  Monarchy 817 

Descendants  of  Clovis 817 

Charlemagne 818 

Louis  le  D6bonnaire 819 

The  Normana 820 


n.  The  Saxons.  paob 

Incvirslons     332 

Conquest  of  Britain 323 

Heptarchy 824 

England 824 

m.  The  Saracens. 

Mohammed 824 

Conquests  of  the  Caliphs 826 

Ommiyades 827 

Conquest  of  Africa  and  Spain  828 

Caliphate  of  Cordova 829 

Haroun  al  Raschid 329 

End  of  the  Caliphate 330 

IV.  Saracenic  Civilization. 

Commercial  Activity 830 

Manufactures  and  Mines  331 

Learning  and  Science 331 

Chronological  Synopsis 833 

CHAPTER  IV. 

England  :n  the  Middle  Ages. 

I.  Saxoti  Period. 

Danes 833 

Alfred  the  Great 334 

Norman  Conquest 835 

Anglo-Saxon  Civilization 330 

IL  Norman  Period. 

William  1 838 

William  II aiO 

Henry  I.,  Stephen ail 

Norman  Civilization ai2 

Feudal  System ai2 

Chivalry  or  Knighthood 845 

III.  The  Plantageneta. 

Henryll  8S0 

Conquest  of  Ireland 853 

Richard  1 854 

John 865 

Henry  HI 858 

Edwanll 860 

Edward  U 861 


Contents. 


13 


PAGE 

Edward  m 362 

Richardn  365 

Henry  IV.,  Henry  V • 367 

Henry  VI.... 368 

Edward  IV. 370 

Edward  V 371 

Richard  III 372 

State  of  Society  in  England 373 

Kings  of  England 377 

Summary  of  Events  and  Dates 377 

Topical  Review 378 

CHAPTER  V. 

F'rance  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

I.  The  Capetian  Dynasty. 

Hugh  Capet 379 

Robert,  Henry  1 381 

Philip  I.  and  Louis  VI 382 

Louis  VII.,  Philip  II 382 

Louis  VIII.,  Louis  IX 384 

Philip  III 385 

Philip  IV 386 

Louis  X 387 

PhUip  V. ,  Charles  IV 388 

State  of  Society 388 

n.  Branch  of  Valois. 

Philip  VI 392 

John 393 

Charles  V.,  Charles  VI 395 

Charles  VH 390 

Louis  XI 398 

Charles  VIII 400 

State  of  Society 400 

Kings  of  France 405 

Summary  of  Events  and  Dates.. . , . .  405 
Topical  Review 406 

CHAPTER  VL 

The  Crusades. 

Cause 407 

First  Crusade 408 

Second  Crusade 411 

Third  Crusade 412 

Fourth  Crusade 413 

Subsequent  Crusades 415 

Influence  of  the  Crusades 416 

Summary  of  Events  and  Dates 417 


CHAPTER  VH. 

Central,  and  Southern  Europe. 

I.  Germany. 

^  PAGE 

otto  and  Conrad 418 

Henry  1 419 

OttoL,  Otto  II • 420 

Otto  III. ,  Henry  II 421 

Conrad  II.,  Henry  IH 422 

Henry  IV 423 

Henry  V.,  Lothaire 424 

Conrad  HI 424 

Frederick  1 425 

Frederick  II 425 

Rudolf  I,  Albertl 427 

Henry  VII.,  Charles  IV 428 

Wenceslas 429 

Albert  II.,  Frederick  III 430 

State  of  Society  in  Germany 431 

Emperors  of  Germany 436 

Summary  of  Events  and  Dates 436 

H.  Switzerland. 

Barbaric  Invasions 437 

Cantons 437 

m.  Italy. 

Northern  Italy 439 

RepubUc  of  Venice 440 

Southern  Italy 442 

Rome,  or  Papal  Italy 444 

State  of  Society  in  Italy 445 

IV.  Spain  and  Portugal. 

Christian  Kingdoms 448 

Castile  and  Aragon 448 

Spain 449 

Portugal 450 

Civilization  in  Spain  and  Portugal, . .  451 

CHAPTER   VIII. 
Southeastern  Europu. 

Races  and  States 452 

Bulgaria 452 

Servia 454 

Hungary 455 

Bosnia 456 

Ottoman  or  Turkish  Empire 457 

Table  of  Contemporaneous  Events. .  459 
Topical  Review 460 


14 


Contents. 


IL     MODEBN  HiSTOBT. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

'Ejnaukjun. 

1.  The  Tudor  Line. 

FAQE 

Henry  Vn 461 

Henry  VHI 463 

Edward  VI.,  Mary 468 

Elizabeth 469 

State  of  Society  in  England 474 

n.  The  Stuart  Family. 

James  1 478 

Charles  1 481 

The  Commonwealth 488 

Charles  H 492 

James  n 496 

William  and  Mary 498 

William  III 499 

Anne 500 

State  of  Society  in  England 502 

III.  The  House  of  Brunswick. 

George  1 508 

George  II 508 

George  III 512 

George  IV 51G 

William  IV 517 

Victoria 518 

State  of  Society  in  England 524 

Sovereigns  of  England 538 

Simimary  of  Events  and  Dates 538 

Topical  Review 539 

CHAPTER  X 

France. 

I.  The  Valois-Orleans  Branch. 

Louis  Xn 641 

Francis  1 643 

Henry  II 546 

Francis  II 647 

Charles  IX 648 

Henry  m 649 

State  of  Society  in  France 650 

II.  The  House  of  Bourbon.  ' 

Henry  IV 668 

Louis  Xm 655 


PAOK 

Louis  XIV 566 

Louis  XV 661 

State  of  Society  in  France 663 

m.  Revolutionary  Prance. 

Louis  XVI 670 

The  National  Convention 674 

The  Directory 677 

The  Consulate  and  Empire 678 

Restoration  of  the  Bourbons 686 

Louis  XVIU 686 

Charles  X 687 

Louis  Philippe 687 

The  Second  Republic 588 

The  Second  Empire. 689 

The  Third  RepubUc 591 

State  of  Society  in  France . , 692 

Rulei-s  of  France 596 

Summary  of  Events  and  Dates 696 

Topical  Review 697 

CHAPTER  XL 

States  op  Modern  Europe. 

I.  Germany  and  Austria. 

Ma::imilian  1 666 

Charles  V 698 

Thirty  Years'  War 602 

Leopold  1 604 

Charles  VI 604 

Francis  I.,  Francis  II 606 

WilUaml 606 

Austria 608 

II  Prussia. 

Early  Hi  story 609 

Frederick  the  Great  Elector 609 

Frederick  III 610 

Frederick  the  Great 610 

Frederick  William  HI 611 

Later  Events 611 

HI.  Holland  and  Belgium. 

Early  History 612 

Rise  of  the  Republic 612 

Later  Changes 618 

IV.  Switzerland. 

Religious  Wars 614 

Later  History 014 


Contents. 


15 


V.  Italy.  p^QE 

Savoy,  Sardinia 615 

Kingdom  of  Italy 616 

VI.  Spain. 

Charles  V 616 

Philip  n 617 

Later  Events 618 

IsabeUa  U.,  Alfonso 619 

Vn.  Portugal. 

Maritime  Enterprises 619 

Later  History 620 

Vni.  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark. 

Early  History 622 

Sweden 622 

Norway 624 

IX,  Poland. 

Early  History 625 

Later  History 626 

X,  Riissia. 

Early  History 627 

Peter  the  Great 628 

Later  History 629 

XI.  Turkey. 

Conquests 631 

Soly man  the  Magnificent 632 

Selimll 632 

Subsequent  Reigns 632 

Wars  with  Russia 633 

The  Eastern  War  of  1877-8 634 


XH.  Greece.  p^gj. 

Turkish  Rule 635 

War  for  Independence 635 

Kingdom  of  Greece 635 

XTTI.    Progress  of  Civilization  in 
Modem  Europe. 

Modern  Epoch 636 

Maritime  Enterprises 637 

Industrial  Arts 638 

Fine  Arts 639 

Science 641 

Literature 643 

Review  Outline 647 

Contemporaneous  Events 650 

Emperors  of  Germany 651 

Topical  Review 651 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Supplementary. 

I.  Asiatic  States. 

China 662 

Japan 652 

India 653 

Persia 654 

Turkistan 655 

II.  American  States. 

Mexico  and  Central  America 656 

Brazil 656 

Peru 656 

Chili,  Venezuela,  etc 657 

Independent  States 057 


A  LIST  OF  WORKS  FOR  STUDY  AND  REFERENCE. 


The  following  works  are  recommended  to  the  student  who  desires  to  acquire  a 
complete  knowledge  of  ancient  history,  or  who  wishes  to  make  a  special  study  of 
any  single  department  of  the  subject,  or  to  obtain  a  full  account  of  any  particular 
nation.    It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  this  list  is  by  no  means  exhaustive;  though  it 
embraces  all  that  is  needed  for  a  full  course  of  reading,  or  that  would  be  required 
for  the  ordinary  puqwses  of  consultation.    Most  of  the  standard  authorities  upon 
each  nation  are  given,  as  well  as  those  that  are  especially  useful  and  interesting 
for  the  light  they  throw  upon  the  condition  and  progress  of  the  most  ancient 
peoples,  such  as  the  ligyptians,  Assyrians,  Phoenicians,  and  early  Greeks,  or  Hel- 
lenes.   It  is  in  this  held  ot  archaeological  and  historical  research  that  the  explorers 
and  writei-s  of  the  last  (juarter  of  a  century  have  won  their  chief  distinction.    This 
list  is   divided  into   three   parts:    (I.)  works   pertaining   to   the   earUest   times; 
(11.)  those  relating  to  Greece;  and  (HI.)  those  relating  to  Rome. 
I.  Bansen'8  Egypt's  Place  in  Universal  History  (translated  from  the  French,  by 
Cottrell  and  Birch).    2  vols. 
Briigsch,  Histoire  de  VEgypte  des  les  premiers  temps  de  son  existence. 
IVilkinson,  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 
Smith,  W.,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  articles  Egypt,  Fhccnicia^  Tyre.,  etc. 
Bawlinson,  Sir  Henry  C,  Outline  of  the  History  of  Assyria. 
Bawlinson,  George,  Translation  of  Herodotus     4  vols. 
"  "       Manual  of  Ancient  History. 

"  "       The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World. 

3  vols. 
"  "       The  Sixth  Great  Oriental  Monarchy 

"  "       Origin  of  Nations. 

Kenrick,  J.,  Phoenicia. 

Smith,  R.  P.,  Carthage  and  the  Carthaginians. 
Milnian,  H.  H.,  History  of  the  Jews. 
Layard,  Nineveh  and  its  Remains. 

Discoveries  among  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 
Grant,  History  of  India. 
Schllemann,  Ancient  Mycenae. 

Troj'  and  its  Remains. 
Davis,  Dr.  N.,  Carthage  and  her  Remains. 

Yeats,  The  Growth  and  Vicissitudes  of  Commerce,  from  B.C.  1500  to  a.d.  1789. 
U.  5lebulir,  Lectures  on  the  Ethnography  and  Geography  of  Ancient  Greece. 
(J rote.  History  of  Greece.    12  vols. 
€urtiuH,  History  of  Greece.    5  vols. 
Smith,  W.,  History  of  Greece. 
Corteis,  A.  M.,  Rise  of  the  Macedonian  Empire. 
MahafTy,  Social  Life  in  Greece. 

Gladstone,  W.  E.,  Studies  on  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age.    3  vols. 
Juvenilis  Mundi;  the  Gods  and  Men  of  the  Homeric  Age. 
til.  Mommsen,  The  History  of  Rome.    4  vols. 
Merivale,  History  of  the  Romans.    7  vols. 
Niebuhr,  History  of  Rome.    3  vols. 
Arnold,  History  of  Rome.    4  vols. 
Forsyth,  Life  of  Cicero.    2  vols. 
Fronde,  Ceesar  :  a  Sketch. 
Trollope,  Life  of  Cicero.    2  vols. 
Liddell,  History  of  Rome. 
LeiKhton,  History  of  Rome. 

Smith,  VV.,  Dictionary  of  Grecian  and  Roman  Antiquities. 
Becker,  (Jallus,  or  Roman  Scenes  of  the  Time  of  Augustus. 
De  Coulanares,  The  Ancient  City:  a  Study  on  the  Religion,  Laws,  and  Institu- 
tions of  Greece  and  Rome. 
Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.    4  vols. 
Long,  Decline  of  the  Roman  Republic.    6  vols. 


mTEODTTOTION 


1.  History  is  a  narration  of  the  events  which  have  hap 
pened  among  mankind.     It  includes  an  account 
of  the  rise  and  fall  of  nations,  their  dealings  one 


History  defined. 


Political  history. 


with  another,  their  government  and  institutions,  and  the; 
causes  of  their  growth  and  decline.  This  is  sometimes  called 
political  history.  History  is  also  a  record  of  the 
progress  of  mankind  in  civilization,  giving  an 
account  of  the  manners,  customs,  and  social  life  of  differeni 
peoples,  and  their  advancement  in  science,  art,  literature,  and 
religion.  This  has  been  termed  civil  history. 
History  treats  particularly  of  those  nations  which 


Civil  hintorji;. 


have  occupied  a  prominent  place  among  mankind  by  reason  ot 
their  energy,  enterprise,  intelligence,  and  culture. 

2.  The  origin  of  nations  is  shrouded  in  obscurity ;  but 
modern  scholars  by  patient  study  and  research 
have,  to  some  extent,  shown  the  relationship  of 
different  portions  of  mankind,  by  a  comparison 


Origin  of 
nations. 


of  their  physical  peculiarities,  then*  languages,  and  the  remain^' 
of  their  literature,  science,  and  art.  Thus  history  is  indebted 
for  its  progress  to  three  branches  of  study  and  investiga- 
tion: 1.  Ethnology,  or  a  knowledge  of  the  races 
of  mankind  ;    2.    Comparative  philology,  or  the 


Aids  to  history. 


study  of  the  affinities  of  languages;  and  3.  Archceology,  oi 
the  study  of  the  remains  of  ancient  art,  science,  and  litera- 
ture, such  as  inscriptions,  monuments,  architectural  remains, 
pottery,  medals,  coins,  etc. 


18  Ancient  History, 


3.  There  are  Hires  great,  races  of  wliich  history  especially 
I,  treats, — the  Ar'yans,*  the  Sem'ites  or  Shem'ites, 


.  — 1  and  th6  Ham'ites.\     The  Aryans  are  often  called 


the  Indo-Europeans,  because  the  primitive  race  appears  to 
have  separated  into  two  branches,  one  passing  to  the  west 
into  Europe,  and  the  other  to  the  south-east  into 
India.    The  place  where  this  separation  took  place 


Aryans. 


seems  to  have  been  in  the  region  situated  to  the  south-east  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  sometimes  called  the  plateau  of  Iran.  Thence 
they  entered  the  Indian  peninsula,  and  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  peculiar  civilization,  language,  and  literature  of  the 
Hindoos.  The  ancient  Persians,  as  well  as  that  kindred 
people,  the  Mcdcs,  were  also  descendants  of  this  ancient  race. 
In  their  great  migrations  to  the  west  they  occupied  Greece, 
Italy,  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  thus  laying  the  foundations 
not  only  of  the  Graeco-Roman  nations,  but  of  the  Thracians, 
Celts,  Slavs,  Germans,  etc.  Eelics  of  the  peoples  displaced  by 
this  powerful  wave  of  migration  still  exist  in  Europe.  Such  are 
the  Basques,  a  small  tribe  living  on  both  sides  of  the  Pyrenees, 
and  the  Finns  and  Laps.  J  To  the  Semites  proper  belonged 
the  Canaanites,  Hebrews,  Syrians,  Chaldeans  (kaU 
dedans),  Samaritans,  and  Arabians;  to  the  Ham- 


Semites. 


ites,  often  included  among  the  Semitic  nations,  the  Assyrians, 

Babylonians,  ancient  Phcenicians,  Egyptians,  and  Ethiopians. 

4.  It  is  by  the  study  of  the  languages  of  different  nations 

*  Arya,  in  the  later  Sanskrit,  signifies  excellent.  In  the  VecUia,  the  most  ancient 
Sanskrit  writings,  the  Hindoos  style  themselves  Aryans;  and  the  name  Aii-ya  was 
applied  to  a  part  of  southern  and  western  Asia  (India  and  Iran)  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  countries  of  less  civilized  nations. 

t  The  terms  Semites  and  Semitic  (more  properly  Shemiten  and  Shemitic)  have 
been  applied  to  the  supposed  descendants  of  Shem;  as  Hamiten  and  Ilamitio 
denote  the  races  who  are  supposed  to  have  descended  from  Ham. 

t  "The  results  of  Germanic  antiquarian  rps<»arch  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  la 
England.  France,  the  north  of  Germany,  and  Scandinavia,  hefore  the  settlement 
of  the  Indo-Europeans  in  those  lands,  there  must  have  dwelt,  or  rather  roamed, 
a  people,  perhaps  of  Mongolian  race,  gaining  their  subsistence  by  luniting  and 
fishing,  making  their  implements  of  stone,  clay,  or  bones,  adorning  thoniselvea 
with  the  teeth  of  animals  and  with  amber,  but  unacquainted  with  agriculture  and 
.the  use  of  the  metals."— Jlfomm»en'«  Hiatory  of  Kome. 


Introduction.  19 


that  their  affinities  have  been  traced.      Thus,  in  regard  to 
the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  race,  it  is  found  that 
the  names  of  many  common  objects  are  the  same 
in  all  the  languages  and  dialects  spoken  by  these 


Comparative 
philology. 


people;  and  it  could  not  reasonably  be  supposed  that  two  na- 
tions widely  separated  would  have  independently  selected  the 
same  name  for  the  same  object.  For  example,  the 
word  for  liouse  in  Greek  is  domos,  in  Latin  domus, 


Aryan  languages. 


in  Sanskrit  dama,  in  Zend  (Persian)  demana;  and  from  the 
same  root  comes  our  word  domestic.  The  words,  also,  for 
ploughing,  grinding  com,  building,  etc.,  are  found  to  be  iiearly 
identical.  This  serves  to  show,  first,  that  these  nations  must 
have  had  a  common  origin,  and,  secondly,  that  they  practiced 
farming,  made  bread,  and  built  houses.  By  observing  in  this 
way  the  similitudes  of  words  having  the  same  meaning,  com- 
parative philology  has  been  the  means  of  throwing  much  light 
on  the  affinities  of  different  peoples. 

5.  Different  languages  present  three  varieties  of  structure, 
or  stages  of  development,  which  have  been  designated  the 
monosyllabic y  the  agglutiyiative,  and  the  inflected. 
The  monosyllabic  languages  consist  only  of  simple 
words  expressing  the  ideas  without  regard  to  their 


Kinds  of 
languages. 


relation  to  other  words.  Of  these  the  Chinese  is  an  example. 
The  monosyllabic  seems  to  be  the  simplest  and  earliest  form  of 
language.  The  agglutinative  are  those  in  which  two  roots  are 
joined  together  to  form  words,  one  of  them  losing  its  inde- 
pendent meaning  and  becoming  subsidiary  to  the  other.  The 
lanffuaa^es  which   have   been    called    Turanian"^  \ 

.  n     1  1  •      T-i  T     A     •  I        Turanian. 

comprise  all  those  spoken  m  Europe  and  Asia,  ex-  • 

cept  the  Aryan  and  Semitic.  The  latter  are  inflected  languages; 
that  is,  those  in  which  the  roots  coalesce,  neither  retaining  its 
independent  meaning.     Though  the  Semitic  languages  were 

*  The  term  Turanian  is  derived  from  Turan,  a  name  applied  by  the  Persians, 
from  the  earliest  times,  to  the  region  lying  to  the  north  of  Iran.  "  Tura,^'  says 
Max  Miiller,  "implies  the  swiftness  of  the  horseman."  Hence,  nomadic  races 
were  called  Turanian. 


20  Ancienc  History, 


spoken  by  the  nations  who  dwelt  in  the  valley  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates,  and  in  Syria  and  Arabia,  they 
were  not  restricted  to  those  countries,  but  were 


Semitic. 


ispoken  by  a  large  part  of  the  Hamitic  nations. 

6.  As  far  as  we  know,  the  nations  that  have  performed  the 
grandest  achievements,  made  the  most  progress  in  civilization, 
and  hence  occupied  the  most  conspicuous  place  in  history,  are 
the  descendants  of  the  primitive  Aryans.*  The  Semitic  and 
Hamitic  nations  seem  to  have  more  rapidly  reached  their  ma- 
turity; but  their  civilization  was  of  a  peculiar  character, 
having  but  little  in  common  with  that  of  the  Aryan  race,  as 
developed  in  the  growth  of  the  greatest  of  modern  nations, 
both  of  Europe  and  America.  In  art,  science,  and  literature, 
this  peculiarity  is  very  marked,  but  is  more  especially  so  in 
religion.  Some  of  the  Semitic  nations,  as  the  Hebrews,  had 
early  reached  a  sublime  height  in  their  religious  beliefs  and 
institutions;  while  others,  though  they  seem  to  have  had  pure 
and  just  views  at  the  commencement  of  their  national  existence, 
soon  fell  into  corrupt  and  superstitious  notions  and  observances. 

7.  Glironology  is  a  department  of  history  which  treats  of 
the  exact  time,  or  date,  of  each  event  with  refer- 
ence to  some  fixed  point  of  time,  called  an  era  or 


Chronology. 


epoch.    The  epoch  employed  in  our  times  by  Christian  nations 


*  *•  The  words  which  have  nearly  as  possible  the  same  form  and  meaning  in  all 
the  languages  must  have  existed  before  the  people,  who  afterwards  formed  the 
prominent  nationalities  of  the  Aryan  family,  separated;  and,  if  carefully  inter 
preted,  they,  too,  will  serve  as  evidence  as  to  the  state  of  civilization  attained  by 
the  Aryans  before  they  left  their  common  home.  It  can  be  proved,  by  the  evidence 
of  language,  that  before  their  separation  the  Aryans  led  the  life  of  agricultural 
nomads— a  life  such  as  Tacitus  describes  that  of  the  ancient  Germans.  They  knew 
the  arts  of  ploughing,  of  making  roads,  of  building  ship  -.  of  weaving  and  sewing, 
of  erecting  houses;  they  had  counted  at  least  as  far  as  one  hundred.  They  had 
domesticated  the  most  important  animals— the  cow.  the  horse,  the  sheep,  the  dog; 
they  were  acquainted  with  the  most  useful  metals,  and  armed  with  Iron  hatchets, 
whether  for  peaceful  or  warlike  purposes.  They  had  recognized  the  bonds  of  blood 
and  the  bonds  of  marriage;  they  followed  their  leaders  and  kings,  and  the  distinc- 
tion between  right  and  wrong  was  fixed  by  laws  and  customs.  They  were  impres.sed 
with  the  idea  of  a  Divine  Being,  and  they  mvoked  It  by  various  names.  All  this 
can  be  proved  by  the  evidence  of  language. "-3/aar  Mutter's  Science  o/  Lamjunge. 


Introduction,  21 


is  the  Birth  of  Christ,  called  the  Christian  era.  All  dates 
preceding  this  are  marked  B.C. — that  is,  Before  Christ  (or,  in 
Latin,  Ante  Christum)',  and  all  subsequent  to  it  are  marked 
A.D. — that  is,  Anno  Domini^  which  means  In  the  year  of  Our 
Lord;  that  is,  after  the  birth  of  Christ.  Previous  to  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  there  are  but  few  dates  that  can  be  fixed  with 
any  degree  of  certainty;  that  is  to  say,  no  uninterrupted  series 
of  dates  can  be  accurately  and  positively  assigned  to  events 
which  are  known  to  have  occurred.  In  the  earliest  ages  all 
dates  are  uncertain,  from  the  absence  of  reliable  information 
in  regard  to  those  remote  periods.* 

8.  Still,  certain  fixed  points  of  time  have  been  assumed 
by  different  nations  of  a  very  great  antiquity.  Thus,  the 
Babylonians  used  the  era  of  Nahonassar,  747  B.  c. 
— the  earliest  instance  of  a  national  epoch;  the 
Romans,  the  era  of  the  Foundation  of  Rome,  753 


Different 
epochs. 


B.C.  (or,  according  to  some  authorities,  752  B.C.);  the  Greeks, 
the  era  of  the  Olympiads,  776  B.C. ;  and  the  Mohammedans,  in 
^atter  times,  the  Hegira,  or  Flight  of  Mohammed,  622  A.  D. 

9.  In  establishing  the  date  of  ancient  events,  much  aid 
has  been  afforded  by  the  discovery  of  monuments  of  great 
antiquity  bearing  chronological  inscriptions.  Of  those,  one 
of  the  most  noted  is  the  Parian  MarUe,  brought 
to  England  from  Smyrna  by  the  Earl  of  Arundel. 


Monuments. 


It  contains  a  chronological  arrangement  of  important  events 
in  Greek  history,  from  the  earliest  times  to  355  B.C.  The 
Assyrian  Canon,  discovered  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  consists 
of  a  number  of  clay  tablets,  constructed  in  the  reign  of 
Sardanapa'lus,  and  containing  a  complete  scheme  of  Assyrian 


*  When  Christianity  became  predominant  in  the  civilized  worid,  writers  began  to 
date  events  from  various  epochs  in  the  history  of  Christ,  the  most  general  being  that 
of  his  death.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  Dionysius  Exiquus,  a  Roman 
abbot  of  Scythian  birth,  introduced  the  method  of  dating  from  the  birtih  of  Christ; 
but  it  is  generally  conceded  that  his  computation  placed  the  event  about  four 
years  too  late.  This  is,  however,  of  little  importance  in  chronology,  as  it  merely 
involves  the  necessity  of  placing  the  date  of  the  birth  in  the  year  4  b.c. 


22  Ancient  History. 

chronology,  verified  by  the  record  of  a  solar  eclipse,  which 
must  have  occurred  June  15,  B.C.  763.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  remains  of  this  kind  is  that  of  the 
Fasti  Gapitolini,  discovered  at  Rome,  partly  in 


Fasti  Gapitolini. 


1547,  and  partly  in  1817  and  1818.  These  records  are  in  frag- 
ments, but  they  contain  a  list  of  the  Roman  magistrates  and 
triumphs,  from  the  commencement  of  the  Republic  to  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Augustus.  To  these  might  be  added 
many  others  of  great  interest,  particularly  the  famous  Rosetta 
Stone,  the  inscription  on  which  in  the  Egyptian  and  Greek 
languages  was  fortunately  deciphered,  thus  leading  to  the  dis- 
covery of  a  key  to  the  meaning  of  the  hieroglyphic  writings 
on  the  monuments.  *     [See  Egypt.  ] 

10.  Besides  these  monumental  inscriptions,  the  books  of 
ancient  writers,  which  have  come  down  tc  us  from  antiquity, 
form  a  copious  source  of  ancient  history.  Such  are  the  frag- 
ments of  San-cho-ni-a'thon  and  Be-ro'sus  in  regai-d 
to  Phoenician  and  Assyrian  history;  the  lists  of 
Egyptian   kings  supplied  by  Man'e-tho;  and  the 


Ancient 
writings. 


writings  of  Herodotus,  called  the  '^Father  of  History,"  which 
have  survived  the  wrecks  and  mutations  of  more  than  twenty- 
three  centuries,  giving  us  a  graphic  picture  of  ancient  nations 
— their  history,  manners,  and  customs,  as  well  as  a  geographi- 
cal description  of  the  countries  which  they  occupied. 

♦  The  nations  of  antiquity  made  use  to  a  very  large  extent  of  this  mode  of  com- 
memorating events.  In  Egypt,  in  Assyria,  in  Babylonia,  in  Armenia,  in  Persia,  in 
Plioenicia,  in  Lycia,  in  Greece,  in  Italy,  historical  events  of  importance  were  from 
time  to  time  recorded  in  this  way— sometimes  on  the  natural  rock,  which  was 
commonly  smoothed  for  the  purpose;  sometimes  on  obelisks  or  pillars;  frequently 
upon  the  walls  of  temples,  palaces,  and  tombs;  occasionally  upon  metal  plates,  or 
upon  tablets  and  cylinders  of  fine  clay— hard  and  durable  materials,  all  of  them 
capable  of  lasting  hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  years,  and  in  many  cases  con- 
tinuing to  the  present  day.  .  .  .  The  histories  of  Egypt  and  Assyria  have  been 
In  a  great  measure  reconstructed  from  the  inscriptions  of  the  two  countries.  The 
great  inscription  of  Behistun  has  thrown  much  light  upon  the  early  history  of 
Persia.  That  on  the  Delphic  tripod  has  illustrated  the  most  glorious  period  of 
Greece.  It  is  now  generally  felt  that  inscriptions  are  among  the  most  important 
of  ancient  records,  and  that  their  intrinsic  value  makes  up  to  a  great  extent  for 
their  comparative  scantiness  "—Rawlinson. 


Introduction.  23 


11.  History  is  most  conveniently  divided  into  Ancient, 
Medimal,  and  Modern  History.  Ancient  history  may  properly 
be  considered  to  end  476  a.d.,  the  date  of  the 
destruction  of  the  western  division  of  the  Roman 
Empire.      Mediaeval  history,  or  the   History  of 


Divisions  of 
history. 


the  Middle  Ages,  extends  from  476  a.d.  to  about  the  time 
of  the  fall  of  the  eastern  division  of  the  Eoman  Empire, 
in  1453,  or  nearly  to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  at  the 
time  of  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  1492.  All 
subsequent  history  belongs  to  the  third  division.  This  mode 
of  dividing  the  subject  is,  however,  entirely  arbitrary.  His- 
tory is  also  divided  into  Sacred  and  Profane  History,  the 
former  being  that  which  is  contained  in  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  and  the  latter  that  recorded  in  other  books. 
Ecclesiastical  History  is  the  history  of  the  Church.  The 
history  of  civilization,  to  which  considerable  prominence  is 
given  in  this  work,  gives  an  account  of  the  progress  of  nations 
in  the  arts,  sciences,  literature,  and  social  culture. 

12.  The  Philosophy  of  History  is  a  most  important  de- 
partment of  the  subject.  It  considers  not  simply  the  events 
which  have  occurred  m  the  past,  but  traces  their 
causes,  and  deduces  from  them  certain  principles, 
to  serve  as  a  guide  to  statesmen  ir^  conducting 


Philosophy 
of  history. 


the  affairs  of  a  nation,  or  to  illustrate  the  general  characteris- 
tics of  human  nature.  Viewed  in  this  light,  history  has  been 
styled  *' philosophy  teaching  by  example;"  and  it  has  been 
remarked  by  a  distinguished  writer  that  "social  advancement 
IS  as  completely  under  the  control  of  natural  law  as  is  bodily 
growth.  The  life  of  an  individual  is  a  miniature  of  the  life 
of  a  nation." 


Ethnological  Synopsis. 


L  AXtASS  or  IKDO-EUBOPEANS. 

I.  Aryans  propek: 

1.  Iranians; 

2.  Indians. 

n,  Gr^co-Roman  Races: 

1.  'Greeks,  Thracians,  and  Albanianfij 

2.  Italo-Celtic  races. 

a.  Latins  and  Romans: 

b.  Gauls.  British,  Gael. 
HL  Slavo-German  Races: 

1.  Slavs. 

a.  Russians; 

b.  Poles,  Czechs,  Serbs; 

2.  Baltics; 

3.  Germans,  Goths,  Scandinavians. 
XL  SEMITES. 

I.  Canaanites: 

1.  Phoenicians; 

2.  Hebrews. 
n.  Arameans: 

1.  Syrians; 

2.  Chaldeans; 

3.  Samaiitans. 
ni.  Arabs: 

1.  Abyssinians,  Amharras, 

2.  Moors  or  Koranites. 
UX,  €AMITES. 

I.  Mesopotamians: 

1.  Assyrians; 

2.  Babylonians; 

3.  Ancient  Phcenicians. 
n.  Ancient  Egyptians: 

1.  Copts  or  Modern  EgyptianSi 

2.  Ethiopians; 
8.  Libyans. 


i^K   X 


PAET  I. 

Ancient  History. 


CHAPTER  I. 
The  Ancient  Monaechies. 


SECTION  I. 

The  Babylonians  and  Assyrians. 

1.  Babylonia  or  Chaldea.  The  region  watered  by  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers  in  very  early  times  attracted  to 
it  a  large  population.  Its  fertility  was  extra- 
ordinary. It  produced  in  great  abundance  every- 
thing requisite  for  the  support  of  man.     The 


Region  of  the 
Tigris  and 
Euphrates. 


cereal  grams,  wheat,  barley,  and  millet,  flourished  luxuri- 
antly.* An  abundance  of  clay  afforded  material  for  the 
manufacture  of  bricks  for  building,  and  the  wells  of  bitumen 
yielded  an  excellent  cement.  These  supplied  the  place  of 
wood,  stone,  and  mortar,  f     It  is  not  surprising,  therefore, 

*  "  Of  all  the  countries  that  we  know  of,  there  is  none  so  fruitful  in  grain.  It 
makes  no  pretension  indeed  of  growing  the  fig,  the  olive,  the  vine,  or  any  other 
tree  of  the  kind;  but  in  grain  it  is  so  fruitful  as  to  yield  two  hundred-fold.  The 
blade  of  the  wheat  plant  and  barley  plant  is  often  three  or  four  fingers  in  breadth. 
As  for  the  millet  and  the  sesame,  I  shall  not  say  to  what  height  they  grow,  though 
within  my  own  knowledge;  for  I  am  not  ignorant  that  what  I  have  already  written 
concerning  the  fruitfulness  of  Babylonia  must  seem  incredible  to  those  who  have 
never  visited  the  country."— Bierodofws. 

t "  Stone  and  marble  were  even  more  rare  in  this  country  than  wood,  but  the 
clay  was  well  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  bricks.  These,  whether  dried  in  the 
sun  or  burnt  in  kilns,  became  so  hard  and  durable  that  now,  after  the  lapse  of  so 
many  centimes,  the  remains  of  ancient  walls  preserve  the  bricks  uninjured  by 


26 


ATicient  History. 


that  this  region  was,  at  a  very  early  period,  crowded  with  in- 
habitants, and  soon  became  the  seat  of  populous  cities  and 
powerful  empires. 


aKOGRAPHTOAI.  STUDY. 


Find  the  situation  of:  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Chaldka,  MRSOPOTAjaA,  Persia, 
Media,  Phknicia,  Palestine,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Lydia,  Phryoia,  Cilicia,  Colchis, 
Egypt,  Babylon,  Nineveh,  Ur,  Susa,  Ecbatana,  Jerusalem,  Memphis,  Sidon,  Tyre. 
Thebes,  Damascus,  Pelusium,  Tadmor,  Tarsus. 


their  long  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  and  retaining  the  impression  of  the 
inscriptions  as  perfectly  as  if  they  had  only  Just  been  manufactured.  Naphtha 
and  bitumen  were  produced  in  great  abundance  above  Babylon,  near  the  modem 
town  of  Hit.  These  served  as  substitutes  for  mortar  and  cement;  and  so  lasting 
were  they,  that  the  layers  of  rushes  and  palm-leaves  laid  l)etween  the  courses  of 
bricks  as  a  binding  material,  are  found  at  this  day  in  the  ruins  of  Babylon  as  per- 
fect as  if  a  year  had  not  elapsed  since  they  were  put  together."— Taylor's  Ancient 
History. 


Babylonia  or  Chaldea,  27 

2.  Three  monarchies  successively  occupied  the  basin  of 
these    rivers:    1.  The  Chaldean,  or  First  Baby- 
lonian Monarchy  ;    2.  The  Assyrian  Empire  ;  3. 
The    Later   Babylonian  Monarchy.     Chaldea,  or 


Chaldean  and 
Babylonian 
Monarchies 


Mesopotamia. 


Babylonia,  occupied  the  plain  which  extends  north  from  the 

Persian  Gulf,  and  which  was   originally   called 

Shinar.     The   district  lying  between  these  two 

rivers  was   afterwards  called  by  the  Greeks  Mes'o-po-ta'mi-a 

(from  mesos,  midst,  undipot'amoif  rivers). 

3.  The  Chaldees  had,  as  early  as  2000  B.C.,  made  con- 
^derable  progress  in  the  arts,  particularly  in  architecture. 
With  their  materials  for  building,  brick  and  bitu- 
men, thby  constructed  vast  edifices,  the  ruins  of 


The  Chaldees. 


some  of  which  have  been  discovered  in  recent  times  by  the 
explorations  of  Botta  and  Layard,  at  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 
Monuments  have  also  been  exhumed,  bearing  inscriptions  in 
what  are  called  cu-ne'i-form  (wedge-shaped)  characters,  and 
the  deciphering  of  these  has  served  to  throw  a  flood  of  light 
upon  the  early  history  of  this  people.* 

4.  The  city  of  Babylon,  f  although  founded  probably  more 
than  twenty-two  centuries  B.C.,  was,  during  its  early  history, 

*  This  kind  of  writing  was  used  for  monumental  records,  and  was  either  hewn  or 
carved  in  rocks  and  sculptures,  or  impressed  on  tiles  and  bricks.  The  most  ancient 
date  that  can  be  assigned  to  this  kind  of  writing  is  about  2000  B.C.,  and  it  seems  not 
to  have  been  used  much,  if  at  all,  about  300  B.C.  Much  labor  and  erudition  have 
been  expended  in  deciphering  these  cuneiform  inscriptions.  The  following,  which 
is  the  name  of  Darius  in  these  characters,  will  give  some  idea  of  their  form  and 
appearance: 

The  great  inscription  of  Behistun,  in  Persia,  is  of  peculiar  interest  and  value. 
It  is  engraved  in  three  forms  of  cuneiform  writing,  upon  the  perpendicular  face  of 
a  mountain,  at  an  elevation  of  300  feet,  and  contains  an  account  of  the  genealogy 
of  Darius,  his  exploits,  and  the  provinces  of  the  empire.  This  inscription  was 
deciphered  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson. 

t  The  native  name  of  the  city  was  Babel,  meaning  "  gate  of  God."  It  was  here, 
according  to  Scripture  history,  that  men  attempted  to  erect  the  Tower  of  Babel, 
but  were  prevented  by  the  confusion  of  tongues.  An  account  of  this  has  been  re- 
cently  discovered  among  the  cimeiform  tablets  now  in  the  British  Musevun. 


"2b  Ancient  History, 


a  city  of  minor  importance,  for  Ur  and  others  were  capital 
cities  while  it  continued  to  be  a  mere  village.* 
Several    cities   are    mentioned    as   prominent  — 


Babylon. 


Babylon,  Ur,  Ac'cad,  E'rech,  Cal'neh,  and  some  others.  Of 
these  Babylon  afterwards  was  the  capital  of  the  monarchy, 
and,  after  the  Assyrian  conquest,  became,  through  the  enter- 
prise, ambition,  and  luxurious  taste  of  its  reigning  sovereigns, 
the  most  splendid  city  in  the  world.  Babylonia 
was  south  of  Assyria,  being  separated  from  it  by 
the  limit  of  the  alluvial  plain.    The  name  Chaldea 


Babylonia 
and  Chaldea. 


was  given  more  particularly  to  the  region  bordering  on  Arabia 
and  the  Persian  Gulf. 

5.  The  Hebrew  records  afford  but  scanty  information  in 
regard  to  the  origin  and  history  of  these  early 
monarchies ;    but  the    remains    of    the    history 


Berosus. 


written  by  Be-ro'sus,  with  what  has  been  gleaned  from  the 
inscriptions  on  the  walls  of  ruined  palaces,  and  on  the  monu- 
ments, give  us  a  slight  clue  to  some  of  the  prominent  events 
in  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  history.  Berosus  was  a  priest 
of  Babylon,  who  lived  about  three  centuries  B.C.,  and  from 
ancient  records  compiled  a  work  in  which  he  gave  lists  of 
kings  whose  reigns  extended  from  2000  B.C.  to  the  conquest 
of  the  Babylonian  monarchy. 

6.  These  lists  are  lost,  but  fragments  remain  in  the  works 
of  other  writers,  showing  tliat  a  Chaldean  dynasty  ruled  from 
about  2000  B.C.  to  1543  B.C.,  which  was  succeeded 
by  an  Arabian  dynasty  that  lasted  246  years. 
This  was  followed  by  one  of  forty-five  kings,  probably  Assjrr- 
ian,  who  held  sway  during  more  than  five  centuries,  to  772 
B.C.,  after  which  came  the  reign  of  the  noted  king  Pul,  who 


♦  "  The  architectural  remains  discovered  in  southern  Babylonia,  taken  In  con- 
junction with  the  monumental  records,  seem  to  indicate  that  Babylon  was  not  at 
first  the  capital,  nor  Indeed  a  town  of  great  importance.  It  probably  owed  it« 
position  at  the  head  of  Nimrod's  cities  to  the  power  and  pro-eminence  whereto  it 
afterward  attained  rather  than  to  any  oriKinal  superiority  that  it  could  boast  over 
the  places  coupled  with  it."— Smt7/i>  IHctionai-y  of  the  Bible. 


Early  Dynasties. 


Later  Bahylonian  Monarchy.  29 

is  called  in  the  Scriptures  an  Assyrian.  This  reign  ended  at  the 
famous  Era  of  Na-bo-nas'sar,  beginning  747  B.C.,  which  is  im- 
portant, because  Babylonia  then  for  a  short  time 
resumed  its  ancient  independence,  that  had  been 
absorbed  in  the  Assyrian  empire  since  1250  B.C., 


Era  of 
Nabonassar. 


and  because  this  date  is  fixed  by  certain  astronomical  phe- 
nomena observed  by  Ptolemy,  the  Alexandrian  astronomer. 

7.  Later  Babylonian  Monarchy.  By  what  is  called  the 
Canon  of  Ptolemy,  the  line  of  Babylonian  kings  becomes 
known  to  us  from  the  year  747  B.C.  to  330  B.C., 
when  Babylon  became  a  part  of  the  dominions  of 
Alexander  the  Great.     During  this  period  Baby- 


Canon  of 
Ptolemy. 


Ion  again  became  subject  to  Assyria  (702  B.C.),  and  so  con- 
tinued till  the  taking  of  the  Assyrian  capital,  Nineveh,  by  the 
Medes  (625  B.C.),  when  the  Babylonian  king,  Na-bo-po-las'sar, 
who  had  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Medes,  was 
acknowledged  as  an  independent  sovereign,  and 


Naisopola 


received  a  share  of  the  conquered  Assyrian  dominions.  The 
later  Babylonian  kingdom,  then  formed,  lasted  tiU  the  taking 
of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  the  Persian  (538  B.C.). 

8.  Though  of  brief  duration,  this  was  a  period  of  great 
splendor.  Nabopolassar's  reign,  which  was  one  of  military 
glory,  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the  celebrated  King  Neb-u- 
chad-nez'zar,  who  defeated  the  king  of  Egypt, 
and  subdued  Je-hoi'a-kim,  King  of  Judah.  Sub- 
sequently he  destroyed  Jerusalem,  and  put  an 


Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 


end  to  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  under  Zed-e-ki'ah,  carrying  its 
inhabitants  captives  to  Babylon  (586  B.C.).  Tyre  also  fell  be- 
fore his  conquering  arms  (585  B.C.).  He  afterward  turned  his 
attention  to  the  embellishment  of  his  capital,  and  erected  in 
Babylon  many  edifices  of  wonderful  extent  and  magnificence. 
9.  Babylon  formed  a  vast  square  crossed  diagonally  by  the 
Euphrates,  and  surrounded  by  a  double  row  of 
walls,  which,  according  to  the  account  given  by 


Babylon. 


Herodotus,  were  335  feet  high  and  85  feet  thick,  enclosing 


30  Ancient  History. 


an  area  of  nearly  200  square  miles.  These  walls  were  pierced 
with  a  hundred  brazen  gates  and  defended  by  numerous 
towers.  The  royal  palace,  within  which  was  the  famous 
"hanging  garden,"  classed  among  the  Seven  Wonders  of 
the  World,  and  the  great  temple  of  Bel,  were  the  most 
remarkable  buildings.*  The  latter  was  constructed  in  the 
form  of  a  pyramid  of  eight  square  stages,  each  side  of  the 
basement  being  600  feet;  and  on  the  top,  reached  by  a  wind- 
ing ascent,  there  was  an  image  of  the  god,  40  feet  high. 
It  was  this  magnificence  that  prompted  Nebuchadnezzar's 
haughty  boast:  *' Is  not  this  great  Babylon  that  I  have  built 
for  the  house  of  the  kingdom,  by  the  might  of  my  power, 
and  for  the  honor  of  my  majesty?"  f 

10.  After  the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  Babylonian 
kingdom  declined.    He  had  four  successors,  the  last  of  whom 
was  Na-bo-na'di-us,  who  associated  his  son  Bel- 
shaz'zar  with  him  on  the  throne.     During  this 


Fall  of  Babylon. 


reign  the  kingdom  was  invaded  by  Cyrus  the  Great,  king  of 
Persia,  and  Nabonadius  was  defeated.  Babylon,  also,  being 
carelessly  defended  by  Belshazzar,  was  entered  by  Cyrus,  who 
diverted  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  and  Babvlonia  became 
a  Persian  province  (538  B.c.).J; 


*  "  Within  the  precincts  of  the  royal  palace,  Nebuchadnezzar  raised  up  to  a  vast 
height  a  pile  of  stone  substructions,  giving  them  as  far  as  possible  the  appearance 
of  natural  hills.  He  then  planted  the  whole  with  trees  of  different  kinds,  and  thus 
constructed  what  is  called  the  hanging  garden;  all  which  he  did  to  please  his  wife, 
who  had  been  brought  up  in  Media,  and  delighted  in  the  scenery  of  mountain 
regions. "— Bero«t«. 

+  "  The  descriptions  of  Babylon  which  have  come  down  to  us  in  classical  writers 
are  derived  chiefly  from  two  sources,  the  works  of  Herodotus  and  Otesiaa.  Those 
authors  were,  both  of  them,  eye-witnesses  of  the  glories  of  Babylon— not,  indeed, 
at  their  highest  point,  but  before  they  had  greatly  declined— and  left  accounts  of 
the  city  and  its  chief  buildings,  which  the  historians  and  geographers  of  later 
times  were,  for  the  most  part,  content  to  copy."— 7)r.  Smith. 

J "  Belshaazar,  who  was  probably  a  mere  youth,  left  to  enjoy  the  supreme 
power  without  check  or  control,  neglected  the  duty  of  watching  the  enemy,  and 
gave  himself  up  to  enjoyment.  The  feast  of  which  we  read  in  Daniel,  and  which 
Buffered  such  an  awful  interruption,  may  have  been  in  part  a  religious  festivity: 
<»ut  it  indicates,  nevertheless,  the  self-induleent  temper  of  the  kftag,  who  could  give 


The  Assyrian  Empire.  31 

11.  The  Assyrian.  Empire.  The  Assyrians  were  probably 
ti  Chaldean  colony  that  settled  in  the  region  of  the  upper 
Tigris.  The  capital  was  at  first  As'shur  (now  Ki'leh  Sher'gat), 
on  the  right  bank  of  that  river;  but  afterward  the  seat  of  the 
empire  was  the  renowned  city  of  Nin'eveh,  about 
sixty  miles  above,  on  the  same  river.     The  latter 


Nineveh, 


subsequently  became  one  of  the  finest  and  most  populous 
cities  in  the  world.  Ca'lah,  another  important  city  on  the 
Tigris,  and  for  a  time  the  capital  of  the  empire,  was  very 
ancient,  its  foundation  being  ascribed,  in  the  ancient  Hebrew 
records,  to  the  patriarch  Asshur. 

12.  The  history  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy,  extending  over 
more  than  six  centuries,  may  be  divided  into  three  periods: 
1.  Previous  to  the  conquest  of  Babylon  (about 
1250  B.C.);  2.  From  the  conquest  of  Babylon  to 


Periods. 


the  reign  of  Tiglath-pile'ser  II.  (745  B.C.);  3.  From  the  acces- 
sion of  Tiglath-pileser  11.  to  the  fall  of  Nineveh  (625  B.C.). 
Of  the  first  period  little  is  known.  The  monumental  inscrip- 
tions supply  two  lists  of  kings,  some  of  whom  seem  to  have 
been  connected  by  intermarriage  with  the  con- 
temporaneous Chaldean  monarchs.     Among  the 


First  Period. 


most  celebrated  monarchs  was  Shal-man-e'ser  I.,  a  great  con- 
queror, and  the  builder  of  Calah.* 

13.  During  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  second  period, 
the  chronology  is  very  imperfect.  A  great  monarch  — 
Tiglath-pileser    I. — flourished,   and    made  many  conquests. 

himself  so  entirely  up  to  merriment  at  such  a  time.  While  the  king  and  his  '  thou- 
sand nobles '  drank  wine  out  of  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  Jews,  the  Persian  archers 
entered  the  city,  and  a  scene  of  carnage  ensued.  'In  that  night  was  Belshazzar 
slain.'  "—Rawlinson. 

*  To  this  period  belongs  the  legendary  history  of  Ninus  and  his  illustrious  queen 
Semir'amis,  who  succeeded  him,  and  became  one  of  the  greatest  conquering 
potentates  of  antiquity.  She  is  said  to  have  rebuilt  Babylon,  adorning  it  with 
splendid  palaces  and  other  costly  buildings.  She  also  enlarged  and  embellished 
Nineveh,  in  which  she  sometimes  resided.  Music  and  the  -irts  were  also  cultivated 
by  her.  Her  expeditions,  we  are  told  by  some  ot  the  ancient  writers,  were  con 
ducted  on  a  scale  of  incredible  magnificence,  her  armies  numbering  millions  of 
m^a.  TU?  history  of  x\d^  wpederful  queen  is  found  only  among  the  Greek  legends. 


32  Ancient  History, 


In  the  latter  part  of  the  period,  Calah  was  the  capital,  and 
became  a  splendid  city,  as  is  shown  by  the  ruins  of  its  palaces 
and  temples  which  have  been  disinterred  in  recent 
years.    The  dominions  of  the  empire  were  greatly 


Second  Period. 


enlarged  by  conquests  made  in  Armenia,  Syria,  Palestine,  and 
Phojnicia.  It  wiis  toward  the  end  of  the  period  that  Babylon, 
under  Nabonassar,  became  for  a  short  time  independent. 

14.  The  third  period  commenced  with  the  brilliant  con- 
quests of  Tiglath-pileser  II.,  who  carried  the  arms  of  Assyria 
into  distant  regions.     Egypt  and  Syria  were  re- 
duced, and  Palestine  was  invaded,  whence  many 


Third  Period. 


of  the  Jews  weie  carried  captive.  His  successor,  Shal-man-e'ser 
IV.,  subdued  Pha3nicia,  but  was  defeated  in  an  attack  on 
Tyre.  The  siege  of  Samaria  was  commenced  during  his 
reign  (723  B.C.).  Sargon,  his  successor,  was  one 
of  the  greatest  monarchs  of  this  period.     This 


Sargon. 


king  took  Samaria  (721  B.C.),  and  settled  the  Israelites  in 
Media  and  other  newly-conquered  provinces.  He  also  carried 
on  a  successful  war  with  Egypt,  and  received  the  submission 
of  Cyprus.  The  whole  reign  of  this  monarch  was  a  continued 
succession  of  conquests  (721-705  B.C.). 

16.  'J'he  splendid  city  and  palace  at  Khor'sa-bad,  near 
Nineveh,  were  built  under  this  monarch.  This  is  now  only  a 
small  village  (Mosul)  of  Asiatic  Turkey.*  Here  have  been 
found  the  records  of  Sargon's  conquests,  in  the 
inscriptions  which  he  caused  to  be  made,  and  in 
which  he  mentions  the  names  of  the  kin^s  whom 


Records  of 
the  Reign. 


he  subdued,  and  enumerates  the  spoils  jind  tributes  which  he 
obtained.  In  one  of  these  inscriptions  he  says:  "I  imposed 
tribute  on  Phara(jh  of  Egypt;  on  Tsamsi,  Queen  of  Arabia; 
on  Ith'amar,  the  Sabaean,  in  gold,  spices,  horses,  and  camels." 
16.  Sen-nach'e-rib,  the  son  and  successor  of  Sargon,  ob- 

*  Here  \x\  1846  the  ruins  of  a  ma^niflppnt  edifice  were  discovered,  loadinc:  to  the 
BUl)8equent  researches,  under  I^ayard  and  others,  that  have  slied  so  much  light  on 
Assyrian  history.    [See  cut,  page  33.] 


The  Assyrian  Empire. 


33 


tained    possession   of    Babylou,  and   made    two   expeditions 
against  Judali.     In  the  tirst  of  these,  he  carried 
away  200,000  of  the  Jews  captives;  but  in  the 


Sennacherib. 


second  he  failed  entirely,  his  army  being  destroyed  by  a 
sudden  and  remarkable  pestilence.  This  was  during  the 
reign  of  the  Jewish  king  Hez-e-ki'ah.  Sennacherib  was  a 
short  time  afterward  slain  by  two  of  his  sons  (680  B.C.). 


Wakrior  and  Horses  (Khorsabad— Nineveh), 

17.  Among  the  great  kings  of  Assyria  was  E-sar-had'don, 
son  of  Sennacherib.  His  conquests  extended  over  a  large  part 
of  western  Asia,  and  he  claimed  authority  over 
Egypt  and  Ethiopia.     Manas'seh,  king  of  Judah, 


Esarhaddon. 


was  brought  as  a  prisoner  before  him  at  Babylon;  but,  after 
a  few  years'  detention,  was  restored  to  his  throne  by  the 
clemency  of  the  Assyrian  monarch.  This  king  reigned  alter- 
nately at  Babylon  and  Nineveh.  His  son  Asshur- 
bani-pal  (called  by  some  of  the  Greeks  Sar-dan-a- 


Asshurbanipal. 


pa'lus)  succeeded   him  (according  to  Rawlinson,  about  667 
B.C.),  during  whose  reign  Assyria  reached  the  height  of  its 


34  Ancient  History. 


greatness  and  splendor.  He  made  great  conquests,  built  a 
magnificent  ])alace,  and  established  a  royal  library  at  Nineveh. 
He  was  a  great  lover  and  patron  of  music  and  the  arts.  The 
sculptured  slabs  taken  from  his  palace,  representing  him 
engaged  in  hunting,  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  After 
this  splendid  reign  Assyria  rapidly  declined.  A  vast  horde 
of  Scythians,  from  the  region  north  of  the  Caucasus,  made 
incursions  into  the  territory;  and  two  invasions  were  made 
bj  the  Medes,  under  Cy-ax'a-res,  in  the  second 
of  which  they  were  joined  by  Nabopolassar,  the 


Fall  of  Nineveh. 


Assyrian  governor  of  Babylon,  in  an  attack  upon  Nineveh, 
which  was  taken  and  given  to  the  flames. 

18.  The  last  king  of  Assyria,  Sar'a-cus  (sometimes  called 
Sardanapalus  II.),  perished  in  the  conflagration  (G25  B.C.). 
One  of  the  Greek  historians,  Ctesias  {te'she-as),  describes  this 
king,  under  the  name  Sardanapalus,  as  an  effeminate  voluptu- 
ary, spending  his  time  in  idleness,  and  incapable  of  making 
any  exertion  for  the  defence  of  his  kingdom.  At  last  aroused 
from  this  ignoble  sloth,  he  assumes  the  com- 
mand of  the  army,  makes  a  brilliant  effort  to  re- 
pulse the  enemy,  but  is  defeated.     He  then  retires 


Legend  of 
Sardanapalus. 


to  his  palace,  erects  a  large  funeral  j)yre,  upon  which  he 
places  his  richest  treasures  and  his  favorite  wives,  and  finally 
mounting  it  himself,  sets  fire  to  it  and  perishes  in  the  flames. 
The  whole  story  is  now  believed  to  be  a  fiction,  although  it 
has  long  had  a  place  in  ancient  history.  Byron's  drama 
Sardanapalus  is  based  on  this  account.  So  uttei'ly  was  Nine- 
veh destroyed,  that  when  Xen'o-phon  passed  it  (401  B.C.), 
during  the  expedition  of  which  he  gives  an  account  (the  An- 
ab'a-sis),  the  very  name  had  been  forgotten,  though  he  testi- 
fies to  the  extent  of  the  deserted  city,  stating  that  the  height 
of  the  ruined  walls  was  150  feet.* 


♦  "  Traditions  of  the  unrivaled  size  and  magniflcenco  of  Nineveh  were  equally 
familiar  with  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  and  U)  the  Arab  geographers.  But 
tb^>  city  had  fallen  eo  CQipplet^ly  ijit9  def  (ly  before  the  period  of  authentic  history, 


Tlie  Assyrian  Empire. 


35 


Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Civilization. 

19.  The  Chaldean  or  Babylonian  civilization  was,  in  some 
respects,  different  from  the  Assyrian,  though  they  had  much 
in  common.  The  situation  of  Babylonia,  in  the  alluvial  plain 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  was  quite  different  from  that 
of  Assyria,  in  the  higher  plateau  region  near  the  upper  course 
of  the  Tigris.  The  constant  intermingling  of  the  Babylonians 
and  Assyrians,  and  their  union  for  many  centuries  under  the 
same  government,  naturally 
led  to  considerable  uniform- 
ity of  manners  and  customs. 
These  people,  in  general,  be- 
longed to  the  Semitic  race; 
but  in  the  earliest  times  the 
people  of  Accad,  who  came 
from  the  mountain  regions  to 
the  north,  were  Turanians ; 
and  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions for  many  centuries  were 
in  the  Turanian  language. 

20.  The  Chaldeans  were, 
from  the  first,  an  architec- 
tural people,  and  they  erect- 
ed many  imposing  edifices 

out  of  their  simple  materials  Babylonian  brick. 

—brick  and  bitumen.     Their  favorite  form  was  that  of  the 
pyramid,  rising  in  steps  or  stages,  sometimes  to 
a  great  height.     The   baked  bricks  which  they 


Chaldeans. 


used  in  building  their  palaces  were  stamped  with  a  legend 
in  cuneiform  letters,  as  seen  in  the  cut.     They  also  under- 


that  no  description  of  it,  or  even  of  any  of  its  monuments,  is  to  be  found  in  any 
ancient  author  of  trust.''— SmiWs  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  The  destruction  of 
Nineveh  forms  the  subject  of  the  prophecy  of  Nahum,  who  lived  about  a  century 
earliei-,  when  the  Assyrian  empire  was  at  the  height  of  its  power  and  glory. 


36 


Ancient  History. 


stood  the  working  of  metals,  and  to  some  extent  the  use  of  the 
loom.  Their  trading  caravans  journeyed  to  Bactria,  Persia, 
and  Media,  and  the  *^  ships  of  Ur"  sailed  along  the  coasts 
of  the  Persian  Gulf.  They  early  became  noted  for  their  at- 
tention to  astronomy,  some  of  their  recorded  observations 
extendmg  as  far  back  as  2234  B.C. 

2i.  In  the  height  of  Assyrian  glory,  during  the  splendid 
reigns  of  Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and  Sardanapalus,  architec- 
ture, painting,  and  sculpture  had  reached  a  very 
high  degree  of  perfection.  Carving  in  ivory, 
modelling,  and  metallurgy,  with  kindred  arts,  had 
also  made  great  progress.     The  sculptured  panellings  which 


Architecture, 
painting,  etc. 


From  the  Palace  op  Sennacherib,  Koyunjik  (Nineveh). 

have  been  found,  representing  single  figures,  of  kings  and 
deities,  and  battle  and  hunting  scenes,  evince  great  delicacy, 
taste,  and  skill,  and  a  far  greater  accuracy  in  expression  than 
anything  found  in  Egyptian  art.  The  walls  of  the  palaces 
were  adorned  with  alabaster  work  most  brilliantly  painted, 
and  the  ceilings  were  gilded  and  inlaid  with  ivory. 

22.  They  understood  the  manufacture  of  transparent  glass, 
constructed  aqueducts,  and  knew  the  use  of  the 
arch  and  the  application  of  the  lever  and  other 
mechanical  powers.  The  records  of  groat  kings  were  ingeni- 
ously inscribed  on  slabs  and  cylinders,  bricks  and  stones,  rock 


Manufactures. 


Tlie  Assyrian  Mfnpire. 


37 


tablets,  and  the  walls  of  palaces.  In  the  preceding  cut  is  seen 
a  section  of  a  pictorial  record  of  this  kind.  Various  branches 
of  learning — astronomy,  geography,  history — were  cultivated. 
23.  In  furniture,  costume,  and  the  common  ornaments  of 
the  house  and  the  person,  these  people  displayed  a  refined 
taste.      Their  chairs,  tables,  and    other  articles  i 

.  IP,  £       •    ^  Useful  Arts. 

were  of  elegant  designs,  and  oiten  oi  rich  mate-  i 

rials  and  beautiful  workmanship.    In  the  arts  of  weaving  and 


Interioe  of  an  Assyrian  Palace  (Khorsabad), 

Showing  colossal  statues  of  winged  lions  with  human  heads,  eagle-headed  figures, 

etc.,  such  as  were  objects  of  worship  among  the  Assyrians. 

embroidery  they  especially  excelled;  and  the  Assyrian  textile 
fabrics — ^in  linen,  cotton,  and  silk,  were  in  high  repute.  Their 
pottery — vases,  cups,  utensils,  etc. — showed  great  beauty  of 
form.  Many  of  them  were  afterwards  copied  by  the  Greeks. 
24.  They  practiced  agriculture  with  peculiar  skill,  and  by 
careful  irrigation  raised  large  crops  of  sesame, 
millet,  and  wheat.  The  date  palm  was  cultivated 
in  all  parts  of  Mesopotamia.     The  vine,  fig,  and  olive  were 


Agriculture. 


38  Ancient  History. 


common  plants,  as  were  also  the  indigo  and  the  sugar-cane. 
Herodotus  says  that  they  made  all  the  oil  they  used  from  the 
sesame-plant,  while  the  fruit  of  the  palm  supplied  them  with 
bread,  wine,  and  sweet  sirup.  They  reared  the  camel  and  the 
common  domestic  animals,  including  oxen  and  sheep.  They 
were  great  lovers  of  the  chase,  and  their  hunting-dogs  were 
very  famous.*  In  short,  what  remains  of  their  civilization 
proves  them  to  have  been  a  refined,  ingenious,  and  highly 
gifted  people,  by  whom  the  arts  of  comfort  and  luxury  were 
carried  to  a  high  degree  of  advancement.! 

25.  They  were  also  a  very  religious  people,  their  whole 
life,  in  every  phase,  social  and  political,  being  governed  by 
the  dictates  of  a  remarkable  religious  system, 
abounding  in  rites  and  ceremonies.     Their  deities 


Religion. 


were  numerous  and  variously  represented.  The  Supreme 
Being  was  worshiped  under  several  different  forms  and  sym- 
bols. The  monuments  and  ruined  palaces  contain  many 
strange  figures,  as  winged  bulls  and  horses,  men  with  the 
heads  of  various  animals,  and  animals  with  human  heads.  A 
winged  human  figure  with  the  head  of  a  hawk  or  an  eagle  is 
very  common  among  the  bas-reliefs  and  sculptures.  All  these 
figures  doubtless  symbolized  prominent  religious  ideas  and 
beliefs.  Among  the  Babylonians,  Baal,  or  Bel,  was  the  chief 
deity;  while  Asshur,  the  spiritual  personification  of  the  city  of 
that  name,  was  the  supreme  god  of  the  Assyrians.  J 

*  Among  the  curious  objects  excavated  from  the  ruins,  models  of  favorite  dogs 
are  very  numerous.  Of  them  there  are  many  specimens  in  the  British  Museum, 
obtained  from  the  palace  of  Esarhaddon,  at  Nineveh. 

t  Herodotus  thus  describes  the  costume  of  the  Babylonians  of  his  Ume:  "Their 
dress  is  a  linen  tunic,  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  above  it  another  tunic  made  of  wool, 
besides  which  they  have  a  short  white  cloak  thrown  around  them,  and  shoes  of  a 
peculiar  fashion,  not  unlike  those  worn  by  the  Boeotians.  They  have  long  hair, 
wear  turbans  on  their  heads,  and  anoint  their  whole  body  with  perfumes." 

X  Below  these  supreme  divinities  came  the  Sim-god,  the  Moon-god,  and  the  Air- 
god;  and  after  these  were  arranged  '*  the  fifty  great  gods,"  and  then  the  three  hun- 
dred spirits  of  heaven  and  the  six  hundred  spirits  of  earth,  besides  many  local 
deities. 


Review  Outline. 


I.  CHALDEAN,  or  FIEST  BABYLONIAN  MONARCHY. 

Babylon  (2200  B.C.),  Accad,  Erech,  Calneh;  lists  of  Berosus; 
Chaldean  Dynasty  (2000-1543  B.C.);  Arabian  Dynasty  (to  1298 
B.C.);  dynasty  of  forty-five  kings  (to  772  B.C.);  reign  of  Pul 
(to  747  B.  c. ,  era  of  Nabonassar). 

II.  LATEE  BABYLONIAN  MONARCHY. 

Babylon  subject  to  Assyria  (680  B.C.);  splendid  reigns  of  Nabo- 
polassar  and  Nebuchadnezzar;  conquest  of  Judah  and  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem ;  Israelites  carried  captives  to  Babylon ;  con- 
quest of  Tyre;  -time  of  Babylon's  greatest  splendor.  Nabona- 
dius  and  Belshazzar;  taking  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  (538  B.C.). 

III.  ASSYRIAN  EMPIRE. 
Three  Periods: 

(1)  Previous  to  the  Conquest  of  Babylon  (1250  B.C.  1) 

Reign  of  Shalmaueser  I,,  a  great  conqueror,  the  builder 
of  Calah.  Legendary  history  of  Ninus  and  Seraira- 
mis.  [See  note,  page  31.] 

(2)  From  the  Conquest  of  Babylon  to  745  B.C. 

Tiglath-pile'ser  I.,  a  great  conqueror;  capital,  Calah,  a 
splendid  city.  Conquests  in  Armenia,  Syria,  Pales- 
tine, and  Phenicia.  Babylon  independent  under 
Nabonassar. 

(3)  From  745  B.C.  to  the  Fall  of  Nineveh. 

Brilliant  reigns  of  Tiglath-pileser  II.,  Shalmanescr  IV., 
and  Sargon;  great  conquests  (745-705  B.C.).  Taking 
of  Samaria  (721  b.c).  Building  of  palace  of  Khorsa- 
bad.  Sennacherib;  expedition  against  Judah ;  mirac- 
ulous destruction  of  the  Assyrian  army.  Esarhaddon, 
reigned  at  Nineveh  and  Babylon.  Asshur-bani-pal 
(Sardanapalus),  conqueror,  and  patron  of  the  arts. 
Attacks  by  the  Scythians  and  Medes.  Saracus,  or 
Sardanapalus  II;  taking  of  Nineveh  (625  B.C.). 


40  Ancient  History. 


SECTION  n. 
The  Median  Mon^archy. 

26.  Media  was  situated  to  the  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
forming  a  part  of  the  great  plateau  region  of  Iran,  now 
Persia.    The  early  history  of  the  Medes  is  wrapped 
in  obscurity.    They  come  into  notice  in  the  ninth 


Situation. 


Early  history. 


century  B.C.,  when  they  were  brought  into  subjection  to  the 
Assyrian  Empire  (830  B.C.).  About  a  century 
later,  Sargon  occupied  a  part  of  their  territory, 
into  which  he  carried  the  Israelite  captiyes.  In  the  middle 
of  the  seventh  century  (650  B.C.),  the  great  Median  monarchy 
makes  its  appearance  on  the  field  of  history,  though  the  Greek 
historians  relate  many  events  of  a  previous  date. 

27.  The  Medes  invaded  Assyria  a  few  years  after  this 
date,  but  they  were  signally  defeated  in  an  attack  on  Nineveh 
(633  B.C.).  For  a  short  time  they  were  occupied  in  resisting 
the  Scythians,  who  made  an  inroad  into  their  country;  and, 
when  freed  from  that  danger,  they  renewed  their 
attack  on  Nineveh,  which  they  captured  and 
destroyed   (625  B.C.).     Cyaxares,  their  monarch 


Destruction  of 
Nineveh. 


at  that  time,  extended  his  conquests,  penetrating  into  Asia 
Minor,  and  carrying  on  war  against  the  Lydians.  He  is  re- 
garded by  some  as  the  founder  of  the  Median  monarchy.  The 
reign  of  his  son  and  successor,  As-ty'a-ges,  was  peaceful.  He 
made  alliances  with  Lydia  and  Babylon,  and  his  daughter  was 
married  to  a  Persian  prince.  She  gave  birth  to  Cyrus,  after- 
ward called  the  Great.  Cyrus,  being  bold  and 
aspiring,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Persian 
tribes,  and  marching  with    a    large   army  into 


Cyrus  the 
Great. 


Media,  deposed  Astyages,  his  grandfather,  and  uniting  the 
Median  and  Persian  dominions  under  himself  as  king,  laid  tho 
foundation  of  the  great  Persian  Empire  (558  B.C.). 

28.  Civilization.     Among  the  Medes  were  many  people  of 


Kingdoms  in  Asia  Minor.  41 

Turanian  and  Semitic  origin.  Their  architecture  was  devoid 
of  artistic  beauty,  but  possessed  a  certain  barbaric  grandeur. 
The  royal  palace  at  Ecbat'ana,  their  capital,  was 
constructed  of  wood  plated  with  gold  and  silver. 


Art 


In  the  early  times  they  were  a  simple,  hardy  people  ;  but 
after  the  conquest  of  Nineveh  they  adopted  the  i  \       ' 

luxurious   habits  of  the  Assyrians,  so  that  the  ! 

court  of  Astyages  resembled   that  of  Sardanapalus.     Their 
religion  was  chiefly  that  of  Zo-ro-as'ter,  the  great 
spiritual  teacher  of  the  nations  of  Iran,  whose 


Religion. 


doctrines  are  contained  in  the  sacred  books  called  Zend- 
Avesta.*  The  magi,  a  priesthood  claiming  supernatural 
powers,  exerted  a  great  influence  over  the  people. 


SECTION  III. 
Kingdoms  in  Asia  Minor. 

29.  Several  powerful  monarchies  existed  in  Asia  Minor 
prior  to  the  time  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  the  chief  of  which  were 
Phrygia,  Cilicia,  and  Lydia.  The  Phrygians  were 
a  brave  but  coarse  and  brutal  people,  and  very 


Phrygians. 


fond  of  war.  Their  capital  was  Gor-di-e'um,  and  Midas  was 
the  most  noted  of  their  monarchs.  Phrygia  was  conquered 
by  the  Lydians  in  the  sixth  century  (560  B.C.). 

30.  Cilicia  was  early  overrun  by  the  Assyrians,  but  existed 
as  a  tributary  kingdom.     Tarsus  was  founded,  it  is  said,  by 

Sennacherib,  and  Sardanapalus  married  a  Cilician  i 

princess.      This   kingdom  was  enabled  to  resist  !      ^''""^ 
the  assaults  of    the   Lydian  monarchs,  and  maintained  its 
independence  during  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  but  was  afterward 
annexed  to  the  Persian  Empire. 


*  The  period  at  which  Zoroaster,  or  Zarathustra,  lived  is  not  known.    It  was 
probably  before  1200  b.c.    LSee  Persia.] 


42 


Ancient  History. 


3L  Lydian  Monarchy.  Lydia  was  situated  in  the  westerp 
part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  was  especially  noted  for  its  fruitful 
soil  and  great  mineral  wealth.     Its  chief  river,  the  Pac-to'lus, 

abounded  in  gold,  which  was 
also  found  in  the  neighbor- 
ing mines.  Hence  the  Ly- 
dians  soon.became  corrupted 
by  luxury  and  vicipus  indul- 
gences. The  Lydian  king- 
dom is  supposed  to  have 
existed  in  Asia  Minor  from 
a  very  ancient  period,  but 
its  early  history  is  fabulous 
and  unreliable.  For  about 
two  centuries  this  monarchy 
occupied  a  prominent  posi- 
tion in  the  history  of  v/cstern 
Asia,  and  when  Cy-ax'a-res 
the  Mede  overran  this  part 
of  the  country,  he  was  check- 
ed in  his  career  of  conquest 
by  King  Alyattes  {d-le-at'Uz)\  and  after  a  war  of  six  years, 
in  which  he  was  often  defeated  by  the  Lydians, 
Cyaxares  retired  beyond  the  Ha'lys,  the  boundary 
of  the  Lydian  kingdom  at  that  time. 

32.  This  war  between  the  Lydians  and  Medes  is  said  to 
have  been  terminated  in  a  singular  way.*     Their  two  great 
armies  had  come  to  an  engagement  (610  B.C.,  or, 
according  to  some  writers,  584  B.C.),  when,  in 


Ancient  Warrior. 


Treaty  of  Peace. 


the  midst  of  the  battle,  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  occurred, 


♦  "  On  the  refusal  of  Alyattes  to  give  up  his  suppliants,  when  Cyaxares  sent  to 
demand  them  of  him,  war  broke  out  between  the  Lydians  and  the  Medes,  and  con- 
cinued  for  five  years,  with  various  success.  In  the  course  of  it,  the  Medes  gained 
many  victories  over  the  Lydians,  and  the  Lydians  also  gained  many  victories  over 
the  Medes.  Beside  their  other  battles  there  was  one  night  engaj^einont.  As,  how- 
ever, the  balance  had  not  inclined  in  favor  of  either  nation,  another  combat  took 


Lydian  Monarchy,  43 

which  so  alarmed  the  soldiers  that  they  immediately  letired 
from  the  conflict.  The  two  monarchs  thereupon  concluded 
not  only  a  peace,  but  a  firm  treaty  of  alliance  with  each  other; 
and  peace  continued  to  subsist  between  these  two  powers 
until  the  time  of  Cyrus,  about  half  a  century  afterward. 

33.  Alyattes  is  said  to  have  reigned  about  forty  years  after 
the  close  of  this  war,  and  to  have  constructed  a  vast  monu- 
ment, scarcely  inferior  to  the  great  pyramids  of 
Egypt.  Its  base  was  formed  of  immense  blocks 
of  stone,  the  structure  above  being  a  huge  mound 


Tomb  of 
Alyattes. 


of  earth.  This  mound  has  been  explored  in  modern  times, 
and  a  chamber  found  within,  formed  of  solid  blocks  of  mar- 
ble; but  it  was  evident  that  it  had  been  rifled  of  its  contents 
long  before.     It  was  without  doubt  the  tomb  of  Alyattes. 

34.  Alyattes  was  succeeded  (about  568  B.C.)  by  his  son 
Croesus  {hre'sus),  noted  for  his  immense  wealth,  being  by 
far  the  richest  monarch  of  his  time.  He  is  also 
distinguished  as  the  last  monarch  of  Lydia;  for. 


Croesus. 


having  made  war  upon  Cyrus,  the  king  of  Persia,  he  was 
entirely  defeated;  and  his  capital,  Sardis,  being  taken  by  the 
enemy,  he  was  made  a  prisoner,  and  condemned  by  Cyrus 
to  be  burnt  alive  upon  a  funeral  pyre,  but  was  afterward 
released.  Thus,  within  a  very  few  weeks,  from  being  a  power- 
ful and  prosperous  monarch,  ruler  over  thirteen  nations,  he 
was  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  captive  and  a  beggar,  depen- 
dent upon  the  will  of  a  despot  whose  anger  he  had  provoked. 
It  was  in  this  way  that  Lydia  became  a  province  of  the  Per- 
sian Empire  (554  B.C.). 

place  in  the  sixth  year,  in  the  course  of  which,  just  as  the  battle  was  growing 
warm,  day  was  on  a  sudden  changed  into  night.  This  event  had  been  foretold  by 
Thales,  the  Milesian,  who  forewarned  the  lonians  of  it,  fixing  for  It  the  very  year 
in  which  it  actually  took  place.  The  Medes  and  Lydians,  when  they  observed  the 
change,  ceased  fighting,  and  were  alike  anxious  to  have  terms  of  peace  agreed 
on. '  ^—RawUnson's  Herodotus. 


44 


Ancient  History. 


Chronological  Synopsis   of  Contemporaneous 

Events. 


2000) 
1543) 
1&43| 

1298) 


Chaldean  and  Babylo- 
nian Monarchies. 


Babylon  founded. 
Chaldean  Dynasty. 

Arabian  Dynasty. 


1250     Babylonia  and  Assyria 
united. 


1250) 
772) 
747 
745 
721 
705) 


702 
669 
650 

625 

610 

586] 

585i 

668 

660 

668 

654 

688 


Assyrian  Dynasty. 


Babylon      independent, 
under  Nabonassar. 


Babylon  subject  to  As 
Syria. 


Nabopolaasar. 


Destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  Tyre  by  Ne- 
buchadnezzar. 


Babylon  taken  by  Cyrus. 


AssYiUAN  Empire. 


Mrst  Period  of  Assy 
rian  History. 
Shalmaneser  I. 


Conquest   of  Babylon 
by  Tiglath-pileser  I 


End  of  reign  of  Pul. 

Tiglath  pileser  U. 

Samaria  taken  by  Sar- 
gon. 

Reign  of  Sennacherib. 


Esarhaddon  begins  to 

reign. 
Asshur-bani-pal. 


{Nineveh  taken  bv  the 
Medes  — end  of  the 
Assyrian  Empire. 


Median  and  Minor 
Monarchies. 


Media  subject  to  As- 
syria. 


Media  rises  to  impor- 
tance. 

Reign  of  Cyaxares  the 
Mede. 

War  between  the 
Medes  and  Lydians. 


CrcBsus  begins  to  reign 

In  Lydia. 
Phrygia  conquered  by 

the  Lydians. 
Union  of  the  Medes  and 

Persians  under  Cyrus 
Conquest  of  Lydia  by 

Cyrus. 


Egypt  45 


SECTION  IV. 
The  Anciei^t  Egyptians. 

35.  Egypt  is  certainly  one  of  the  oldest  of  nations.  Its 
monuments, — among  which  are  the  pyramids, — the  ruins  of 
its  yast  and  splendid  temples,  its  obelisks  and  sphinxes, 
and  the  other  remains  of  its  peculiar  civilization,  are  the 
most  interesting  objects  of  antiquity.  The  origin 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians  is  unknown;  but  they 


Origin. 


were  of  the  Caucasian  race,  and  probably  related  to  the  oldest 
races  of  central  Asia.  By  ethnologists  they  are  classed  among 
the  Hamites,  or  descendants  of  Ham;  but  they  differed 
essentially  from  the  tribes  who  lived  to  the  westward  of  the 
Nile,  as  well  as  from  other  African  races.* 

36.  The  early  history  of  Egypt  is  involved  in  fable,  and 
but  little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  any  system  of  Egyptian 
chronology.  In  the  time  of  the  Greek  historian 
Herodotus,  the  priests  claimed  for  the  country 


Chronology. 


an  antiquity  of  more  than  11,000  years.  In  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C.,  Man'e-tho,  an  Egyptian  priest,  compiled  a  history 
of  his  country,  which  he  divided  into  thirty 
dynasties.  This  work  has  perished;  but  abstracts 
from  it  are  preserved  in  other  ancient  writings. 


Sources  of  its 
history. 


and  these,  with  the  histories  written  by  Herodotus  and  Di-o- 


*  "  Now.  one  can  say  without  fear  of  contradiction,  the  most  valuable  E^ryptfan 
museum  in  the  world  is  in  Cairo.  That  which  was  previously  carried  away  being, 
for  the  most  part,  easily  accessible,  proves  to  belong  to  the  later  rather  than  the 
earlier  dynasties.  Unwearied  digging  has  enabled  Mariette  [a  French  archaeoloidstl 
to  reach  the  records  of  the  ancient  empii-e,  and  to  show,  what  we  never  before 
suspected,  that  the  glory  of  Egyptian  art  belongs  to  the  age  of  Cheops,  and  only 
its  decadence  to  the  age  of  Rameses  TI.  Not  only  the  art,  but  the  culture,  the 
religion,  the  political  organization  of  Egypt  are  carried  back  to  the  third  dynasty; 
and  Menes,  the  first  historic  king,  dawns  upon  our  knowledge,  not  as  a  primitive 
barbarian,  but  as  the  result  of  a  long  stage  of  unrecorded  development.  I  do  nos 
hesitate  to  say,  that  since  Champollion  discovered  the  key  to  the  hieroglyphics,  no 
scholar  ha%  thrown  such  a  broad  and  clear  light  upon  Egyptian  life  and  history  as 
Mariette."— jBayard  Taylor. 


•  •*  AR  we  approach  Kamak  (a  part  of  Thebes),  the  most  strikitif;  objects  are  two  of  the 
Dnormoiis  ])ropylons  so  chamcteristic  of  Efcyptian  archlt*>cture.  They  are  tnincated 
pyramids  pierced  with  a  pjatt^way.  The  sides  slope  inward  from  a  reotAncrnlar  baw*.  and 
are  surmountevl  l)y  a  heavy  cornice,  on  which  is  sculptured  the  synilK)!  known  to  the 
Greeks  as  tlie  AgathodfBnutn,  a  winded  sun,  or  scaniiineus.  It  was  the  number  of  the 
Sropylons  that  gained  for  Thebes  th«  Ifoi?»ertQ  epitbe*  of  'the  himclred-g»te<l  city.'"— 
Manning'^  Land  of  tlw  Phturao^  - 


Egypt 


47 


do'rus,  and  the  allusions  made  to  Egypt  in  the  Jewish  scrip- 
tures, besides  what  has  been  gleaned  in  modern  times  from  the 
hieroglyphic  inscriptions  on  the  monuments,  and  rolls  of  papy'- 

rus  found  in  the  tombs,  consti- 
tute our  knowledge  of  ancient 
Egyptian  history.*  The  his- 
tory of  the  first  seventeen  of 
Manetho's  dynasties,  coyering 
a  period  of  about  twelve  cen- 
turies, is  very  obscure,  for  the 
monuments  only  give  us  a  few 
scattered  facts  and  dates. 

37.  The  first  of  these  dynas- 
ties is  supposed  to  have  com- 
menced about  2700  B.C.;  but 
considerable  diver- 
sity of  opinion  pre- 
vails on  this  point. 
In  the  early  portion  of  this 
period,  Egyptian  civilization 
was  in  an  advanced  state,  and 
Memphis  was  a  great  and  flour- 
ishing city.  The  fourth  dynasty 
is  especially  noted  for  the  erec- 
tion of  many  of  the  pyramids' 
(2500  B.C.).  One  of  the  most 
of  its  early  his- 

nak,  Luxor,  Syene,  Philae,  Mt.  Sinai.         ^Ory    WaS    the    invasiou   of    the 

country  by  a  warlike  race,  who  conquered  the  nation  and  ruled 
over  it  for  several  centuries.     These  invaders  are  known  in 


60  100         150 


dynasties. 


Geographical.  Study. 
Find  the  Situation  of :  GUdshen,  Hep- 
TANOMis,  Thebais,  Sais,  Pelusium,  Gizeh, 
Heliopolls,  Memphis,  Hermopolis,  Kar-  nOtcd    CVCUts 


♦The  physical  features  of  the  Egyptians  and  the  affinities  of  their  language 
seem  to  indicate  a  similarity  of  origin  to  that  of  the  European  races.  One  writer 
remarks.  "The  further  you  go  back,  the  more  European  the  faces  found  depicted 
on  the  monuments  become;"  and  he  illustrates  this  by  two  portraits  discovered  in 
a  tomb  of  the  third  dynasty,  and  hence  older  than  the  pyramids.  He  also  points 
out  many  Egyptian  words  that  are  almost  identical  in  Egyptian,  Sanskrit,  English, 


48  Ancient  History, 


history  as  the  Hyk'sos,  or  Slie2)herd  Kings  (from  1900  to  1525 
B.C.).*  They  ruled  in  Lower  Egypt  as  military 
despots,  and  very  much  oppressed  the  native  peo- 


Hyksos. 


pie.  It  was  probably  during  tlie  reign  of  oue  of  these  that 
Joseph  became  the  chief  minister,  and  tliat  Jacob  and  his 
family  were  allowed  to  settle  in  the  land  of 
Goshen,  f     It  is  supposed  that  the  Israelites  re- 


Exodus. 


mained  in  Egypt  a  little  more  than  two  centuries  (215  years), 
the  Exodus  taking  place  during  the  seventeenth  dynasty 
(1652  B.C.),  before  the  Shepherds  had  been  expelled. 

38.  The  three  centuries  following  the  expulsion  of  the 
Shepherd  Kings,  from  the  eighteenth  to  the  twentieth 
dynasty,  may  be  considered  the  most  splendid  period  of 
Egyptian  history  (1525  to  1200  B  c).  Some  of  the  greatest 
monarchs  belong  to  this  period.  The  most 
renowned  were  Thoth'mes  III.,  who  made  many 


Thothmes. 


conquests,  and  constructed  magnificent  temples  at  Thebes, 
Memphis,  and  other  places;  Thothmes  IV.,  who  caused 
the  great  Sphinx  to  be  constructed;  and  Seti,  son  of  Ra- 
me'ses  L,  who  built  the  Great  Hall  of  Karnak,  and  con- 
structed for  himself  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  royal 
tombs.  According  to  Manetho,  he  reigned  upward  of  fifty 
years.      This   king,   called  Sesos'tris  by  the   Greeks,  made 

German,  etc.  Thus  the  English  word  mother  is,  In  Egyptian,  mut ;  in  Sanskrit, 
m<itar;  in  Greek,  meter;  in  Latin,  mater;  in  German,  viutter;  and  in  Gaelic, 
mathair.—See  ''Nile  Gleanings,''  by  Villiers  Stuart  (18V9), 

*  "  The  Theban  monarchs  of  the  thirteenth  dynasty,  less  warlike  or  less  fortunate 
than  their  predecessors,  found  themselves  unable  to  resist  the  terrible  '  Shepherds,' 
and  quitting  their  capital,  fled  into  Ethiopia,. while  the  invaders  wreaked  their 
vengeance  on  the  memorials  of  the  Sesortasens"  [monarchs  of  the  twelfth  dynostj-]. 
—Ravjiinsnn's  Ancient  Histort/. 

t  "Since  the  Pharaoh  of  Joseph  must  have  been  a  powerful  ruler  and  held 
Lower  Egypt,  there  can  be  no  question  that  he  was,  if  tlie  dates  be  corrtjct.  a 

shepherd  of  the  fifteenth  dynasty It  seems  perfectly  incredible  that 

Joseph  should  be  the  minister  of  a  native  Eg>'ptian  king."— NmiY/i'iJ  Ih'ctionarjf  of 
the  Bible.  The  hatred  of  Egyi>tlans  toward  foreignei-s  would  have  naturally  pre- 
vented the  ai)pointment  of  Josepli  to  so  liigh  an  office,  and  the  settlemtMit  of  the 
Israelites  in  Egypt.  Under  the  rule  of  a  foreign  monarch,  there  could  luive  b«^n 
uo  such  objuctiou  to  these  things. 


Egypt 


49 


Rameses. 


DecUre  of 

Egypt 


many  conquests.  Eameses  II.  was  also  a  very  great  conqueror, 
He  adorned  both  Egypt  and  Nubia  with  many 
splendid  temples  and  other  edifices.  Egyptian 
art  reached  its  highest  development  in  his  reign.  The 
exploits  of  these  monarchs  are  recorded  in  pictures  and 
hieroglyphs  on  the  monuments. 

39.  Under  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  Egypt  attained  her 
highest  point  of  national  power  and 
greatness.  During  the  next  she 
rapidly  declined,  and 
for  almost  two  centuries 
scarcely  undertook  a  sin- 
gle important  enterprise.  The  pre- 
dominant influence  of  the  priests 
was  a  marked  feature  of  this  period, 
during  a  part  of  which  the  priestly 

dynasty  of  Tanites  held  ^ 

sway.    She'shonk,  called  I L_ 

Shi'shak  in  the  Bible  (I.  Kings  xiv. 
25),  succeeded  the  priestly  line,  or 
*'  High  Priests  of  Amun,"  as  they 
called  themselves,  and  brought  about 
a  partial  revival  of  Egyptian  glory 
(993  B.C.). 

40.  This  monarch  invaded  Judah, 
received  the  submission  of  Reho- 
bo'am,    and    plundered    Jerusalem. 


Cartouche  op  a  King, 
supposed  to  be  Rehoboam.* 


Sabaco. 


There  were  afterward  several  other  kings  of  the 
same    name.      The    twenty -fifth    dynasty    was 
founded  by  Sa-ba'co,  an   Ethiopian,  who  conquered  Egyjit. 
This  is  the  So  of  Scripture,  who  made  a  treaty  with  Hoshea 


*  In  the  palace  temple  of  Karnak,  Shishak  is  represented  in  a  large  bas-relief 
dragging  captive  kings  in  triumph.  Each  countiy  or  city  is  personified,  and  its 
name  written  in  an  oral.  One  of  the  figures  has  an  inscription  which  means 
"  Kingdom  of  Judah."    This  is  the  figure  represented  in  the  cut. 


50  Andeiit  History. 


(724  B.C.),  and  who  came  in  conflict  witli  Sargon,  the  Assy- 
rian monarch.  Tir-ha'kah  (or  Teh'rak),  of  this  dynasty,  was 
the  greatest  of  the  Ethiopian  kings  of  Egypt.  He  con- 
tended successfully  with  Assyria,  and  came  to  the  assistance 
of  the  Jewish  king  Hezekiah  against  Sennacherib,  who  met 
with  so  terrible  an  overthrow.  He  was,  however,  finally 
defeated,  and  Egypt  was  broken  up  into  petty  kingdoms  sub- 
ject to  Assyria. 

41.    Psam-met'i-chus  threw  off  the  Assyrian  yoke,  and 
founded  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty.     By  means  of  Greek  mer~ 
cenaries  he  greatly  increased  his  power,  though 
he  in  this  way  offended  the  Egyptian  military 


Psammetichus. 


class.    He  encouraged  art  and  constructed  several  great  works. 

Necho,  or  Ne-ka'o,  his  son  and  successor,  gave  great  attention 
to  maritime  enterprises.  He  built  fleets  on  the 
Red  and   Mediterranean  seas,   undertook  to  re- 


Necho. 


open  the  canal  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile  which 
had  been  cut  by  Rameses  II.,  and  also  directed  the  circum- 
navigation of  Africa.*  After  defeating  Josiah,  king  of 
Judah,   he  was  himself  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (605 

B.C.). 

42.  Ama'sis,  the  fifth  king  of  this  dynasty,  had  a  long  and 
prosperous  reign.     He  constructed  many  fine  buildings,  and 
left  numerous  monuments  in  different  parts  of 
the  country.     He  encouraged  Greek  merchants 


Amasis. 


to  settle  in  Egypt,  and  in  order  to  protect  his  kingdom 
against  the  growing  power  of  Persia,  made  an  alliance  with 
Croesus  of  Lydia.  His  reign  terminated  just  as  Camby'ses, 
the  Persian  king,  was  about  to  invade  the  coun- 
try.   His  son  and  successor,  Psam-men'i-tus,  after 


Psammenitu*. 


a  reign   of    six  months,  encountered  the  Persian  host  near 

*  "  Necho  next  fitted  out  some  ships,  In  order  to  discover  if  Africa  was  circiim- 
navlgable;  for  which  purpose  he  engafred  the  services  of  certain  Phamician 
mariners;  and  he  has  tiie  honor  of  having  been  the  first  to  ascertain  the  peninsular 
form  of  that  continent,  about  twenty-one  centuries  before  Bartulomeo  Pinz  nnd 
Vasco  da  Gama."— ifatcZmson. 


Egyjpt  51 


Pelusium,  and  was  defeated  (525  B.C.).  Thus  Egypt  came 
under  the  power  of  Oambyses,  who  treated  the  people  with 
great  cruelty. 

43.  During  the  remaining  dynasties,  extending  over  nearly 
two  centuries  from  the  battle  of  Pelusium,  Egypt  was  en- 
gaged in  a  constant  struggle  with  the  Persians 
for  its  independence,  which  it  often  regained,  but 
as  often  lost.      In  these  efforts,  it  received  con- 


Subsequent 
history. 


siderable  assistance  from  the  Greeks.  Since  its  final  con- 
quest by  the  Persians  (346  B.C.),  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel, 
that  "there  shall  be  no  more  a  prince  of  the  land  of  Egypt," 
has  been  literally  fulfilled,  for  not  one  native  ruler  has  ever 
occupied  the  throne  for  a  period  of  more  than  2000  years. 
The  subsequent  history  of  this  country  will,  therefore,  be 
given  in  connection  with  that  of  the  nations  co  whom  it  has 
successively  belonged. 

Egyptian  Topography  and  Civilization. 

44.  Egypt,  far  back  in  the  early  ages,  became  a  populous 
country,  because  of  its  extraordinary  fertility,  due  to  the 
annual  inundations  of  the  Nile,  caused  by  the 
rains  that  fall  on  the  equatorial  highlands.     In 


Soil. 


fact,  this  region  may  be  geographically  described  as  the  valley 
of  that  river;  and  by  some  it  has  been  called  the  "gift  of  the 
Nile."  Its  most  ancient  name  was  Chemi  {ha'me),  the 
Black  Country,  on  account  of  the  character  of  the  soil.  It 
yielded  in  great  abundance  immense  crops  of 
dhowna,  a  kind  of  maize,  and  other  cereals;  and 


Productions. 


thus  the  granaries  of  Egypt  were  able  to  supply  food  to  all  the 
surrounding  nations  in  times  of  famine.  The  date-palm  grew 
spontaneously.  The  Egyptian  portion  of  the  valley  extended 
about  five  hundred  miles  from  north  to  south,  beins:  bounded 
on  the  west  by  a  rocky  ridge  sloping  into  the  Great  Desert, 
and  on  the  east  by  low  ranges  descending  to  the  Eed  Sea. 
45.   It  was   anciently  divided  into   Upper,   Middle,   and 


52 


Ancient  History. 


Lower  Egypt.  Upper  Egypt,  or  the  Theb'a-is,  as  it  was  often 
called,  included  the  narrow  valley  in  the  extreme 
southern  part.     Its  capital  was  Thebes,  which,  in 


Divisions. 


the  time  of  its  splendor,  is  said  to  have  covered  twenty-three 
miles,  and  to  have  had  one  hundred  gates.  On 
its  site  are  the  villages  of  Luxor  and  Karnak, 


Upper  Egypt 


where  the  ruins  of  splendid  temples,  colossal  statues,  obelisks, 


Memnonian  Statues,  neab  Thebes. 

and  sphinxes  still  bear  witness  to  the  grandeur  of  this  famous 
city.  Near  Thebes  are  the  two  colossal  sitting  figures,  one 
of  which  is  known  as  the  statue  of  Memnon,  which  is  said 
to  have  emitted  a  musical  sound  at  the  rising  of  the  sun.* 
Originally,  there  was  an  avenue  of  eighteen  such  statues. 


♦  The  height  of  each  of  these  statues  Is  forty -seven  feet,  and  they  rest  on  pedes- 
tals about  twelve  feet  hi^h.  The  v<M!nl  Mt'innon  is  the  statue  of  an  Egyptian  king 
(Amen'ophls).  The  sound  emitted  by  this  tiKure  is  said  to  have  resembled  the  twang- 
ing of  a  harp-string.    These  statues  were  constructed  more  tJian  8000  years  ago. 


Egypt  53 


1'he  most  flourishing  period  of  Thebes  was  during  the  eight- 
eenth dynasty.  It  was  pillaged  by  Cambyses,  who  carried  off 
from  it  an  immense  treasure. 

46.  Middle  Egypt,  or  Heptan'omis,  as  it  was  called  on 
account  of  its  seven  districts,  embraced  the  wider  portion  of 
the  Nile  basin  below  the  Thebais.  Its  capital  was 
Memphis,  the  city  of  the  Pharaohs  who  received 


Middle  Egypt 


and  protected  the  Israelites.  This  district  contains  the  finest 
of  the  pyramids,  which  are  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Nile,  extending  a  distance  of  about  seventy  miles.  The  first, 
or  Great  Pyramid,  at  Gizeh  ( ghe'za),  is  the  most  remarkable. 
It  is  said  that  100,000  men  were  employed  during 
thirty  years  in  its  construction.      Lower  Egypt, 


Lower  Egypt. 


which  consisted  of  the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  was  very  fertile  and 
populous.     Sais  was  its  chief  city.     [See  Map,  page  47.] 

47.  The  power  of  the  Pharaoh,  or  king,  was  absolute, 
except  that  he  was  more  or  less  under  the  influence  of  the 
priests;  and,  at  some  periods  of  the  history,  was 
completely  under  their  control.*  Women  were 
not  entirely  debarred  from  occupying  the  throne. 


Political 
system. 


nor  even  from  the  priesthood.  The  nation  was  divided  into 
names,  each  of  which  had  its  governor  (nomarcli).  The  peo- 
ple consisted  of  many  classes,  but  there  was  no  fixed 
caste,  as  has  been  supposed.  \     Many  occupations 


Social  system. 


were  hereditary;  but  the  educational  system  was  such  that 
any  one  could  by  superior  talent  rise  to  eminence.  Still  the 
evils  of  class  distinction  were  almost  equal  to  those  of  caste. 
Shepherds  and  herdsmen,  particularly  swineherds,  were  held 
in  great  abomination.  All  handicrafts  were  despised  by  the 
upper  classes,  whose  occupations  were  priestly,  civil,  or  mili- 
tary, or  such  as  required  scientific  knowledge.     Even  sculp- 

*The  growing  influence  of  the  priests,  as  Rawlinson  remarks,  was  shown 
especially  in  the  accession  to  power  of  the  pnestly  dynasty  of  Tanites.  These 
styled  themselves  "High  Priests  of  Ammun,"  and  wore  priestly  costume. 

t "  Castes,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  did  not  exist  in  Egypt,  since  a  son  was 
not  absolutely  compelled  to  follow  his  father's  profession."— i?aw/insow. 


54  Ancient  History. 


ture  and  painting  were  degraded  arts.     There  were  many 
slaves,  who  were  generally  captives  taken  in  war. 

48.  The  religion  of  the  Egyptians,  which  was  probably  at 
first  a  simple  worship  of  one  God,  became  very  complex, 
owing  to  the  vast  number  of  deities  which  were 
adopted  into  their  system.     Many  of  these  were, 


Religion. 


doubtless,  personified  attributes  of  the  Deity;  but  others  were 
regarded  as  distinct  personages,  such  as  Osiris  and  Isis.  The 
veneration  in  which  many  of  the  lower  animals  were  held  was 
a  curious  feature  of  this  religion.  Thus  the  ibis,  the  hawk, 
the  dog,  and  the  cat  were  considered  sacred;  and  at  Memphis 
the  bull  Apis,  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  Osiris,  was  a  special 
object  of  adoration.  To  kill  one  of  these  sacred  animals,  even 
by  accident,  was  to  incur  the  penalty  of  death.  In  the 
temples  certain  mysteries,  or  secret  ceremonies,  were  per- 
formed, to  which  the  priests  alone  were  admitted. 

49.  The  worship  was  either  public  or  private,  the  former 
in  the  temples,  the  latter  at  the  tombs.     Every  town  had  at 
least  one  temple  dedicated  to  the  chief  divinity 
of  the  place,  where  were  the  images  which  sym- 


Worship. 


bolized  his  powers,  and  the  sacred  animal  which  he  was  sup- 
posed to,  animate.  The  religious  services  were  only  in  part 
open  to  the  common  people.  The  worship  at  the  tombs  was 
designed  to  secure  certain  benefits  for  the  deceased  in  the 
future  state.  Every  tomb  of  the  wealthy  had  a  chapel  for 
this  purpose,  but  all  passers-by  were  invited  to  enter  and  par- 
ticipate in  the  ceremonies,  and  to  offer  up  prayers  for  the 
souls  of  the  departed.  The  sacrifices  to  the  gods  consisted 
of  animals  and  vegetables,  with  libations  of  wine  and  the 
burning  of  incense. 

50.  The  funeral  was  the  greatest   of  till  the  social  ceremo- 
nies of  the  Egyptians.      The  period  of  mourning  sometimes 


lasted  seventy-two  days,  during  which  the  procesf 

Funeral.        ' 


— I  las 
J  of 


embalming  was  performed.      The  body  wji| 
swathed  in  many  linen  bandages,  and  the  mummy  thus  formed 


Egypt 


65 


was  covered  with  pasteboard,  and  often  inclosed  in  a  box,  some- 
times in  a  stone  sarcophagus.  It  was  then  taken  to  tho  tomb, 
and  offerings  to  the  deceased  were  placed  in  the  chapel.*  The 
Book  of  the  Dead,  containing 
the  funeral  ritual  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  is  still  in  existence. 
This  great  care  to  preserve  the 
body  from  decay  was  due  to  the 
belief  that  the  soul  would,  after 
a  long  period,  return  to  reani- 
mate it.  It  is  believed  that 
some  of  the  pyramids  were,  for 
this  reason,  constructed  by  the 
kings  in  order  to  afford  durable 
protection  to  their  mortal  re- 
mains. Imprisonment  for  debt 
was  not  permitted;  but  a  man 
could  pledge  to  his  creditors 
the  mummies  of  his  ancestors, 
and  if  he  failed  in  his  lifetime  to  redeem  them,  he  was  him- 
self deprived  of  burial. 

51.  The  Egyptians  made  great  progress  in  the  mechanical 
and  industrial  arts.     The  weaving  of  cotton  and 
linen  cloth,  working  in  copper  and  brass,  and  the 


Mummies. 


Industrial  arts. 


making  of  glass  and  pottery  were  among  the  most  prominent 
branches  of  manufacture.  In  their  agriculture  the  people 
showed  very  great  skill.  A  considerable  traffic  was 
carried  on  with  other  countries;  gold,  ivory,  ebony. 


Commerce, 


skins,  and  slaves  were  brought  from  Ethiopia,  incense  from 
Arabia,  and  spices  from  India.    In  exchange  for  these  articles 


♦The  bodies  of  the  poor  were  first  salted,  and  then  boiled  in  bitumen.  Vast 
numbers  of  sacred  animals,  bulls,  apes,  dogfs,  cats,  sheep,  etc.,  were  also  embalmed. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  more  than  400,000,000  human  mummies  were  made  in 
Egypt.  Sepulchres  have  been  opened  in  which  thousands  of  them  were  found 
deposited  in  rows,  one  on  another,  without  coffins.  Shiploads  have  been  trans 
ported  to  England,  and  ground  up  for  use  in  fertilizing  the  soil. 


56 


Ancient  History, 


gniiii  and  cloth  were  the  cliicf  exports.  This  commerce  wus 
carried  on  principally  by  Greek  and  Phoenician  merchants, 
since  the  Egyptians  had  not  attained  any  great  degree  of 
skill  in  ship-building  or  navigation. 

62.  Egyptian  art  was  intended  to  illustrate  the  religious 
belief  of  the  people.     Hence  it  was  characterized  by  grandeur 
rather  than  beauty.     Their  peculiar  taste  seems 
to  have  been  the  outgrowth  of  their  religious 


Fine  arts. 


ideas,  for  the  design  was 
rather  to  awaken  awe  than 
to  please  the  eye  with  ele- 
gant and  graceful  forms. 
This  prevented  any  pro- 
gress in  art,  for  all  inven- 
tive genius  was  trammeled 
by  their  strict  conventional 
rules  based  upon  their  re- 
ligious principles.  Colos- 
sal statues,  symbolical  un- 
couth figures,  and  animals 
of  strange  ideal  forms  took 
the  place  of  that  which 
is  natural  and  beautiful. 
The  temples  and  sepulchers 
were  adorned 
with  paintings, 


Paintfng. 


The  Obelisk,  now  \r\  the  Ontrnl  Park,  New 
York,  as  it  stood  in  Alexandria. 


executed  in  strong  but  not 
glaring  colors,  in  the  pecu- 
liar Egyptian  conventional 
style;  that  is,  the  style  in  which  natural  variety  of  form  is 
sacrificed  to  an  ideal  sameness.  The  pigments 
used  were  very  durable  and  often  brilliant.  Music 
was  highly  cultivated,  and  the  instruments  wei-e 
of  conp.iderable  variety  and  ingenuity.  Dancing  was  also 
cultivated  as  an  art. 


Music  and 
dancing. 


Egypt  '  57 

63.  Architecture  was  the  greatest  of  the  Egyptian  arts. 
Massiveness  and  grandeur  were  the  prominent  features. 
This  people  delighted  in  pyramids,  obelisks,*  and 
stupendous  temples,  with  immense  columns  and 


Architecture. 


spacious  halls,  adorned  with  colossal  statues,  avenues  of 
sphinxes,  and  elaborate  sculpture,  all  producing  an  awe-in- 
spiring effect.  The  huge  blocks  of  stone  used  in  these  struc- 
tures were  drawn  hundreds  of  miles  from  the  quarries,  by  the 
united  labor  of  thousands  of  men.  The  pyramids 
are  the  most  celebrated  of  these  structures.    There 


The  pyramids. 


are  as  many  as  seventy  standing  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile, 
but  the  Great  Pyramid  at  Gizeh  is  the  most  famous. 

54.  This  massive  stone  structure,  standing  near  the  apex 
of  the  Delta,  is  believed  to  be  the  largest  and  oldest  building 
now  in  existence.  Its  original  height  was  480 
feet,   and  its   base  764  feet  square,  covering  an 


Great  Pyramid. 


area  of  more  than  13  acres;  but  by  the  removal  of  the  casing- 
stones  for  the  building  of  Cairo,  its  height  was  reduced  about 
30  feet.  Like  all  the  other  pyramids,  it  faces  the  cardinal 
points,  and  is  built  on  strictly  scientific  and  mathematical  prin- 
ciples; while  in  its  form,  position,  chambers,  and  passages,  it  is 
supposed  to  symbolize  many  important  truths.  Its  entrance 
passage  is  about  four,  feet  high,  leading  downward  to  a  sub- 
terranean chamber  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock.     The  upward 


*  The  name  obelisk  (meaning  in  Greek  a  spit)  was  given  to  these  tall  and  slender 
monoliths  on  account  of  their  peculiar  shape.  They  were  erected  in  pairs  at  the 
gateways  of  temples,  one  standing  on  each  side.  They  were  taken  from  the 
quarries  of  Syene,  and  floated  down  the  Nile  on  rafts,  at  the  time  of  the  inundation. 
Their  form  was  dictated  by  a  certain  law  of  proportion ;  and  their  height  varied 
from  a  little  over  20  feet  to  123  feet.  On  their  sides  were  carved  hieroglyphic 
records  of  the  names  and  titles  of  the  kings  by  whom  they  were  erected.  The  one 
recently  removed  from  Egypt  to  New  York  was  originally  placed  at  the  gate  of  the 
temple  of  the  sun,  erected  at  Heliopolis  by  Thothmes  UL,  where  it  stood  for 
eighteen  centuries,  having  been  transported  to  Alexandria  by  the  Romans  in  the 
time  of  Augustus.  Its  companion  was  removed  with  it,  and  at  Alexandria  was 
known  as  Cleopatra's  Needle.  This  obelisk  was  removed  to  London  a  few  years 
ago.  An  obelisk  was  removed  from  Luxor  to  Paris,  and  set  up  in  the  Place  de  la 
Concorde,  in  1833.    Several  previously  had  been  transported  to  Rome. 


08 


Ancient  History, 


passage  leads  to  what  is  called  the  Grand  Gallery,  28  feet 
high  and  about  157  loot  long,  and  thence  to  the  highest  and 
largest  known  room  in  the  structure,  called  the  King's  Cham- 
ber, which  contains  a  granite  coffer,  the  only  article  of  furni- 
ture in  the  pyramid.  Below  the  King's  Chamber  is  the 
Queen's  Chamber,  reached  by  a  horizontal  passage  from  the 
foot  of  the  Grand  Gallery.  According  to  Herodotus,  it  was 
built  by  a  king  named  Cheops  {ke'ops),  called  also  Shufu  or  Su- 
phis;  and  the  date  of  its  erection  was  probably  about  2400  B.C.* 
65.  The  Great  Sphinx,  an  immense  sculptured  figure  of  a 
fabulous  monster,  having  the  head  of  a  man  and  the  body  of  a 

1  lion,  stands  a  short  distance  from  the  pyramids  of 

_1  Gizeh,  with  its  head  facing  the  Nile.     It  is  almost 

as  great  a  wonder  as  the  Great  Pyramid.      Its   dimensions 


are  enormous,  the  length  of  the  body  being  146  feeb,  and  the 
distance  across  the  shoulders  36  feet.  Between  the  paws, 
which  are  50  feet  apart,  a  small  temple  was  constructed.  This 
colossal  figure  was  intended  to  represent  one  of  the  Egyptian 
deities,  Horus,  the  Sun-god,  as  named  in  the  hieroglyphics. 


*  No  opening  was  discovered  in  this  wonderful  building  till  about  825  a.d.,  when, 
fcy  order  of  a  Saracen  monarch,  the  Mohammedans  broke  into  it,  making  an 

irregular  passage  (10);  but  in  doing 
this  they  discovered  the  passage  (2) 
made  by  the  buildei-s.  the  opening 
to  which  was  carefully  concealed 
from  without.  The  diagram  shows 
the  subterranean  chamber  (3),  the 
ascending  passage  (4),  the  horizon- 
tal passage  (5),  the  queen's  cham- 
ber (G),  the  grand  gallery  (7),  the 
king's  chamber  (8),  the  passage 
leading  to  the  subt^^rranean  cham- 
ber (9).  and  the  chamliers  of  con- 
stniction  (11)  over  the  king's  cham- 
ber;  also  ventilating  tubes  to  the 
north  and  south.  At  the  time  of  the  Saracenic  invasion  this  building  was  still  per 
feet,  and  covered  with  hieroglyphics  sufficient,  as  an  .\rab  writer  calculated,  to  flU 
10,000  volumes.  The  Mohammedans  took  enough  stone  away  to  build  all  the 
mosques  and  palaces  of  Cairo.  It  originally  contained  nearly  7,000,000  tons  of 
masonry,  or  8.5  millions  of  cubic  feet  of  c.t  stone.  Thin  would  funiish  enough 
material  to  construct  a  railway  embankment  10^  feet  high  and  3^10  miles  in  length. 


Egypt  59 

56.  The  Egyptians  made  great  progress  iu  many  of  the 
sciences.  Their  knowledge  of  astronomy  was  quite  exten- 
sive, as  is  shown  by  the  observations  they  made, 
and  their  mode  of  reckoning  time;  while  their 


Science. 


achievements  in  architecture  prove  that  they  had  consider- 
able knowledge  of  mathematical  and  mechanical  science. 
•y  were  also  versed  in  medicine  and  surgery.  They 
possessed  great  skill  in  many  of  the  useful  arts, 
including  pottery,  the  manufacture  of  glass  and 


Useful  arts. 


porcelain,  dyeing,  and  the  making  of  linen.  They  were  like- 
wise skilled  in  the  polishing  and  engraving  of  precious  stones, 
and  in  metallurgy. 

57.  The  language  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  was  related 
to  the  Semitic,  but  differed  from  it  in  many  respects.  Its 
modern  form  is  the  Coptic.  In  ancient  times 
there  were  different  dialects  in  upper  and  lower 
Egypt.    Hieroglyphics  were  used  for  monumental 


Language  and 
literature. 


writing,  from  which  a  kind  of  running  hand  was  formed, 
used  for  documents  written  on  papyrus;  and  besides  these 
there  was  the  demotic,  or  common  writing.  The  mode  of 
writing  was  with  a  reed,  tlie  hieroglyphs  being  traced  in 
black;  but  the  paragraphs  were  commenced  in  red.  The 
sculptured  hieroglyphs  were  also  embellished  with  colors. 
Much  of  the  ancient  literature  has  come  down  to  us,  but  is 
generally  disconnected  and  of  little  value.  The  discovery  of 
the  famous  "Rosetta  Stone"  led  to  the  deciphering  of  the 
hieroglyphic  inscriptions,  by  means  of  which  a  flood  of  light 
has  been  thrown  upon  ancient  Egyptian  history.  * 

*  "  All  three  forms  of  hieroglyphic  writing  were  alike  unintelligible  to  the  Greek 
travelers  in  Egypt,  but  they  had  the  priests  for  interpreters.  This  key  lost,  the 
treasures  of  Egyptian  learning— 'a  library  of  stones  and  papyri  in  myriads  of 
volumes  '—appeared  to  be  sealed  forever,  till,  early  in  the  19th  century,  the  key 
was  found  by  Dr.  Young,  and  successfully  applied  by  M.  ChampoUion.  The 
discovery  was  first  made  from  the  'Rosetta  Stone,'  one  of  the  gatherings  of 
Napoleon's  expedition  to  Egypt,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It  is  a  piece  of 
black  basalt,  engraved  with  a  trilingual  inscription  in  honor  of  King  Ptolemy  V., 
Epiphanes,  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  b.c.  The  same  text  is 
repeated,  first  in  hieroglyphics,  secondly  in  enchorial  [demotic]  characters,  lastly  in 


60  Ancient  History. 


58.  The  pictures  on  the  monuments  and  tombs  give  us  a 
fair  representation  of  the  every-day  life  of  these  remarkable 
people.     At  their  feasts,  which  were  numerous 
among  the  rich,  the  host  and  hostess  presided. 


Social  Iffe. 


The  seats  were  single  or  double  chairs,  but  many  sat  on  the 
ground.  The  servants  decked  the  guests  with  lotus  flowers, 
and  piled  meat,  fruits,  cakes,  and  other  food  on  small  tables 
placed  before  them;  while  hired  musicians  and  dancers  enter- 
tained the  company.  Th^y  had  several  games,  among  which 
was  a  kind  of  draughts  or  chess.  The  rich  rode  in  chariots, 
or  in  heavy  carriages  drawn  by  oxen.  Women  were  treated 
with  respect,  and  enjoyed  a  greater  degree  of  freedom  than 
in  many  of  the  Asiatic  civilizations. 

The  Ethiopians. 

59.   Directly  south   of   Egypt    lay  the  country  of    the 
Ethiopians,  a  nation  the  origin  of  which  is  lost  in  antiquity. 
Its  capital,  Mer'o-e,  on  account  of  its  favorable 
situation  on  the  upper  Nile,  became  the  emporium 


Meroe. 


of  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  other  nations  in  its  vicinity;  and 
Ethiopia  grew  to  be  one  of  the  most  powerful  states  of  the 
ancient  world  (about  1000  B.C.).  For  a  time  it  was  tributary 
to  Egypt;  but  (about  750  B.C.)  it  acquired  its  independence, 
under  Sab'a-co,  and  in  its  turn  subdued  Egypt,  which  it  kept 
under  its  sway  about  sixty  years. 

Greek;  but  the  stone  is  so  mutilated  at  the  corners  and  one  edge,  that  the  first  part 
of  the  hieroglyphic  text  and  the  last  part  of  the  Greek  are  lost,  as  well  as  the  begin- 
ning of  several  lines  of  the  enchorial.  The  first  comparison  made  was  that  of  cei-taln 
names  and  titles,  which  occur  frequently  in  the  Greek  text,  with  groups  of  charac- 
ters similarly  repeated  in  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  enchorial.  Conspicuous 
among  these  was  the  name  of  I^tolemy,  which  Dr.  Young  next  found  in  the  hiero- 
glyphic text,  guided  by  a  suggestion,  previously  made,  that  the  oval  ritigs,  or 
cartoucfies,  constantly  seen  in  hieroglyphic  inscriptions,  formed  the  inclosure  of 
royal  names.  Hence  he  determined  the  phonetic  or  alphabetic  value  of  the  charac- 
ters which  he  supposed  to  spell  Ftolemaios,  or  Ptolenieos,  and  then  those  of 
Berenice.  In  1822  the  publication  of  the  bilingual  inscription  on  the  ol)eli8k  at 
Phil»  enabled  Champollion  to  decipher  the  name  of  CleojMttra.  The  subsequent 
discovery  of  many  other  Greek  and  Roman  names  led  him  on  to  the  deciphering 
of  the  letters  of  common  words."— &'Htt7/t".s  Ancient  History  of  thv  East. 


The  Phoenicians,  61 


60.  During  the  reign  of  Psammetichus,  240,000  Egyptians 
emigrated  to  Ethiopia,  and  settling  there  added  greatly  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  state.  After  subduing  Egypt, 
Oambyses  invaded  Ethiopia;  but  his  soldiers 
suffered  terrible   hardships  from  famine   in  the 


Invasions  of 
Cannbyses. 


deserts  before  they  reached  Meroe,  after  the  capture  of  which 
he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  hopes  of  further  conquest  and 
return  to  Egypt.  About  five  centuries  later,  Ethiopia  was 
conquered  by  the  Komans. 


SECTION  V. 
The  Phoenicians. 


61.  Phoenicia,  bordering  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  is  particularly  noted  for  its  two  great  cities, 
Sidon  and  Tyre,  the  most  ancient  seats  of  com- 
merce mentioned  in  history.    Each  had  a  govern- 


Sidon  and  Tyre. 


ment  of  its  own,  and  each  sent  colonies  to  different  parts  of 
the  world.  The  most  ancient  were  Ga'des  (now  Cadiz),  in 
Spain  (Tarshish),  and  Utica,  in  Africa.  Some 
of  the  earliest  settlements  in  Greece  are  said  to 


Colonies. 


have  been  made  by  Phoenicians.  The  greatest  of  their  colo- 
nies was  Car'thage,  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  founded 
by  Dido,  a  Tyrian  princess  (878  B.C.).  Ar'a-dus  was  also  an 
important  city  of  Phoenicia. 

62.  Phoenicia  was,  in  fact,  a  confederacy  of  states,  or  large 
and  powerful  cities,  of  which  Sidon  was  the  most  ancient, 
and  for  some  time  the  most  flourishing;  but  her 
defeat  by  the  Philistines  of  Ascalon  gave  the  pre- 


Sidon  and  Tyre. 


cedency  to  Tyre  (about  1050  B.C.).  This  city,  like  the  others 
in  Phoenicia,  was  under  the  I'ule  of  kings,  but  the  priesthood 
and   the   aristocracy  had  great  influence.     The    list   of  the 


62 


Ancient  History, 


Tyrian  kings  from  1050  to  830  B.C.  is  known  to  us.  About 
the  close  of  that  period,  the  country  was  inyaiied  by  the 
Assyrians,  and  lost  its  independence.  After  the  fall  of 
that  empire,  Phoenicia  was  brought  under  the  power  of  the 

Egyptians  (608  B.C.), 
and  three  years  after- 
ward was  conquered 
by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

63.  Tyre  revolted 
from  him  eiglit  years 
later,  and  maintained 
a  successful  resistance 
for  thirteen  years, 
when  she  was  again 
brought  under  the 
Babylonian  yoke,  and 
so  remained  till  both 
Tyre  and  Sidon  were 
reduced  by  Cyrus  (538 
B.C.).  Having  revolt- 
ed from  the  Persians 
(in  351  B.C.),  Sidon 
was  fired  by  its  own 
inhabitants  and  en- 
tirely destroyed.  It 
was,  however,  rebuilt. 
Both  cities  were  taken 
GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDY.  ,       Alcxaudcr   thc 

What  was  the  situation  of:  Phoenicia?  Syria?  *'  -  /•  qqo  ^  n\ 
JuDAH?  Israel?  Edom?  Moab?  Gilead?  Galilee?  Ureat  [in  664>  B.C.j, 
Tyre?  Sidon?  Aradus?  Jerusalem?  Damascus?  Saraa-  rpg  yielding  to  the 
ria?  Askelon?  Gaza?  Ashdod?  Joppa?  Beer-sheba?  ^^„^„^^^„  *i.__  „  j^. 
Byblus?  Tadmor?  Ezion-geber?  Dead  Sea?  Jordan  COUqUCror  after  a  dC- 
River?  Orontes  River?  What  name  has  been  given  to  termiucd  resistance  of 
the  whole  d. strict  west  of  the  Jordan?    Arts.  Pales-  months. 

tine,  or  the  Holy  Land.  ' 

64.  The  Phoenicians  were  the  greatest  navigators  and  mer- 
chants of  antiquity.     Keeping  near  the  shore,  and  guided  by 


The  Phoenicians.  63 


the  stars,  their  ships  visited  the  most  remote  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  even  passed  the  ''Pillars  of  Hercules" 
(Strait  of  Gibraltar)  into  the  Atlantic,  probably 
reaching  the  "Land  of  Tin" — the  peninsula  of 
Cornwall,    in    Britain ;     also   the   Canaries,    the 


Navigation  and 
commerce. 


Azores,  and  the  Madeira  Islands  in  the  west,  and  India  and 
Ceylon  in  the  east.  Wherever  trade  was  profitable  they  ex- 
tended their  voyages,  and  they  were  careful  to  conceal  from  all 
others  the  course  they  took  to  the  wealthy  lands  they  reached. 
When  Herodotus  visited  Tyre,  he  could  gain  no  information 
of  the  source  of  their  supply  of  tin  and  amber,  although  they 
had  been  selling  those  products  to  the  Greeks  for  centuries.* 


Phcenician  Ship. 

In  their  desire  for  gain  the  Phoenicians  did  not  at  times 
scruple  to  commit  piracy;  and  they  sometimes,  it  is  said, 
kidnapped  Greek  and  Hebrew  children  and  sold  them  for 
slaves.  Many  of  the  great  commercial  centers  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  grew  from  Phoenician  settlements. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Phoenicians  were  masters  of  the 
commerce  of  the  world  before  the  Greeks  became  at  all  promi- 
nent on  the  field  of  history. 

65.  Their  manufactures  of  glass  and  linen,  of  perfumes  and 
purple  dye,  were  sources  of  unbounded  wealth ;  and  the 
Phoenicians  were  universally  considered  io  be  the  most  skillful 

♦It  is  related  that  the  master  of  one  of  their  merchantmen  bound  for  the 
"Land  of  Tin,"  perceiving  himself  followed  by  a  Roman  ship,  which  had  been  sent 
(50  learn  the  way,  ran  his  vessel  on  the  rocks  to  lead  the  rival  craft  to  destruction, 
and  on  his  return  home  his  government  indemnified  him  for  the  loss. 


64 


Ancient  History. 


workmen  in  gold,  silver,  ivory,  and  bronze.  These  manu- 
factured articles  they  exchanged  for  the  rich 
products  of  distant  lands.     From  the  natives  of 


Manufactures. 


Tarshish  (southern  Spain)  they  obtained  gold^  silver,  iron, 
and  lead ;  for  this  country  at  that  time  was  almost  a  mine 
of  wealth,  silver  being  so  ])lentiful  that  the  mer- 
chants, as  Aristotle  relates,  ballasted  their  ships 


Traffic. 


with  it.  For  these  treasures  the  simple  natives  eagerly  ac- 
cepted Tyrian  ornaments  and  glass  trinkets.  On  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Baltic  a  similar  traffic  was  carried  on  for  the 
precious  amber  of  that  region. 

66.  These  people  also  made  great  progress  in  literature. 
Their  alphabet  was  more  complete  than  any  that  previously 

existed,  for  it  -^o,^  phonetic;  that  is,  it  represented 

the  elementary  sounds  of  spoken  words,  not  pic- 
tures of  objects.    It  is  stated 
that  Cadmus,  a  Phoenician, 
brought  sixteen  letters  into 
Greece,  thus  forming  a  basis 

for    the    Greek 

alphabet.    How- 


Literature. 


Alphabet. 


ever  this  may  be,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  not  only  the  Greek 
but  all  our  modern  alpha- 
bets are  directly  or  indirectly 
based  upon  that  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians.  Thus,  whatever  the 
origin  of  these  wonderful 
people,  for  it  is  impossible 
to  say  whence  they  came,  they  must  be  considered  among 
the  most  enterprising,  ingenious,  and  intellectual  nations  of 
antiquity. 

67.  The  Phoenicians  worshiped  a  vast  multitude  of  gods, 
among  whom  Ba'al  was  pre-eminent,  corresponding  to  the 
Babylonian  deity  of  that  name;  and  next  to  him  wjus  a  female 


Head  op  13aal. 
(From  a  Tyriau  Coin.) 


The  Phcenicians.  Q5 


deity  named  As-tar'te,  whose  emblem  was  the  moon.  The 
evil  principle  was  personified  by  the  dreaded  being  Moloch, 
to  whom  they  sometimes  sacrificed  their  children  and  other 
human  beings.  They  erected  temples,  but  chiefly 
selected  for  their  places  of  worship   mountains, 


Religion. 


glens,  groves,  and  the  banks  of  streams,  which  they  deemed 
the  favorite  abodes  of  the  gods.  Fire  was  kept  burning 
perpetually  on  their  altars,  and  they  sacrificed  both  men  and 
animals.  Many  of  their  religious  rites  and  ceremonies  were 
dreadfully  cruel  and  degrading, 

Sybia. 

68.  Syria  is  the  name  given  to  a  region  of  indefinite 
extent  situated  to  the  eiist  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  By  the 
Hebrews  it  was  called  A'ram.  It  was  united 
under  one  government  till  the  time  of  its  com- 


Situation. 


plete  conquest  by  the  Persians.  There  were  several  states, 
but  the  one  most  generally  known  was  Syria  of  Damascus, 
which  was  an  important  state  even  in  the  times 
of  Abraham.     In  the  subsequent  history  of  the 


Damascus. 


Jews  it  became  quite  prominent.  King  David  gained  a  great 
victory  over  the  Syrians  of  Damascus,  and  reduced  their  city; 
but  during  Solomon's  reign  it  regained  its  independence 
(1000  B.C.). 

69.  There  were  three  kings  named  Ben-ha'dad,  all  of 
whom  contended  repeatedly  with  the  Hebrews.  Benhadad 
II.  was  murdered  by  the  usurper  Haz'a-el,  who 
afterward   gained   important   victories   over    the 


Benhadad. 


Israelites,  ravaged  their  territory,  and  plundered  Jerusalem 
(about  850  B.C.).  His  son,  Benhadad  III.,  also  "oppressed 
Israel."  At  a  later  period,  Syria  was  successively  subdued  by 
the  Assyrians,  Persians,  and  Macedonians.  About  63  B.C.,  it 
became  a  Eoman  province,  and  was  subsequently  divided  into 
several  provinces. 


QQ  Ancierd  HU^-^y. 


SECTION  VI. 
The    Hebeews. 

70.  Palestine  was  situated  between  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
and  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  River,  extending  about  145 
miles    from    north  to  south,  with    an    average 
breadth  of  less  than  fifty  miles.     Tlie  name  is 


Situation. 


a  corruption  of  Philistia,  or  the  country  of  the  Philistines, 
those  fierce  idolaters  with  whom  the  Hebrews  wage4  many 
wars.  Their  chief  cities  were  Ash'dod,  or  A-zo'- 
tus,  As'ca-lon,  Gath,  Ga'za,  and  Ek'ron,  all  noted 


Philistines. 


in  sacred  history.  The  western  parts  of  what  was  called 
Palestine  were  inhabited  by  the  Canaanites  and 
other  tribes,  or  nations  {seven  mentioned  in  the 


Canaanites. 


Scriptures),  which  were  conquered  by  the  Hebrews. 

71.  The  Hebrews  were  a  Semitic  race.  Abraham  jour- 
neyed from  Chaldea  to  Canaan  (Palestine),  where  his  de- 
scendants continued  to  dwell  as  a  patriarchal  and  pastoral 
nation  until  Jacob  and  his  sons  left  the  country  to  settle  in 
Egypt.  The  Jewish  state  properly  commences  with  the  Exodus 
from  Egypt  and  the  settlement  again  in  Palestine.  Of  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel,  nine  and  a  half  were  located  to 
the  west,  and  two  and  a  half  to  the  east,  of  the 


Tribes  of  Israel. 


Jordan.  Into  this  region  they  had  been  led  by  Joshua,  as 
Moses  was  permitted  only  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  promised 
land.  After  the  death  of  Joshua  followed  the  period  of  the 
Judges,  which  lasted  about  five  centuries.  The  last  of  the 
Judges  was  Samuel,  who,  when  the  people  demanded  a  king, 
anointed  Saul  (1095  B.C.). 

72.  Saul  was  succeeded  by  David,  during  whoso  reign 
(from  1055  to  1015  B.C.)  the  kingdom  of  Israel  stretched 
from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the  Euj)hrate8 
River,  and  from  Syria  to  the  Red  Sea.     He  on- 


David. 


couraged  navigation  and  trade,  particularly  with  Tyre,  which 


The  Hebrews,  67 


led  to  a  vast  influx  of  the  precious  metals  into  the  kingdom, 
and  afterward  made  Solomon's  court  a  sceue  of  oriental 
luxury  and  magnificence.  The  reign  of  Solomon  (1015-975 
B.C.)  was  the  most  splendid  period  in  Jewish 
history.    He  built  a  sumptuous  palace,  and  caused 


Solomon. 


the  great  temple  to  be  constructed.  Alliances  were  formed 
with  the  surrounding  nations  ;  an  active  trade  with  Egypt 
was  opened;  and,  to  facilitate  his  commercial  enterprises,  he 
erected  Tad'mor  in  the  desert,  which  afterwards  became  so 
renowned  as  Palmy'ra.  He  also  built  a  superb  navy  at  a 
port  (E'zi-on  -  ge'ber)  which  he  established  at  the  northern 
part  of  the  Ked  Sea.     [See  map,  page  62.  ] 

73.  The  glory  of  Solomon's  splendid  kingdom  was  not  to 
continue.  Already,  during  his  life,  luxury  had  brought  its 
usual  corruption  and  weakness.  The  purity  of  religion  was 
stained  by  cruel  and  licentious  rites;  the  people 
were  oppressed  by  a  burdensome  taxation ;  and 
dissension  and  discontent  prevailed.  The  tyranny 


Revolt  of  the 
Ten  Tribes. 


and  insolence  of  Re-ho-bo'am,  Solomon's  son  and  successor, 
completed  the  ruin  of  the  kingdom,  causing  the  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes,  who  followed  Jer-o-bo'am,  and  set  up  a  new  king- 
dom of  Israel  at  She'chem.  To  Rehoboam  were  thus  left 
only  two  tribes,  forming  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  A  desultory 
war  was  kept  up  between  these  two  kingdoms  during  most  of 
the  reign  of  Jeroboam,  which  lasted  twenty-two  years. 

74.  The  territory  ruled  over  by  Jeroboam  was  partly  be- 
yond the  Jordan.  It  reached  from  the  borders  of  Damascus 
to  within  ten  miles  from  Jerusalem;  and  in  its 
first  period  contained  twice  as  large  a  population 


Israel. 


as  Judah.  Its  first  capital  was  She'chem;  the  second,  Tirzah; 
and  the  last,  Samaria.  In  about  250  y^'*'s  nineteen  monarchs 
reigned,  the  history  of  whom  is  but  a  sad  record  of  wicked- 
ness and  war.  They  deserted  the  purity  of  the  former 
religious  worship,  and  practiced  idolatry,  against  wliich  the 
prophets  vainly  denounced  thQ  Judgments  of  Heaven.     The 


68 


Ancient  History. 


kingdom  was  destroyed  by  the  Assyrians,  to  whom  the  last 
king,  Ho-she'a,  surrendered  Samaria,  and  the  ten  tribes  were 
carried  into  captivity  (721  B.C.).  Tlieir  place  was  supplied 
by  Babylonian  settlers,  from  whom,  with  the  remnant  of  the 
Jewish  population,  was  derived  the  Samaritan  race. 

75.  The  kingdom  of  Judah  lasted  135  years  longer  than 
Israel.     Most  of  its  kings  were  wicked  and  idolatrous;  but, 
during  the  reign  of  the  good  king  Je-hosh'a-phat 
(916-892  B.C.),  the  kingdom  was  in  a  more  pros- 


Judah. 


perous  state  than  it  had  been  since  the  reign  of  Solomon. 
Hezekiah's  reign  (726-697  B.c)  is  remarkable  for  the  invasion 
_^_  -  -  %_       -^^__  -_  of  Sennacherib  and  the  mir- 

aculous destruction  of  his 
army.  The  last  king  was 
Zed-e-ki'ah,  during  whose 
reign  Nebuchadnezzar,king 
of  Babylon,  took  Jerusalem 
and  destroyed  it,  sending 
the  Jewish  king  in  chains 
to  Babylon,  whither  were 
also  transported  the  wretch- 
ed inhabitants  (586  B.C.). 
The  temple  was  razed  to 
the  ground,  and  for  more 
than  fifty  years  the  holy  city  i)erished,  except  in  the  memory 
of  the  heart-broken  exiles.  The  restoration  of  the  Jews  took 
place  in  636  B.C.,  in  pursuance  of  an  edict  of  Cyrus,  the  great 
Persian  monarch,  which  permitted  the  Jewish  people  in  Baby- 
lon to  return  to  Jerusalem,  and  to  rebuild  the  temple,  every 
Jew  in  the  city  being  enjoined  by  the  edict  to  assist  in  the 
work. 

76.  After  the  edict  of  Cyrus,  the  Jews  remained  under  the 
dominion  of  Persia  till  the  time  of  Alexander;  and  on  his  death 
(:J2;i  B.C.),  they  became  subject  to  Ptore-my  (foVe-mc),  one  of  his 
successors.     Subsequently  the  kings  of  Egypt  and  Syria  con- 


AjiTKjUK    VKSSlSLa. 


The  Hebrews, 


m 


Subsequent 
Jewish  history. 


tended  for  Palestine,  until  An-ti'o-chus  the  Great  defeated  the 
Egyptians,  and  thus  became  its  ruler.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  oppression  of  one  of  his  successors, 
the  Jews  revolted,  under  the  renowned  Judas 
Mac-ca-be'us,  who  in  a  succession  of  victories  routed  the 
Syrian  armies,  and  entered  Jerusalem  in  triumph  (165  B.C.). 

77.  After  his  death  (161  B.C.),  his  brothers  completed  the 
work  of  national  deliverance,  and  they  and  their  successors 
ruled  as  high-priests,  until 
Aristobu'lus  assumed  the 
crown  (106  B.C.).  The 
second  king  of  that  name 
was  subdued  by  Pompey, 
the  Roman  general,  when 
Judea  became  a  Roman 
province.  The  successors  of 
Judas  Maccabeus  are  called 
the  Maccabees,  or  the  As- 
mo-ne'an  dynasty.  These 
were  followed  by  the  dy- 
nasty founded  by  Herod  the 
Great,  who  ruled  under  the  Romans  (37  B.C.-44  a.d.).  Sub- 
sequently Judea  was  appended  to  the  Roman  province  Syria. 
The  revolt  of  the  Jews  led  to  a  ''war  of  independence," 
which  was  closed  by  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus 
(70  A.D.)  and  the  final  dispersion  of  the  Hebrew  race. 

78.  The  civilization  of  the  Hebrews  was  not  marked  by 
any  gi-eat  and  peculiar  progress  in  the  arts  and  sciences;  and 
the  world  has  received  no  impulse  from  their 
national  achievements  or  history  in  this  respect. 
Their  religious  institutions,  spiritual  ideas,  and 


Hebrew  Costume. 


Hebrew 
c(viliz«tton. 


moral  teachings  have,  however,  exerted  a  mighty  influence 
on  modern  civilization.  The  sacred  writings  of  the  Jews  are 
still  a  treasury  of  inspired  wisdom,  the  influence  of  which 
pervades  the  most  civilized  nations  of  the  globe. 


70  Ancient  History. 


SECTION  VU. 
The  Hindoos. 

79.  The  original  seat  of  the  great  Aryan  race  appears  to 
have  ucLJi  the  region  lying  between  the  northwestern  boun- 
dury  of  India  and  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
[See  map  No.  II.]     From  this  country  emigrants 


Aiyans. 


pushed  across  the  Indus  River,  and  drove  toward  the  south  or 
reduced  to  servitude  the  native  inhabitants.  Of  these  Aryan 
invaders,  mingling  with  the  darker  races  whom  they  had  sub- 
dued, the  Hindoos  are  the  descendants.  The  land  was  subse- 
quently called  Ar'ya-d-var'ta,  or  the  Home  of  the  Aryans. 
The  date  of  this  invasion  is  uncertain,  but  it  has  been  placed 
by  some  Sanskrit  scholars  as  far  back  as  3100  B.C. 

80.  These  invaders  brought  with  them  a  religion  called 
Brahmanism  and  the  Sanskrit  language,  and  also  established 
the  institution  of  caste.     Of  these  castes  the  Brah- 
mans  or  priests,  constituted  the  highest,  and  the 


Castes. 


Su'dras,  or  conquered  people — the  artisans  and  laborers — the 
lowest.  To  tliese  may  be  also  added  the  Pa'riahs,  or  outcasts. 
The  Sanskrit  is  now  a  dead  language,  but  a  com- 
parison of  it  with  other  languages  sliows  it  to  have 


Sanskrit, 


been  the  parent  of  Greek,  Latin,  Iranian  or  Persian,  German, 
Celtic,  Slavonic,  and  most  of  the  languages  of  modern  Europe. 
The  Vedas,  or  sacred  books,  written  in  this  lan- 
guage, are  believed  to  be  as  old  as  2000  b.c.     The 


Vedaa. 


ancient  literature  of  the  Hindoos  includes  many  other  inter- 
esting works,  both  in  prose  and  poetry,  a  number  of  which  have 
been  translated  into  English  and  other  modern  languages.    . 

81.  The  Vedas  teach  the  worship  of  one  Supreme  Being, 
an   Infinite   Spirit,   pervading   all    tilings,  and    manifesting 

himself  under  three  forms:  Brahma,  the  creator; 

Vishnu,  the  preserver;   and  Siva,  the  destroyer. 


Religion. 


I'he  doctnne  of  the  **  transmigration  of  ijgula"  was  a  promi- 


The  Hindoos.  71 


nent  feature  in  these  religious  teachings.  According  to  this 
belief,  the  souls  of  all  those  who  had  not  lived  pure  lives 
passed  at  death  into  the  bodies  of  lower  animals  as  a  punish- 
ment. In  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  there  arose  a  wonderful 
religious  reformer  or  teacher  in  the  person  of  Prince  Gau- 
ta'ma,  called  Buddha  {hood'dah) — the  Enlightened. 
He  was   the  founder   of  Buddhism,  a  religious 


Buddhism. 


system  which  at  first  was  pure  and  spiritual,  but  subsequently 
became  stained  with  many  abuses  and  corrupted  with  idolatry 
and  superstitious  practices.  It  is  now  the  religion  of  a  large 
part  of  mankind.* 

82.  We  have  no  continuous  authentic  history  of  the 
ancient  Hindoos.  The  first  event  in  connection  with  the 
history  of  Europe  that  brings  India  into  notice 
is  the  invasion  of  the  country  by  the  Macedoni- 


History, 


ans,  under  their  great  leader,  Alexander  the  Great  (326  B.C.). 
After  several  engagements  with  the  native  princes,  he  was 
compelled  to  retire  without  making  any  conquests.  The  his- 
torians who  accompanied  the  army  wrote  quite  a  full  descrip- 
tion of  the  people  and  their  peculiarities. 

83.  The  wealth  of  India — its  diamonds  and  other  precious 
stones,  pearls,  silks,  spices,  and  perfumes — made  this  land 
for  many  centuries  an  object  of  interest,  and 
trade  with  it  was  eagerly  cultivated.  Maritime 
commerce   with    India  was    carried    on   by  the 


i/Vealth  and 
trade. 


Phoenicians,  as  it  was  afterward  by  the  Italian  commercial 
states.  A  great  overland  trade  was  also  carried  on  not  only 
by  the  Phoenicians  but  by  other  nations.  In  all  other 
respects,  however,  the  country  and  its  people  remained  a 
sealed  book  for  ages. 

*  "  In  point  of  age,  most  other  creeds  are  youthful  compared  with  this  venerable 
religion,  which  has  in  it  the  eternity  of  a  univei*sal  hope,  the  immortality  of  a 
boundless  love,  an  indestructible  element  of  faith  in  final  good,  and  the  proudest 
assertion  ever  mad^  of  human  freedom."— ^?<7in  Arnold, 


72  Ancient  History. 


SECTION  VIII. 
The   CniiirESB. 

84.  China  is  spoken  of  by  the  ancient  classic  writers  as 
the  land  of  the  Se'res.     In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  called  the 
empire  of  Cathay',     From  others  it  received  the 
name  of  Sin,  Chin,  oi-  China.     The  latter  name 


China. 


is  supposed  by  some  to  be  derived  from  the  Tsin  dynasty,  of 
the  third  century  B.C.  In  the  ancient  descriptions  of  this 
country,  its  rich  products — raw  silk,  silk  stuffs,  fine  furs,  and 
excellent  iron — are  especially  mentioned.  The  Greeks  and 
Komans  had  but  a  very  indefinite  knowledge  of  the  Chinese 
and  their  country.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  it  became  better 
known,  particularly  through  the  account  given  by  Marco  Polo 
of  his  travels  in  Cathay. 

85.  The    Chinese   historians   extend  their   records  back 
during  fabulous  periods  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years, 
but  fail  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  race.     They 
describe  the  first  settlers  as  nomadic  emigi*ants 


Origin. 


from  the  region  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  who,  however,  soon 
devoted  themselves  to  agriculture,  cultivating  grain  and  flax, 
and  nourishing  silkworms.  They  established  centers  of 
trade,  and  began  to  study  science,  particularly  Jistronomy. 
They  had  a  kind  of  hieroglyphic  writing.  The  natives  could 
make  but  little  resistance  to  the  "  black-haired  race,"  so  much 
superior  to  themselves  in  intelligence  and  vigor,  jmd  hence 
were  driven  into  the  less  habitable  parts  of  the  country. 

86.  All  the  early  history  of  the  Chinese  is  very  obscure, 
but,  about  the  twenty-fourth  century  u.c,  the 
mist   begins  to  rise,  and   we  have  a  continuous 


History. 


history  of  dynasties  and  kings.  In  the  tenth  century,  the 
formidable  Tartars  commenced  their  incursions, 
and  down  to  modern  times  continued  to  haniss 


Tartars. 


the  empire.     In  the  sixth  century  (551  B.C.),  the  wise  teacher 


The  Chinese,  73 


Confucius  was  born,  who  devoted  his  long  life  to  the  endeavor 
to  instill  into  the  minds  of  the  people  pure  prin- 
ciples of  virtue  and  religion.     Not  until  after  his 


Confucius. 


death,  however,  were  his  precepts  respected ;  they  were  then 
erected  into  a  religious  system  known  as  Confucianism, 

87.  Lao-tse  {low-tsd')  was  contemporary  with  Confucius,  and 
he  also  founded  a  religious  system,  called  Taouism, 
which   still   extensively   prevails.      A   wise    and 


Taouism. 


powerful  monarch,  called  in  the  Chinese  history  **  the  first 
universal  emperor,"  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  gained  several 
gi*eat  victories  over  the  Tartars,  and  to  prevent 
their  incursions  in  the  future,  planned  the  con- 


Great  wall. 


struction  of  the  *'  Great  Wall,"  but  died  before  it  was  com- 
pleted (210  B.C.).  Buddhism  was  introduced  from  India 
about  65  A.D.,  and  now  extensively  prevails. 

Chinese  Civilization. 

88.  The  character,  institutions,  and  customs  of  the  Chinese 
have  undergone  but  little  change  since  the  earliest 
times.    They  have  ever  been  jealous  of  foreigners, 
fearful  of  innovations,  and  attached  to  their  own 


Manners  and 
customs. 


modes   in    everything.      Their    government   is   an -absolute 
monarchy;  but  the  emperor  is  regarded   as   the 
father  of  his  people,  and  as  being  specially  the 


Government. 


son  of  Heaven,  and  the  mediator  between  Heaven  and  all  who 
belong  to  the  Chinese  nation.  Prayers  and  sacrifices  for  the 
people  are  offered  by  him  at  stated  times.  The  punishments 
inflicted  upon  criminals  are  severe  and  cruel.  The  patriarchal 
system  prevails  in  social  life,  obedience  to  the 
head  of  the  family  being  sternly  enforced.     Edu- 


Education. 


cation  receives  a  great  deal  of  attention,  and  is  the  passport 
to  all  offices,  to  which  every  one  is  eligible. 

89.  The  Chinese  language  is  one  of  a  small  class  of  Asiatic 
languages  which  are  usually  described  as  monosyllahic.  It 
has  no  alphabet,  the  characters  being  chiefly  symbols  of  the 


74  Ancient  History. 


objects  which  they  are  designed  to  denote.  There  are  at 
least  30j000  characters  iu  the  hinguage,  represented  to  the 
ear  by  about  500  sylhibic  sounds.  The  ancient  literature 
embraces  the  works  coini)iled  by  Confucius,  live 
in  number,  among  which  is  tbe  Booh  of  History, 
which  treats  of    a  period   extending  from   the 


Language  and 
literature. 


twenty-fourth  century  to  721  B.C.  These,  witli  four  other 
works,  constitute  the  famous  classics,  with  which  every  edu- 
cated Chinaman  must  be  familiar.  The  art  of  printing  was 
known  to  the  Chinese  several  centuriecJ  before  it  was  invented 
in  Europe.* 

90.  The  native  religions  of  the  Chinese  are  those  founded 
by  Confucius  and  Lao-tse.     The  former  is  rather  of  a  moral 
and    phirosophioal    character ;    the   latter,  of    a 
spiritual  nature.      The  educated,  as  a  general 


Religion. 


thing,  profess  Confucianism;  the  middle  and  lower  orders, 
Taouism  or  Buddhism.  Great  toleration  in  religion  prevails. 
The  saying  is  common:  "  Religions  are  many;  reason  is  one; 
we  are  all  brothers."  Multitudes  of  superstitious  beliefs  and 
ceremonies  have  disfigured  the  ancient  religions  as  now  pro- 
fessed and  practiced  by  the  people. 


SECTION  IX. 
The   Persians, 


91.  The  Persians  were  an  Aryan   race  who   migrated    to 
the  lofty  plain  of  Iran  from  the  region  east  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.     Achaemenes   (a-heni' c-nPz)   seems    to  have 
been  the  founder  of  the  monarchy  about  a  cen- 


Origin. 


tury  before  the  time  of  Cyrus.     There  were  many  tribes,  of 
which  the  Parsar'ga-dae  were  the  most  prominent,  forming  a 


*  The  modern  literature  of  China  is  very  extensive.    The  roj-al  library  contains 
fit  lWM?t  100,000  volumes,  its  catttlo^u<?  alone  ftHinjf  122  volumes. 


No.  2. 


The  Persians,  75 


kind  of  nobility.  The  Persians,  before  Cyrus,  were  subject 
to  the  Median  monarchy;  but  that  ambitious  prince  being 
kept  as  a  sort  of  hostage  at  Ecbatana,  and  seeing  that  the 
luxury  and  effeminacy  of  the  Medes  had  under-  i  • 

mined  their   strength,  determined  to  throw  off  I '. 

the  Median  yoke.  This  he  accomplished  in  spite  of  all  the 
efforts  which  Astyages  made  to  repress  the  revolt.  The  con- 
quest of  Media  by  Cyrus  and  the  capture  of  Astyages  oDcned 
the  way  for  greater  changes. 

92.  By  a  wonderfully  rapid  series  of  conquests  Cyrus  then 
made  himself  master  of  Lydia,  the  Asiatic  Greeks, 
Babylon,  and  the  nations  of  the  remoter  East — 
Hyrca'nia,    Par'thia,   Bac'tria,   Sog-di-a'na,  etc. 


Conquests  of 
Cyrus. 


[See  map  No.  II.]  Babylon,  as  already  related,  fell  before  his 
conquering  arms  in  538  B.C.  All  these  countries  were  sub- 
dued by  this  extraordinary  man  in  less  than  thirty 
years  (558-529  B.C.).     The  circumstances  of  his 


Death. 


death  are  variously  related.  Herodotus  says  he  was  killed  in 
an  expedition  against  the  Massagetae  {mas-saj'e-te),  a  barba- 
rous tribe  living  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea.*  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Camby'ses. 


*  The  account  given  by  Herodotus  is  as  follows:  "  Tomyris,  queen  of  the  Massa- 
getae, when  she  found  that  Cyrus  paid  no  heed  to  her  advice,  collected  all  the  forces 
of  her  kingdom  and  gave  him  battle.  Of  all  the  combats  in  which  the  barbarians 
have  engaged  among  themselves,  I  reckon  this  to  have  been  the  fiercest.  The 
following,  as  I  understand,  was  the  manner  of  it:  First,  the  two  armies  stood  apart 
and  shot  their  arrows  at  each  other;  then,  when  their  quivers  were  empty,  they 
closed  and  fought  hand  to  hand  with  lances  and  daggers;  and  thus  they  continued 
fighting  for  a  length  of  time,  neither  choosing  to  give  ground.  At  length  the 
Massagetae  prevailed.  The  greater  part  of  the  army  of  the  Persians  was  destroyed 
and  Cyrus  himself  fell,  after  reigning  nine-and-twenty  years.  Search  was  made 
among  the  slain,  by  order  of  the  queen,  for  the  body  of  Cyrus;  and  when  it  was 
found,  she  took  a  skin,  and,  filling  it  with  human  blood,  she  dipped  the  head  of 
Cyrus  in  the  gore,  saying,  as  she  thus  insulted  the  corse,  '  I  live,  and  have  con- 
quered thee  in  fight;  and  yet  by  thee  am  I  ruined,  for  thou  tookest  my  son  with 
guiie ;  but  thus  I  make  good  my  threat,  and  give  thee  thy  fill  of  blood.' "  According 
to  Xenophon,  Cyrus  died  peacefully  in  his  bed.  Ctesias  says  he  was  mortally 
wounded  in  a  battle  with  Derbices,  and  died  in  his  camp  a  short  time  afterward. 
There  seems  to  be  little  reason  to  doubt  that  he  died  in  a  violent  manner,  but  it  is 
uncertain  what  enemy  he  was  contending  against  at  the  time. 


76  Ancient  History, 

93.  Cambyses  was  a  warlike  prince,  as  well  as  cruel  and 
despotic.     He  caused  his  brother  Smerdis,  sometimes  called 

7—  I  Bardius,  to  be  put  to  death  on  account  of  jeal- 
"^^J^ I  ousy,  because  Cyrus,  had  left  to  him  the  govern- 
ment of  several  important  provinces.  He  compelled  the  sub- 
mission of  Phoenicia  and  Cyprus,  tlie  great  naval  powers  of 
western  Asia,  and  then  invaded  Africa  (525  B.C.).  He  de- 
feated Psammenitus,  took  the  city  of  Memphis,  conquered  the 
Libyan  tribes,  and  planned  the  conquest  of  Carthage,  but  the 
Phoenician  soldiers  in  his  army  refused  to  attack  their  own 
colony.  The  army  which  he  sent  to  capture  the  temple  of 
Ammon,  situated  in  an  oasis  of  the  desert  (Si-wah'),  i>erished 
in  a  simoom;  and  the  march  of  his  own  army  against  Ethio- 
pia was  arrested  in  the  Nubian  desert  by  drought  and  famine. 

94.  On  his  return  to  Egypt  he  found  it  in  a  state  of 
revolt,  to  repress  which  he  was  guilty  of  the  wildest  atrocities, 

compelling  the  Egyptian  king  to  take  poison, 
killing  the  sacred  animals,  and  otherwise  offend- 
ing the  religious  prejudices  of  the  people.      In 


Revolt  of 
Egypt. 


the  mean  time  a  revolution  took  place  at  the  Persian  capital. 
A  Magian  personated  the  murdered  Smerdis, 
and   seized  the  tlirone,  being   supported  by  the 


Smerdis. 


Magian  order,  the  most  powerful  in  Persia.  Cambyses  on 
his  way  homeward  died,  some  say  by  suicide, 
others  in  consequence  of  a  wound  which  he 
accidentally  inflicted  upon  himself  while  mount- 


Death  of 

Cambyses. 


ing  his  horse  (522  B.C.).* 

95.  Smerdis,  the  impostor,  on  the  discovery  of  the  fraud, 
was  quickly  deposed  by  the  Persian  nobles,  who  elected  Da- 
ri'us  I.,  called  Hys-tas'pes,  king.     He  was  the  greatest  of  the 

♦  '  •  The  Magian  revolution  was  religious  rather  than  political.  The  subject  is  stiU 
to  some  extent  obsciire;  but  it  seems  certain  that  Matrianism  and  Zoroastrlanism 
W9i*e  at  tliis  time  two  distinct  and  opposed  .syKtenis.  Tlie  pretender  was  a  Mag^s, 
bom  in  the  eastern  part  of  Persia;  and  the  object  of  the  revolution  was  to  make 
Magianism  the  state  religion.  Its  ill  success  re-established  the  pure  reliarion  of 
Zoroaster. '  ^—Ratolinaon. 


TTie  Persians.  77 


Persian  monarchs,  being  both  a  conqueror  and  a  statesman. 
He  speedily  put  down  the  rebelUons  which,  on  his  accession, 
had  broken  out  in  all  parts,  and  then  perfected  the 
organization  of  the  empire,  dividing  it  into  twenty 


Darius  I. 


provinces,  over  which  he  placed  governors,  or  satraps^  as  they 
were  called  by  the  Persians.  He  made  Susa  his  capital  in  the 
spring,  Ecbatana  in  summer,  and  Babylon  in  the  winter. 

96.  Several  great  military  expeditions  were  then  under- 
taken. The  first  was  against  western  India,  near  the  head- 
waters of  the  Indus,  where  he  made  conquest  of  a  rich  gold 
tract  that  added  greatly  to  the  revenues  of  the  empire.  The 
next  was  against  the  barbarous  Scythian  nations  dwelling 
on  the  vast  plains  lying  north  of  the  Euxine.  With  an  im- 
mense army  he  crossed  the  Bos'po-rus  by  means  of  a  bridge 
of  boats,  and  advanced  against  these  people,  who  fled  at  his 
approach.  This  expedition  seems  to  have  been  undertaken 
more  for  the  purpose  of  overawing  the  people  than  to  make 
conquests,  and  after  ravaging  the  country  he  returned  to  Per- 
sia, leaving  a  force  to  subdue  Thrace. 

97.  The  Greek  colonics  of  Asia  Minor,  provoked  by  the 
tyranny  of  the  Persians,  planned  a  revolt,  and  expelled  or  put 
to  death  their  governors.  Sardis,  the  capital 
of  the  scdrapy,  was  taken  and  burned;  but  the 
rebellious  states,  after  several  battles,  were  com- 


Revolt  of  the 
Greek 
colonies. 


pelled  to  surrender,  and  were  punished  with  great  severity. 
Athens,  having  aided  and  abetted  the  insurrection,  brought 
upon  herself  and  all  Greece  tHe  vengeance  of  the  Persian 
despot,  who  sent  two  great  expeditions  to  conquer  the  coun- 
try. These  were  unsuccessful.  In  the  second  of  them,  the 
Persian  army,  numbering  more  than  100,000  men,  was  de- 
feated by  the  Greeks  on  the  plains  of  Marathon,  not  far  from 
Athens.  This  was  the  first  signal  defeat  which  the  Persians 
had  ever  encountered.  While  organizing  a  third  expedition, 
on  a  still  larger  scale,  Darius  died  (485  B.C.).* 

*  "  Darius  probably  died  at  Susa;  but  he  was  buried  in  the  vicinity  of  Persepolia, 


78 


Andetvt  History, 


98.  Xerxes  I.  {zerx*ez)y  the  son  and  successor  of  Darius., 
renewed  the  attempt  to  subdue  the  Grecian  states,  and  for 
the  purpose  collected  a  vast  army  and  fleet;  but 
he  met  with  a  disastrous  defeat  both  by  land 


Xerxes  I. 


After  a  reign  of 


Artaxerxes  I. 


Persian  War-chariot. 


Darius  ill. 


and  sea. 

twenty  years,*  he  trans- 
mitted the  enterprise  to 
his  son,  Ar-tax-erx'es  I., 

who     was    at 

last  compelled 
to  make  peace  with  the 
Greeks,  after  the  war  had 
continued  about  fifty  years 
(449  B.C.).  The  subse- 
quent history  of  Persia  is 
of  little  importance,  except  as  it  is  connected  with  that  of  the 

Greeks.      The  last  king  was  Darius  III.,  called 

Cod-o-man'nus,  who  was  subdued  by  Alexander 
the  Great  (329  B.C.).  Persia  then  became  a  part  of  the  Mace- 
donian Empire,  having  lasted  a  little  over  two  centuries. 

Civilization  of  the  Persians. 

99.  Until  after  the  reign  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  tliC  Persians 
were  a  hardy  race,  of  simple  manners  and  great  courage  in 
war;  but  they  soon  became  soft  and  effeminate, 
like  the  Medes,  to  whom  they  were  related. 
They  lost  their  bold   hardihood,  and  sank  into  a  corrupt 

where  he  had  prepared  himself  an  elaborate  rock  tomb,  adorned  with  sculptures, 
and  bearing  a  long  inscription,  all  of  which  remain  to  the  present  day.  The  great 
palace  of  Persepolis  was  his  conception,  if  not  his  work,  as  was  the  equally 
magnificent  structure  at  Susa,  which  was  the  ordinary  "oyal  residence  from  his 
time.  He  likewise  set  up  the  great  rock  inscription  at  Bohlstun,  the  most  remark- 
able of  all  the  Persian  monumental  remains."— /i?au»itn80u'«  Ancient  History. 

♦  Xerxes  was  a  licentious  and  cruel  monarch,  and  from  him  commenced  the 
Jong  course  of  folly,  self-indulgence,  and  wickedness  that  disgrace  the  subsequent 
history  of  Persia.  He  was  murdered  by  the  captain  of  Ids  guard  and  his  chaml)er- 
lain.  Xerxes  is  supposed  to  have  been  tlie  Ahasuenis  of  Esther;  as  the  latter  name 
is  the  Semitic  equivalent  of  the  Ar^-an  Khxhajfarnha,  corrupted  Into  Xerxes. 


Manners. 


The  Persians,  79 


state,  brought  about  by  luxury  and  sensual  indulgence.    They 
made  but  little  progress  in  the  industrial  arts, 
as  they  were    enabled    to   obtain  from   Egypt, 


Arts. 


Assyria,  Babylonia,  Phoenicia,  and  India  the  rich  products  of 
those  countries. 

100.  Architecture  was,  however,  cultivated  with  success; 
and  the  ruins  of  their  beautiful  city,  Per-sep'o-lis,  still  bear 

witness  to  the  progress  they  had  made  in  that  i \ 

art.     This  city,  called  in  ancient  times   ''  The  1 

Glory  of  the  East,"  was  adorned  in  every  possible  way  by  the 
great  Achaemenian  princes.  The  most  prominent  features  of 
its  edifices  were  lofty  and  spacious  stone  platforms,  approached 
by  magnificent  flights  of  stairs,  also  elaborate  and  tasteful 
sculptures  and  bas-reliefs,  and  long  rows  of  light  and  graceful 
columns.  The  interiors  were  ornamented  with  beautiful 
paintings.  -  The  royal  palace  of  Persepolis,  afterward  wantonly 
destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great,  was  a  miracle  of  magnifi- 
cence, as  the  ruins  of  the  Great  Hall  of  Xerxes,  or  Hall  of  a 
Hundred  Columns,  still  dimly  show.  The  Persians,  unlike 
the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  delighted  rather  in  splendid  pal- 
aces and  sumptuous  tombs  than  in  stately  and  magnificent 
temples.  Ruins  of  palaces  are  also  found  at  Pasargadae,  which 
v7as  the  residence  of  Cyrus  and  Cambyses,  as  Persepolis  was  the 
capital  of  Darius  and  Xerxes.  There  are  similar  ruins  of  Susa 
and  Ecbatana. 

101.  The  ancient  religion  of  the  people  of  Iran  was,  at 
first,  a  kind  of  Brahmanism,  like  that  of  the  Hindoos;  but 
after  the  exodus  of  the  Aryans,  who  migi-ated 
to  India,  a  deadly  feud  arose  between   the  two 


Religion. 


branches  of  that  race,  and  the  Persians  adopted  new  beliefs 
and  ceremonies.  Their  religion  was,  however,  essentially  the 
worship  of  one  Supreme  Being,  symbolized  by  the  sun  and 
by  fire;  but,  in  course  of  time,  it  became  corrupt, 
under  the  Magi,  or  fire-priests.    Then  Zo-ro-as'ter, 


Zoroaster. 


or  more  properly  Za-ra-thus'tra  (meaning  chief  or  higli-priest), 


80  Ancient  History. 


arose,  and  taught  a  purer  and  simpler  doctrine,  the  Avorsliip 
of  the  Infinite  Spirit,  under  the  name  of  Ahura  Maz'da 
(Ormuzd).*  This  is  the  religion  of  the  Parsees,  and  is  con- 
tained in  tlie  sacred  book  of  the  Persians,  called  Zend-Avesta,  f 
In  later  times,  Zoroaster's  teachings  were  perverted  into  the 
doctrine  of  Ormuzd,  the  principle  of  good,  and  Ahriman, 
that  of  evil.  Light  and  fire,  as  emblems  of  the  Divinity,  are 
held  sacred;  and  in  the  temples  the  fires  are  kept  perpetually 
burning.  Even  the  priests  approach  them  with  masked  faces, 
lest  their  breath  should  defile  them;  and  they  touch  them 
only  with  consecrated  implements. 

102.  The  chief  remains  of  ancient  Persian  are  the  cunei- 
form inscriptions  of  the  Achaemenian  princes,  discovered  in 
the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  on  the  famous  rock  of 
Behistun,  and   at  other  places.     A  few  proper 


Language. 


names,  and  terms  for  vessels  and  garments,  have  survived  in 
the  Bible,  chiefly  in  Daniel.  The  alj^habet  commonly  used 
by  the  Persians  was  not  cuneiform,  but  Semitic.  The  Zend, 
a  rich  language,  agreeing  with  the  Sanskrit  of  the  Vedas, 
died  out  in  the  third  century  B.C.  The  Shah  Nameh  (Book  of 
Kings),  a  poem,  written  by  Firdusi  {feer-doo'se)  in  the  tenth 
century  A.D.,  contains  the  history  of  Persia  from  the  earliest 
times.     Much  of  it  is,  however,  fabulous.  J 

*  Ahu'ra  is  the  good  spirit,  as  Diva  is  the  evil  one.  Ahura-Mazda  is  the  Oood 
Spirit,  the  Creator.  This  word  was  corrupted  into  Omiuzd.  Zoroaster's  life  is 
shrouded  in  daricness,  very  little  being  knoYi-n  in  regard  to  the  period  in  which  he 
lived,  or  the  circumstances  of  his  career  as  a  religious  reformer.  He  was  bom,  It 
is  said,  in  Bactria;  and  the  Persian  traditions  appear  to  indicate  that  he  nuist  have 
lived  before  the  Assyrian  conquest  of  Bactria,  which  took  place  about  1200  b.c. 
The  Zend-Avesta  represents  him  as  a  being  of  supernatural  character,  endowed 
with  divine  powers  and  intelligence,  holding  intercourse  with  the  Deity,  and 
receiving  from  him  the  moral  and  spiritual  truths  which  he  taught  to  mankind. 

t  Zend  means  trannlation  or  commentary;  avesta,  or  avastha,  te,vt  or  scripture. 
The  Zend  language  is  closely  related  to  the  Sanskrit. 

t  Firdusi  was  the  greatest  epic  poet  of  the  Persians.  His  Book  of  Kings  abounds 
In  beautiful  poetry,  but  is  a  strange  medley  of  truth  and  fiction.  It  was  written  to 
please  the  King  rather  than  to  state  historical  facts.    Firdusi  died  1020  a.d. 


Uevtew  Outlhte. 


Contemporaneous 

Events. 


EGYPTIAN  HISTORY. 


Babylon  founded, 
2200  B.C. 


Arabian  dynasty  of 
Chaldean  kings. 

Conquest  of  Baby- 
lon by  the  Assy- 
rians, 1250  B.C. 


Ethiopia  indepen- 
dent, 750  B.C. 


Sargon,  king 
Assyria,  745 
705  B.C 


Nineveh  taken  by 
the    Medes,   625 

B.C. 

War  between  the 
Medes  and  Lyd- 
ians,  610  B.C. 

Babylon  taken  by 
Cyrus,  538B.C. 


First  dynasty  of  Egyptian  kings  (about  2700  B.C.). 
Memphis  a  large  and  flourishing  city. 

Fourth  dynasty — pyramid-builders — began  about 
2500  B.C.  Shufu  (Suphis  or  Cheops)  built  the 
Great  Pyramid  (about  2400  b.c). 

The  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  Kings  (1900  to  1525  B.C.). 
The  Israelites  go  down  iuto  Egypt,  where  they 
remained  215  years.      The  Exodus  (1652  B.C.). 

The  most  splendid  period  of  Egyptian  history  (1525 
to  1200  B.C.);  reigns  of  Thothmes  III.  and  IV.; 
conquests  of  Seti  (Sesostris)  and  Barneses  II.. 
magnificent  temples  erected  in  Egypt  and  Nubia. 
Great  Hall  of  Karnac  built. 

Priestly  dynasty  of  the  Tanites  ("  High  Priests  of 
Amun") — period  of  Egyptian  decline. 

Sheshonk  (Shishak);  partial  revival  of  Egyptian 
glory ;  invasion  of  Judah. 

Ethiopian  (25th)  dynasty;  Sabaco  (or  So);  conflict 
with  Sargon  (724  B.C.);  Tirhakah,  greatest  of  the 
Ethiopian  kings;  alliance  with  Hezekiah  against 
Sennacherib.  Conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Assy- 
rians; divided  into  subject  states. 

Psammeticlms,  founder  of  the  26th  dynasty,  en- 
couraged art  and  constructed  great  military  works 
(reigned  from  664  to  610  B.C.). 

Necho  or  Nekao,  son  of  Psammetichus  ;  great 
maritime  enterprises;  circumnavigation  of  Africa. 
Defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (605  B.C.). 

Amasis,  fifth  king  of  the  26th  dynasty;  a  wise  and 
active  monarch;  a  long  and  prosperous  reign. 

Psammenitus.  son  of  Amasis  ;  defeated  by  Cam- 
byses,  the  king  of  Persia,  at  Pelusium  (525  b.c): 
end  of  the  30th  dynasty  of  Manetho;  Egypt 
under  the  rule  of  the  Persians  (31st  dynasty). 


82 


Ancient  History, 


PHCENICIANS. 


Early  settlements 
and  maritime  en- 
terprises. 


Sidon  and  Tyre. 

Sidon  subdued  by 
the  Philistines; 
Tyre  predomi- 
nant (1050  B.C.). 


Carthage  founded 
by  the  Tyrians, 
878  B.C. 

Phoenicia  under 
Assyrian  rule, 
about  830  B.C. 

Phoenicia  under 
Egyptian  rule, 
608  B.C. 

Conquered  by 
Nebuchadnez- 
zar, and  under 
Babylonian  rule 
till  subdued  by 
Cyrus,  538  B.C. 

Tyre  and  Sidon 
taken  by  Alex- 
ander, 332  B.C. 


HEBREWS. 


Abraham's  migration  from  Chaldea  to  Palestine 
(Canaan),  about  2000  B.C.* 

Jacob  and  his  sons  go  down  into  Egypt  (about 
1867  B.C.).  Sojourn  in  Egypt  215  years.  Exodus, 
1652  B.C. ;  beginning  of  the  Jewish  state. 

Period  of  the  Judges— about  five  centuries,  to 
Samuel,  the  last  of  the  Judges. 

Saul,  the  first  king,  1095  to  1055  B.C. 

David,  1055  to  1015  B.C. ;  territories  of  the  kingdom 
greatly  enlarged. 

Splendid  reign  of  Solomon,  1015  to  975  B.C.;  great- 
est extent  of  the  Jewish  kingdom. 

Rchoboam's  tyranny  and  insolence  cause  the  dis- 
ruption of  the  kingdom  into  two:  (1)  Judah,  that 
of  Rehoboam,  and  (2)  Israel,  that  of  Jeroboam. 

Israel,  having  lasted  250  years,  is  destroyed  by  the 
Assyrians,  721  B.C.  Hoshea,  the  last  king.  The 
captivity  of  the  ten  tribes.  Judah  lasted  about 
385  years. 

Prosperous  reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  916  to  892  B.C. 

Invasion  by  Sennacherib  and  the  destruction  of  his 
army,  during  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  726  to  697  b.c. 

Jerusalem  taken  and  destroyed,  in  the  reign  of 
Zedekiah,  the  last  king  (586  b.c).  The  fifty 
years'  captivity.  Restoration  of  the  Jews  by 
edict  of  Cyrus,  536  b.c. 

Judea,  the  land  of  the  Jews,  under  the  rule  of  Persia 
till  its  conquest  by  Alexander  the  Great;  after  his 
death  (324 b.c),  a  part  of  Ptolemy's  kingdom;  sub- 
sequently, a  part  of  the  dominions  of  Antiochus 
the  Great.  Successful  revolt  of  the  Jews  under 
Maccabeus.  165  B.C.:  Judea,  an  Independent  king- 
dom till  its  conquest  by  Pompey  the  Great  (63  B.C.). 


♦  It  Is  Impossible  to  fix  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  the  dates  of  these  early 
events.  The  Biblical  chronoloify,  by  Usher,  puts  the  call  of  Abraham  at  1821  B.C.; 
according  to  Lepsius,  he  entered  Palestine  about  1700  b.o.  ;  but  according  to  Bunsen, 
2886  B.C.  In  Beer's  JAfe  of  Abraham,  his  birth  is  placed  In  2(M0  b.c.  See  Kncyclo- 
jHBdia  Britannica^  Art.  Abhah.vm. 


Review  Outline. 


83 


KINGS  OF 

ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH. 

Kings  of  Israkt.. 

!   Length 
!  of  reign, 
in  years. 

Reign 
commenced 

B.C. 

Kings  op  Judah. 

Length 
of  reign, 
in  years. 

.TftrotMiarn 

22 

2 

24 

2 

0 

12 

22 

1 
IS 

28 

17 
16 

41 

11 
0 
0 

10 
2 

20 

9 
9 

975 

958 
956 
954 
953 
930 
929 
929 
918 
916 
897 
896 
892 
885 
884 
878 
856 
839 
838 
833 
809 

772 
772 
771 
762 
760 
757 
741 

780 
726 
721 
697 
642 
640 
609 
609 
605 
597 
586 

Ri^hnhnam    ,  , , 

17 

Abijah 

3 

Asa 

41 

Nadab  

Baasha 

Elah 

Zimri 

Omri 

K\\s\^\ 

25 

Ahasdah  

Jehoram 

Ahaziah 

Jehoram 

8 
1 

Jehu 

Athaliah 

g 

Jehoash 

40 

Jehoahaz 

Amaziah, 

Jehohash 

29 

Jeroboam  11 

Uzziah,  or  Azariah...  . 
Jotham 

InterregnxL-m 

Zachariah 

52 

Shallum 

Menahem 

Pekahiah 

Peka 

16 

Interregnum, 

Ahaz 

Hezekiah 

16 

Hoshea 

29 

Samaria  taken  . . . 

Manasseh 

55 

2 

Josiah 

Jehoahaz  

Jehoiakira 

Jehoiachin,  or  Coniah.. 
Zedekiah 

31 
0 

11 
0 

11 

Jerusalem  taken 

THE    PERSIANS. 

The  Persian  monarchy  was  founded  by  Achaemenes,  about  650  B.C. 
The  Pasargadae  were  the  most  prominent  of  the  tribes.  The  Persians 
were  at  first  subject  to  the  Median  monarchy. 

Cyrus  having  been  kept  as  a  hostage,  and  educated  by  his  grand- 
father, Astyages,  at  Ecbatana,  determines  to  throw  off  the  Persian  yoke. 
He  defeats  Astyages  and  makes  him  a  prisoner,  558  B.C.  He  rapidlj 
subdues  the  whole  of  western  Asia;  is  killed  in  529  B.C. 

Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus,  conquers  Egypt,  and  invades  Ethiopia  and 
Libya;  is  killed,  522  b.c. 


84  Ancient  History. 


Dahius  I.,  llystaspes,  deposes  the  Maglan  impostor,  Smerdis,  and 
asceuds  the  Persian  tlirone,  523  b.c.  He  organizes  the  empire ;  uuder- 
talies  expeditious  to  India  and  against  the  IScythians;  suppresses  the 
revolt  of  the  Greek  colonies,  and  determines  to  conquer  Greece. 

Unfortunate  expeditions  of  Mardonius,  aud  of  Datis  and  Artapher- 
nes;  the  latter  defeated  by  the  Greeks  at  Marathon,  490  B.C. 

Xerxes  organizes  a  vast  expedition  against  Greece,  in  480  b.c.  ;  is 
totally  defeated. 

Abtaxerxes  1.  is  compelled  to  make  peace  with  the  Greeks,  449  B.C. 

Darius  III.  (Codomanus),  the  last  king  oi  ancient  Persia,  is  subju- 
gated by  Alexander  the  Great  (329  B.C.).    End  of  the  Persian  Empire. 


THE  PERSIAN  MONAECHS. 


Name.  Date  of  Reign. 

Cyrus  the  Great 559-529  b.c. 

Cambyses 539-523    " 

Smerdis,  a  usurper 623    " 

Darius  I.,  Hystaspea 523-485    " 

Xerxes  1 48&^65    " 

Artaxkrxes  I.,Zx>ngrtmanMs.465-425    " 
Xerxes  IL  (reigned  45  days) 435    " 


Name.  Date  of  Reign 

SoGDiANus,  a  usurper 425  aa 

Darius  U.,  iVoWms 424^05    " 

Artaxerxes  II. ,  Mnemon . . .  405-359    " 

Artaxerxks  UL,  Ochua 359-338    " 

Arses .....838^336    " 

Darius  UL,  Codvmaumis . .  .836-329    *• 


LEADING  DATES  TO  BE  MEMORIZED. 

B.O. 

/  1652.  Exodus  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt. 

1095.  Saul,  the  first  king  of  Israel. 

1065.  David  begins  to  reign  over  Israel. 

1015,  Accession  of  Solomon. 

976.  Secession  of  the  Ten  Tribes. 

878.  Carthage  founded  by  the  Tyrians. 

747.  Era  of  Nahonassar. 

721.  Samaria  taken ;  end  of  kingdom  of  Israel. 

625.  Taking  of  Nineveh  by  the  Medes. 

y   686.  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar 

658.  Conquest  of  the  Medes  by  Cyrus. 

688.  Taking  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus. 

686.  Restoration  of  the  Jews. 

625.  Conquest  of  Egypt  by  Cambyses. 

622.  Accession  of  Darius  Hystaspes. 

501.  Ionian  revolt  in  Asia  Minor. 

490.  Defeat  of  the  Persians  at  Marathon. 

480.  Invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes. 

m  888.  Persia  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Qredt. 


No.  3, 


CHAPTER  II. 

GrEEECE  AND  MACEDONIA. 


SECTION  I. 

Geogkaphical  Sketch. 

1.  The  country  known  in  history  as  Greece  anciently  con- 
sisted of  three  quite  distinct  parts:  the  first,  in  the  north, 
was  composed  of  Thes'sa-ly  and  E-pi'rus;  the 
second,  in  the  middle,  which  was  the  most  impor- 


Di'visions. 


tant,  was  called  Hel'las;  and  the  third  consisted  of  the 
peninsula  which  forms  the  southern  portion  of  the  country, 
called  anciently  Pel-o-pon-ne'sus,  in  modern  times  Mo-re'a. 
To  these  was  afterward  added  Macedonia,  which  was  situated 
to  the  north  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus. 

2.  Central  Greece  and  Peloponnesus  were  divided  into 
several  small  states,  of  which  the  most  important  were  the 
following: 

Hellas. — At'tica,  Boe-o'tia,  Pho'cis,  East  and  West  Lo'- 
cris,  Do'ris,  ^E-to'lia,  Acarna'nia,  and  Meg'aris. 

Pelopoknesus. — Corin'thia,  Sicyonia  {sishe- 


Grec'an  states, 


onHa),  Ar'go-lis,  Achaia  (a-ha'yah),  Arca'dia,  E'lis,  Laconia, 
and  Messe'nia. 

Besides  these,  the  land  of  the  Hel-le'nes  included  the 
Islands  and  the  Colonies,      Of  the  islands,  the  largest  was 

Euboea  [u-le'ah),  near  the  eastern  coast  of  Hellas;  i 

and  near  the  western  coast  was  the  important  I '^ 

island  Cor-cy'ra.  Numerous  islands  were  scattered  over  the 
iEgaean  {e-je'an)  Sea,  among  which  the  principal  groups 
were  the  Cyc'la-des  and  Spo'ra-des.     The  term  Hellas  was 


86 


Ancylent  History, 


sometimes    used  to  denote  the  whole  of    Greece  and  her 
colonies.* 

3.  The  Grecian  colonies  were  very  numerous  and  wide- 
spread. Those  in  and  near  Asia  Minor  were  planted  at  a  very 
early  period  by  three  different  races,  the  ^olians,  Dorians,  and 
lonians.  The  -^olians  made  settlements  on  the 
coast  of  Mysia  and  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  form- 
ing a  confederacy  of  twelve  cities  (^olis).     The  lonians  col- 


Colonies. 


onized  the  coast  of  Lydia  and  the  islands  of  Chios  (Jce'os)  and 
Samos  (Ionia);  and  the  Dorian  colonies  were  in  the  south- 
western part  of  Asia  Minor  (Doris).  Of  these  the  lonians 
grew  into  the  greatest  importance.  Their  cities  were  espe- 
cially noted  for  their  enterprise,  and  during  the  eighth  and 
seventh  centuries  B.  c.  Miletus  was  the  first  commercial  city 
of  the  Hellenic  race;  but  Eph'e-sus  afterward  rivjiled  it  in  size 
and  importance.     [See  map.] 

♦  "  The  limits  of  Greece  proper  seem  not  to  have  been  very  precisely  defined 
even  among  the  Greeks  themselves;  and  so  large  a  proi)ortion  of  the  Hellens  were 
distributed  among  islands  and  colonies,  and  so  much  of  tlieir  influence  upon  the 
world  was  produced  through  their  colonies,  as  to  render  the  extent  of  their  original 

domicile  a  matter  of  comparatively  little  moment  to  verify Hellas 

proper  (or  continuous  Ilellas)  was  undei-stood  to  begin  with  the  town  and  gulf  of 
Ambracia.  "—Orote. 


Greece  and  Macedonia. 


87 


4.  The  southern  part  of  Italy  was  called  Magna  Graecia, 
from  the  large  number  of  Greek  cities  which  it 
contained.      One  of  the  earliest  was  Ou'mse,  an 


Magna  Graecia. 


^olic  colony,  on  the  bay  of  Naples;  but  the  most  prominent 

were  Syb'aris,  noted  for 

its  effeminacy  and  loose 

morals,     and     Oro'ton, 

distinguished    for     its 

athletes  and  physicians. 

After  the  destruction  of 

Sybaris  by  its  rival  Cro- 

ton,  Taren'tum  took  the 

load  among  the  cities  of 

Magna   Graecia.      Sicily 

also   contained    a   large 

number  of  Greek  cities, 

of  which  the  most  noted 

were  Messa'na,  Syr'a-cuse,  and  Agrigen'tum.     Syracuse  was 

a  Corinthian  colony,  founded  734  B.C.     [See  Map.] 

6.  There  was  also  a  cluster  of  colonies  at  the  western  part 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  of  which  Mas-sil'ia  (now  Mar- 
seilles), founded  600  B.C.,  was  the  chief.  On  the 
African  coast,  Cy-re'ne  was  established  by  the 
Spartans  (630  B.C.).  This  city  became  the  capital  of  Cyre- 
naica  {si-re-na'e-hah).  On  the  Propontis  and  the  Euxine 
there  were  also  numerous  colonies,  of  which  Cyz'i-cus  and 
Si-no'pe  were  the  most  celebrated. 

6.  The  physical  features  of  the  m.ainland,  particularly 
of  Hellas  proper,   are  (1)  the  deep  inlets  with  which  its 


Other  colonies. 


Physical 
features. 


coasts  are  indented,  thus  favoring  maritime  enter- 
prises and  associations,  and  bringing  the  people 
into  connection  with  the  ancient  commercial 
nations;  and  (2)  the  numerous  mountain  ridges  by  which 
its  surface  was  divided  into  distinct  portions,  thus  favoring 
the  formation  of  independent  states.     It  is  the  existence  of 


8S  Ancient  History, 


these  free  states  that  renders  the  history  of  the  Greeks  so 
interesting  and  instructive,  and  makes  the  contrast  so  striking 
between  it  and  the  history  of  the  ancient  Asiatic  and  African 
monarchies.  When  we  come  to  the  period  of  Greek  nation- 
ality, we  cease  to  contemplate  merely  a  record  of  the  splendid 
deeds  of  emperors  and  kings;  we  look  on  the  progress  and 
exploits  of  a  free  people. 

Qeoorafhioal  Study. 

[Cee  Map  No.  III.,  and  maps,  pages  86,87.] 

What  was  the  situation  of:  Attica  ?  Bceotu.  ?  Phocis  ?  East  Locris  ?  West 
LocRis  ?  Doris  ?  .^tolia  ?  Acarnania  ?  Megaris  ?  Corinthia  ?  Laconia  ? 
Argolis  ?  AcHAiA  ?  Arcadia  ?  Eus  ?  Messenia  ?  Sicyonia  ?  Epirus  ?  Thes- 
SALY  ?  Macedonia  ?  Magna  Grecia  ?  Sicily  ?  Euboea  I.?  Salamis  I.  ?  Cyclades 
Is.?  Lesbos  I.?  Sa&osL?  Rhodes!.?  Pindus  range?  CEtaMts.  ?  Mt.  Olympus? 
Mt.  Parnassus  ?  Athens?  Thebes  ?  Delphi  ?  Corinth  ?  Sparta  ?  Platsea  ?  Mar. 
athon  ?  Chalcis  ?  Argos  ?  Olympia  ?  Sicyon  ?  The  Dorian  Colonies  ?  Ionian 
Colonies  ?  ^oUan  Colonies  ?  Croton  ?  Sybaris  ?  Tarentum  ?  Cumae  ?  Paestum  f 
Syracuse  ?    Messana ';    Agrigentum  ? 


SECTION  II. 
FiBST  Period. 

LEGENDARY   OR   TRADITIONAL    HISTORY. 

From  tlie  Earliest  Times  to  776  B.C. 

7.  The  great  Aryan  wave  of  migration  which,  passing 
westward  from  Asia,  swept  over  Europe,  appears  to  have 
reached  Greece  in  very  early  times.  To  this  race 
the  people  called  the  Pelasgi  belonged,  relics  of 


PelMgi. 


whose  civilization  still  exist  in  the  remains  of  a  peculiar  archi- 
tecture called  Cyclope'an,  from  the  liuge  masses  of  stone  of 
which  the  walls  were  built.  But  the  Pelasgi  formed  only 
an  important  tribe  among  very  many  that  tlien  existed  in 
the  Greek  peninsula,  under  diiTci-ent  names,  as  Lcl'e-ges, 
Ou-re'tes,  Dol'o-pes,  etc.     This  was  the  "  golden  age"  of  the 


Greece  and  Macedonia.  89 

poets,  for  these  tribes  were  a  peaceful,  agricultural  or  pastoral 
people,  with  simple  manners  and  religion,  probably  knowing 
nothing  of  the  numerous  gods  of  the  later  Greeks. 

8.  The  Hel-le'nes,  a  kindred  but  more  vigorous  race,  at 
an  early  period  poured  into  the  peninsula  from  the  north,  and 
gradually  gained  a  dominant  influence  over  the 
TDeople  with  whom  they  intermingled.     Of  these 


Hellenes. 


there  were  originally  two  tribes,  the  Achae'ans  and  the  Do'- 
rians,  under  the  former  of  whom  the  three  ancient  kingdoms, 
Ar'gos,  My-ce'nae,  and  Sparta,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  attained 
a  considerable  degree  of  civilization  and  prosperity.  The 
Dorians,  in  the  course  of  time,  became  an  exceedingly  bold 
and  warlike  tribe.  Afterward  two  other  tribes  grew  into 
importance,  the  lonians  and  ^olians;  and  these  four  tribes 
gradually  assimilated,  constituting  the  four  divisions  of  the 
Hellenic  people;  but  among  these  the  lonians  and  Dorians 
became  the  leading  races. 

9.  The  most  ancient  traditions  represent  the  country  as 
divided  into  a  large  number  of  small  states,  each  under  its 
own  chief,  or  petty  king,  and  engaged  in  war  or 
piracy.     This  period  is  usually  called  the  Heroic 


Heroic  age. 


Age,  because  it  abounds  in  fabulous  stories  of  men  of  super- 
human strength  and  valor,  such  as  Hercules,  Theseus  (the*- 
suse),  Achilles  {a-kiVUz),  etc.  The  most  interesting  events 
referred  to  in  this  period  were  the  Argonautic  expedition  and 
the  Tro'jan  war.  The  first,  supposed  to  have  occurred  about 
1225  B.C.,  was  an  enterprise  the  object  of  which,  according 
to  the  tradition,  was  to  bring  from  Colchis  {hol'kis)  the 
"golden  fleece."  *     The  heroes  who  engaged  in  it  were  called 


*  Athamas,  king  of  Boeotia,  married  Neph'e-le,  a  cloud-nymph,  but  wearying  of 
her,  divorced  her,  and  married  Ino,  who  sought  to  put  the  two  children  of  Nephele, 
Phrj'xus  and  Hel'le,  to  death.  To  rescue  them,  Nephele  placed  them  on  the  back 
of  a  winged  ram  having  a  fleece  of  pure  gold,  the  gift  of  Hermes,  and  they  were 
carried  away ;  but  in  crossing  the  strait  between  Europe  and  Asia,  Helle  fell  into 
the  sea,  which  was  thenceforth  called,  after  her,  the  Hellespont.  Phryxus  reached 
Colchis,  and  in  gratitude  for  his  preservation  sacrificed  the  ram  to  Zeus,    The 


90 


Anclejit  History, 


vessel  called  Argo. 


the  Argonauts,  because  they  sailed  in  a 

It  appears   to   have  been  either  a  commercial  voyage  or  a 

piratical  expedition,  its  real  object  being  disguised  by  the  fable 

of  the  *' golden  fleece." 

10.  The  Trojan  war  is  related  by  Homer  in  his  famous 

poem  called  the  Iliad  (from  Ilium,  the  ancient  name  of 
Troy).  It  was  undertaken  to  avenge  the  crime 
committed  by  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy, 


Trojan  war. 


who  had  abused  the  hospitality  of  Menela'us,  king  of  Sparta, 

by  carrying  off  his  wife  Helen, 
said  to  be  the  most  beautiful 
woman  of  those  times.  The 
states  of  Greece  joined  in  the 
war,  and  elected  Agamem'non, 
brother  of  the  Spartan  king, 
their  common  general.  Nearly 
the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  leagued 
with  Troy,  whose  chief  leader 
was  Hector,  son  of  Priam.  Troy 
was  besieged  ten  years,  and  was 
finally  taken  by  stratagem   and 

burned  (1184  B.C. ).    Homer's  gi'eat  poem  the  Od'ys-sey  relates 

the  wanderings  of  U-lys'ses,  king  of  Ithaca,  on  his  return 

home  from  the  war. 

11.  The  traditions  seem  to  indicate  that  important  foreign 

elements  were  introduced  into  the  Hellenic  nation  during 
this  early  period.  Egyptians  settled  in  Attica 
and  Argolis;  Phoenicians,  in  Boeotia;  and  Mysians, 
or  Phrygians,  at  Argos.     Hence  was  derived  the 


Menelu^u^. 


Foreign 
settlements. 


use  of  letters  from  the  Phoenicians  (probably  before  1100  B.C.). 
But  these  foreigners  were  few  in  number,  and  left  only  a  faint 
trace  upon  the  language  or  customs  of  the  people.     These 


rteece  was  carefully  preserved,  and  Ai^tes,  kiiiR  of  Colchis,  heln^  told  that  hisli/e 
depended  upon  Its  safety,  Imd  it  guarded  by  an  hnniense  dragon  ihut  ntwer  slepv 
Colchii.  was  situated  to  the  east  of  the  Euxlne,  or  Black  Sea. 


Greece  and  Macedonia,  91 

traditions  give  the  names  of  Cecrops,  the  founder  of  Athens 
(about  1550  B.C. — period  of  the  Shepherd  Kings  in  Egypt); 
Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Thebes,  in  Boeotia  (about  1492  B.C. — 
during  the  Arabian  Monarchy);  and  Pelops,  who  came  to  the 
Peloponnesus  from  Phrygia  (about  1300  B.C. — during  the 
time  of  the  Judges,  in  Israel). 

12.  The  general  state  of  society  in  the  period  referred  to 
in  Homer's  poems  presents  several  marked  features:  1.  The 
tribe  was  superior  to  the  city;  while,  in  later 
times,  the  city  became  the  mistress  of  the  nation. 
2.  The  kingly  rule  everywhere  prevailed,  and  the 


State 
of  society. 


office  was  hereditary.  3.  There  was  also  a  powerful  body  of 
hereditary  nobles,  from  whom  the  council  of  the  king  was 
selected,  and  an  assembly  to  assist  in  administering  the  govern- 
ment, but  with  no  control  over  it.  4.  Slavery  was  a  prevail- 
ing institution;  females  were  held  in  respect,  and  polygamy 
disapproved;  warlike  virtue  and  physical  courage  were  the 
greatest  virtues,  and  consequently  war  was  incessant;  nauti- 
cal habits  were  quite  general,  and  piracy  was  a  common  prac- 
tice. 5.  There  was  a  strong  religious  feeling,  a  respect  for 
the  priesthood,  and  a  reverence  for  the  temples,  sacred 
places,  and  festivals.  Hospitality  was  a  national  virtue, 
and  heralds  and  suppliants  were  protected.  Polytheism,  or 
the  worship  of  many  gods,  was  the  prevailing  religious  prac- 
tice. 

13.  This  is  also  the  period  of  those  early  leagues  among 
the  states  called  Ampliictyonies.  These  were  formed  origi- 
nally for  religious  purposes — to  protect  sacred 
buildings,  lands,  persons,  and  rites,  and  not  for 


Early  leagues. 


political  objects.     The  oracle,  or  shrine  of  Delphi,  was  the 

center  of  the  most  noted  of  these.     It  was  formed  by  twelve 

states  or  tribes;  and  meetings  were  held  twice  a 

year,  in  the  spring  at  Delphi  and  in  the  autumn 

at  Thermopylae.    This  league,  called  the  Arnpliic- 

tyonic  Council,  played  quite  a  prominent  part  in  the  subse- 


Amphictyonic 
council. 


92  Ancient  History, 


quent  history  of  Greece.*  As  there  was  no  general  political 
union,  the  Hellenic  states  were  constantly  embroiled  during 
most  of  their  history  in  mutual  dissensions  and  destructive 
wars.  This  was  partly  due  to  the  traditional  animosities  and 
jealousies  of  the  different  tribes,  and  partly  to  the  geographi- 
cal character  of  the  country  in  which  they  dwelt;  for  being 
crossed  in  every  direction  by  mountain  chains,  or  divided  by 
deep  gulfs,  it  i)rovided  those  natural  barriers  which  encour- 
age local  pride  and  engender  hostility.  The  later  history 
of  this  remarkable  people  abounds  in  illustrations  of  this  prin- 
ciple. 

14.  A  great  migratory  movement  commenced  in  Epirus 
about  1200  B.C.     The  Thessalians  crossed  the  Pindus  range 
and  invaded  the  fertile  country  of  the  Boeotians, 
who  passing  southward  entered  the  plain  of  the 


Migrations. 


Ce-phi'sUvS,  and  drove  out  the  Cadmeians, who  were  scattered  in 
various  parts.  The  Dorians  also  took  part  in  this  movement, 
and  for  a  time  settled  in  the  country,  which  tlien  received  the 
name  of  Do'ris.  The  most  important  Dorian  migi-ation,  how- 
ever, took  place  later.  Crossing  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  they 
entered  the  Peloponnesus  with  their  allies,  the  ^tolians,  and 
made  a  conquest  of  the  country  (1124  B.C.).  This  movement, 
being  conducted  by  the  descendants  of  Her'cu-les,  is  called 
in  history  the  Return  of  the  Heracleidw  {her-a-cli'de),  the 
Greek  name  of  Hercules  being  Hcr'a-cleS. 

16.   The  former    inhabitants,    the  Achaeans,  proceeding 
northward,  attacked  the  lonians,  whom  they  drove  eastward 
to  Attica.     A  part  of  these  passed  through  the 
Cyclades  across  the  ^Egaean,  and  established  the 


Colonies. 


colony  of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor;  as  the  iEolian  colony  bad 

♦  "The  tendency  to  reHRlous  fraternity  took  a  form  called  an  Amphictyony, 
different  from  tlie  common  festival.  A  certain  number  of  towns  entered  mto  an 
exclusive  religious  partnersiiip,  for  the  celebration  of  sacriflces  periodically  to  the 
god  of  a  particular  temi)le,  which  was  supi>o.sed  to  be  the  common  proiH»rty,  and 

under  the  common  protection  of  all There  were  many  religio'os  'xart- 

nerships  of  this  aort."— Gro/e. 


Greece  and  Macedonia.  93 

been  previously  caused  by  the  Boeotian  conquest.  The 
Dorian  invasion  caused  a  part  of  the  Acha^ans  to  emigrate  to 
Asia  under  Doric  leaders,  while  another  part  settled  in  Italy, 


SECTION  III. 
Second   Period. 

DAWN  OF  AUTHENTIC  HISTORY. 

From  776  b.c.  to  500  b.c. 

16.  The  authentic  history  of  Greece  may  be  properly  conx 
sidered  to  commence  776  B.C.;  that  is,  at  the  first  recorded 
Olympiad,  a  period  of  four  years,  which  elapsed 
between  two  successive  celebrations  of  the  Olympic 


Olympiads. 


games.  These  games  were  celebrated  in  honor  of  Jupiter,  at 
Olympia,  in  Elis,  and  constituted  the  most  splendid  national 
festival  of  the  Greeks.  Their  origin  is  lost  in  the  darkness 
of  antiquity.  It  was,  as  is  supposed,  about  this  time  (776 
B.C.)  that  Lycur'gus  reformed  the  government 
and  laws  of  Sparta,  and  gave  to  it  the  constitu- 


Sparta. 


tion  by  means  of  which  it  afterward  acquired  the  supremacy 
in  Grecian  affairs.  This  city,  the  capital  of  Laconia,  some- 
times called  Lacedaemon  {las-e-de'mon),  was  conquered  by 
the  Dorians,  when  they  invaded  the  Peloponnesus,  and  soon 
became  the  head  of  the  Dorian  states. 

17.  The  system  of  Lycurgus  was  designed  to  perpetuate 
the  primitive  simplicity  and  hardihood  of  the  people,  by  pre- 
venting the  spread  of  luxury,  and  by  educating 
the  youth  so  as  to  make  them  brave  and  patriotic 
soldiers.     To  this  end  everything  was  sacrificed. 


Laws  of 
Lycurgus. 


Most  of  the  usages  of  society  commonly  considered  refined 
were  repressed;  even  the  natural  affections  were  extinguished. 
From  the  seventh  year  the  children  were  taken  from  their 


94  Ancient  History, 


parents  to  be  educated  by  the  state,  unless  they  were  weakly, 
when  they  were  exposed  to  perish.  They  were  trained  to 
endure  hunger  and  thirst  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold, 
and  to  suffer  without  murmur  the  severest  bodily  pain. 
Gymnastic  exercises  and  military  drill  were  incessant;  in  short, 
the  great  object  was  to  make  them  good  soldiers.  They  took 
their  meals  in  public,  and  were  allowed  only  the  plainest  fare. 
Besides  this  athletic  training,  letters  and  music  were  taught. 
Girls  were  educated  with  no  less  care  than  boys,  and  were 
subjected  to  similar  athletic  training. 

18.  The  men  were  allowed  but  little  more  freedom  than 
the  boys.  They  took  their  meals  at  the  public  tables,  and  slept 
in  the  public  barracks,  but  were  allowed  to  visit  their  homes 
ftt  certain  intervals.  Their  public  duties  occupied  nearly 
all  their  time,  so  that  they  could  not  engage  in  private  enter- 
prises of  commerce  or  agriculture,  or  any  occupation  of  profit 
The  use  of  gold  and  silver  was  strictly  forbidden,  and  the 
money  was  coined  out  of  iron.*  Marriage  was  regulated  by 
the  state,  and  at  a  certain  age  all  were  obliged  to  marry. 

19.  The  government  was  administered  by  two  chief  magis- 
trates called  kings,  who  were  hereditary,  but  whose  power 

was  very  limited;  a  senate,  elected  by  a  general 
assembly  of  the  older  citizens;  and  five  magis- 


Govemment. 


trates,  called  eph^ors  {eph'o-ri).  The  kings  presided  in  the 
senate,  and  led  the  armies.  The  special  business  of  tlie 
ephors  was  to  watch  over  the  constitution,  as  established  by 
Lycurgus,  and  bring  to  swift  punishment  all  who  violated  it 
in  the  least.     They  had  great  power:  they  could  restrain  the 

*  "The  first  gold  and  silver  coins  were  brougiit  from  Asia  to  Hellas  as  an  article 
of  commerce.  Gradually  they  came  into  use  as  money.  After  the  state  had  com- 
menced to  coin  its  own  money,  for  a  long  time  there  existed  only  a  small  amount 
of  coined  money  in  the  land,  and  this  was  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  men  of 
business  and  merchants.  As  soon  as  money  ceased  to  be  an  article  of  trade  like 
other  articles  coming  on  the  market,  when  even  the  poorer  classes  cotild  not  exist 
without  it— the  laws  of  debt  prevailing  in  the  Interest  of  the  proprietors,— money, 
like  a  poisonous  plant,  absorbed  and  consumed  the  strength  of  the  land,"—  Oiti/<ti*'» 
History  uf  Greece. 


Greece  and  Macedonia. 


kings  and  control  the  public  assemblies;  and  they  were  the 
arbiters  of  peace  and  war. 

20.  This  wonderful  constitution  made,  in  a  short  time,  a 
nation  of  warriors;  while  the  women  themselves  sank  their 
natural  affections  in  their  devotion  to  their  coun- 
try. No  Spartan  mother  would  deign  to  look  at 
a  son  who  had  disgraced  himself  by  cowardice  or 


Spartan 
character. 


treason.  '^Return  with  your  shield  or  upon  it!"  was  her 
admonition  to  her  son  when  he  was  about  to  depart  for  the  field 
of  battle.  Military  glory  was,  however,  all  the  Spartans 
attained.  They  had  no  orators,  no  poets,  no  historians,  no 
philosophers,  nor  artists.  Their  Helots,  or  slaves,  performed 
all  the  labors  of  the  husbandman  and  the  artisan,  thus  leaving 
to  the  free  only  the  pursuits  of  war. 

21.  The  effect  of  this  system  was  illustrated  in  the  wars 
which  the  Spartans  waged  against  the  Messenians.  The  first 
of  these  lasted  twenty  years  (743-723  B.C.);  and 
the  second,  seventeen  years  (685-668  B.C. ).  They 
resulted  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Messenians  and 


Messeniart 
wars. 


in  their  partial  dispersion  into  various  parts,  so  that  for  the 
next  three  centuries  Messenia  formed  a  part  of  Laconia.* 
"Wars  were  also  waged  by  Sparta  with  the  other  states  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  which  resulted  in  extending  her 
authority  over  the  whole  peninsula.     The  Area- 


other  wars. 


dians  became  -her  subject  allies  (560  B.C.);  the  Argives  were 
too  much  weakened  by  defeat  to  make  any  further  resistance 
(547  B.C.);  and  no  northern  state  could,  at  that  period,  com- 
pete with  her  in  war.  Thus,  in  the  .sixth  century  B.C., 
Sparta  became  the  controlling  power  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
and  threatened  to  extend  her  sway  over  all  Greece. 

22.  The  most  important  state  of  Central  Greece,  after- 
ward the  great  rival  of  Sparta,  was  at  this  period  Attica,  of 

*  More  than  two  centuries  later,  when  the  Helots,  or  slaves,  revolted  at  Sparta, 
the  Messenians  attempted  to  regahi  their  independence,  thus  bringing  on  a  third 
Messenian  war,  which  lasted  for  ten  years.  It  was  closed  by  a  treaty  which 
permitted  the  Mes.senians  to  remove,  with  their  families,  from  the  Peloponnesus. 


96  Ancient  History, 


which  the  capital  was  Ath'eiis,  in  some  respects  the  most 
renowned  city  in  the  world.  It  was  the  seat  of  learning  and 
the  arts,  and  may  justly  be  considered  the  mother 
of  modern  civilization.    Its  people  were  of  Ionian 


Attfca. 


origin,  although  in  the  mythic  history  of  Athens  it  is  said  to 
have  been  first  settled  by  a  colony  from  Egypt,  under  Ce'crops 
(about  1550  B.C.).  Until  the  eleventh  century,  its  govern- 
ment was  monarchical;  but  after  the  return  of  the  Heracleidae 
it  was  vested  in  elective  magistrates,  called  archons  {ar'kons). 
The  last  king  of  Athens,  Co'drus,  in  a  war  with  the  Dorians, 
sacrificed  his  life  to  save  the  city  from  capture.  This  was 
done  in  pursuance  of  the  words  of  the  oracle:  *'If  the  king 
die,  the  Athenians  shall  triumph."  Accordingly,  Codrus,  in 
the  disguise  of  a  peasant,  entered  the  camp  of  the  enemy  and 
assaulted  one  of  the  soldiers,  and  was  immediately  slain  by 
him.  Th.  discovery  of  the  death  of  the  Athenian  king  so 
disheartened  the  Heracleidae,  or  Dorians,  that  they  retreated, 
and  it  was  decreed  at  Athens  that  no  man  was  worthy  to  suc- 
ceed Codrus. 

23.  Athens  suffered  for  centuries  from  anarchy  and  mis- 
rule; but,  in  the  seventh  century  (G24  B.C.),  it  adopted  the 
laws  proposed  by  Dra'co,  which  were  so  severe 
that  they  were  said  to  have  been  written  in  blood. 


Draco. 


Draco's  code  of  laws  imposed  the  penalty  of  death  for  all 
offences;  "for,"  he  said,  *'the  smallest  crime  deserves  death, 
and  I  can  find  no  heavier  penalty  for  the  greatest."  They 
gave  place  to  the  constitution  and  laws  devised  by  Solon 
(594  B.C.).*    By  these  the  government  was  vested  in  a  senate 

♦Solon  was  counted  among  the  '* Seven  Sages  of  Greece,"  namely:  Bi'as, 
Chi'lo,  Cleobu'Ius,  Pit'tacus,  Perian'der,  So'lon,  and  TLa'les.  To  these  are 
attributed  many  pithy  moral  maxims;  as,  "Know  thyself,"  "Know  thy  oppor- 
tunity," "Consider  the  end,"  "The  greatest  blessing  is  the  power  to  do  good,** 
"  Pardon  often  checks  crime  more  effectually  than  i)imishment." 

"An  untiring  love  of  knowledge  filled  Solon  from  his  earliest  youth  up  to  the 
'snd  of  his  life;  for  even  when  at  the  point  of  death  he  is  said  to  have  raised  his 
iveary  liead  to  take  part  in  the  conversations  of  his  friends.  This  love  of  knowledge, 
as  well  as  his  domestic  circumstancres,  early  caused  him  to  quit  the  narrow  circle 


Greece  and  Macedonia, 


97 


or  council,  a  general  assembly  of  the  people,  and  a  chief 
magistrate,  called  Arclion  (ruler),  with  eight  in- 
ferior executive  officers.    The  most  yenerable  court 


Solon. 


of  justice  was  that  styled  the  A-re-op'a-gus,*  the  members  of 
which  were  inspectors  of  educa- 
tion and  morals,  as  well  as  ad- 
ministrators of  the  laws. 

24.  The  constitution  of  Solon 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  great- 
ness of  Athens;  but  this  plan  of 
government  was  not  of  long  du- 
ration. The  discontented  were 
for  a  time  restrained  by  his  per- 
sonal influence,  but  violent  con- 
tentions soon  broke  out  among 
the  local  factions.  Of  these, 
Pi-sis'tra-tus  took  advantage,  and  seized  the  government  as 
dictator  (560  B.C.).  He  exercised  a  despotic  sway 
for  about  seventeen  years,  and  transmitted  his  au- 


SoiiON. 


Pisistratus. 


thority  to  his  two  sons,  Hip'pi-as  and  Hip-par'chus,  called 
sometimes  the  Pisistrafidm  (sons  of  Pisistratus).  He,  how- 
ever, ruled  with  moderation,  patronized  literature  and  the 
arts,  adorned  Athens  with  many  beautiful  buildings,  opened  a 
public  library,  and  collected,  it  is  said,  the  poems  of  Homer,  f 

of  home,  and  to  explore  the  world.  In  the  midst  of  his  restless  life  of  travel,  all  his 
thoughts  and  wishes  remained  devoted  to  his  home.  Whatever  met  his  eye  he 
looked  upon  with  reference  to  Attic  interests."— Citr/ms's  Histoi'i/  of  Greece. 

*  Areopagus  (Mars  Hill)  was  the  name  given  to  a  small  eminence  near  the 
Acropolis  at  Athens.  The  court  of  Areopagus  was  held  here,  in  an  open  space, 
containing  at  first  only  an  altar  to  Minerva  and  two  stone  seats,  for  the  accuser 
and  the  defendant.  Later,  the  space  was  inclosed  and  roofed  with  tiles.  This  court 
was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Athene  (Minerva) ;  and  v/hen  the  judges  were 
equally  divided  she  gave  the  casting  vote.  Religious  causes  and  murders  were  tried 
in  this  court;  for  her '  it  was,  according  to  the  legend,  that  Ares  (Mars)  was  tried 
for  the  murder  of  the  &on  of  Poseidon  (Neptune).    [See  cut,  page  98.] 

+  It  is  believed  that  iEsop,  the  celebrated  author  of  the  Fables,  was  a  friend  of 
Pisistratus.  This  personage  only  wanted  a  lawful  title  to  the  sovereignty  which 
he  exercised,  to  have  left  his  name  to  posterity  as  one  of  the  most  splendi'J 
examples  of  princely  virtue. 


Ancient  History, 


25.  His  successors,  Hippias  and   Hipparclms,  governed 
for  sereral  years  with  mildness  and  justice;  but  an  act  of 
tyranny  committed  by  Hippias  caused  a  conspir- 
acy to  be  formed  against  them,  and  Hipparchus 


Hippias  and 
Hipparchus. 


Clisthenes. 


was  slain  (514  B.C.).  Hippias  ruled  with  great 
severity  for  four  years  longer,  when  he  was  expelled,  with  the 
aid  of  the  Spartans  (510  B.C.).  He  took  refuge  at  the  court 
of  Darius,  king  of  Persia.  Harmo'dius  and  Ar-is-to-gi'ton, 
the  leaders  in  the  conspiracy  against  the  tyrants,  were  ever 
after  held  in  honor.  Statues  were  erected  to  their  memories, 
and  their  descendants  enjoyed  an  immunity  from  all  taxes 
and  public  burdens. 

26.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  tyrant  Hippias  from  Athens, 
the  government,  under  the  administration  of  Clis'the-nes,  an 

able  statesman,  underwent  several  modifications. 

Clisthenes,  next  to  Solon,  may  be  considered 
the  founder  of  the  free  ^  ^.     -_ 

institutions  of  Athens. 
The  measures  adopted  by 
him  made  the  government 
truly  democratic;  for  all 
classes — the  poor  as  well 
as  the  rich — felt  they  had 
an  equal  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  the  state.  A 
very  remarkable  institu- 
tion was  devised  at  this 
time  to  prevent,  in  the 
future,  any  powerful  and 
ambitious  citizen  from 
making  himself  dictator 
or  despot  This  was  the  famous O^/mctsw,  by  which  any  citizen 

could  be  banished  for  ten  years  without  trial  or 

even  any  formal  accusation,  but  simply  by  a  vote 
of  the  people,  each  citizen  writing  the  name  of  the  person 


Ruins  of  Aiitoi-Auut.  and  the  Acropolis 
AT  Athens. 


Ostracism. 


Greece  and  Macedonia.  99 

whom  he  wished  to  banish  on  a  shell  {ostracon).  Six  thou- 
sand votes  were  required  against  any  person  to  determine  his 
condemnation.  Though  apparently  unjust  and  unreasonable, 
this  law  was  effective,  for  no  attempt  at  usurpation  occurred 
after  its  establishment. 

27.  The  Age  of  Despots.  It  was  not  in  Athens  alone  that 
despotic  power  was  usurped  and  the  popular  government  over- 
turned. From  650  to  500  B.C.  there  were  but  few  of  the  Gre- 
cian cities  that  escaped  this  calamity.  Hence  this  period  has 
been  called  the  Age  of  Despots.  In  the  city  of 
Sicyon  {sish'e-on)  a  despotic  dynasty  lasted  for 
more  than  a  hundred  years,  and  in  Corinth  one 


Sicyon  and 
Corinth. 


that  continued  seventy-four  years.  The  most  noted  of  the  des- 
pots of  Corinth  was  Pe-ri-an'der,  whose  sway  (from  625  to  585 
B.C.),  though  oppressive  and  cruel,  made  that  city  the  wealth- 
iest and  most  commercial  in  all  Greece.  Like  Pisistratus,  he 
was  a  patron  of  literature  and  art,  and  his  prudence  and  intelli- 
gence were  such  that  he  was  classed  among  the  Seven  Wise 
Men  of  Greece. 


SECTION  IV. 
Third  Period. 

THE    PERSIAN   WAR. 

From  500  B.C.  to  449  B.C. 


28.  The  Greek  colonies  in  Asia  Minor  had  been  subject  to 
Croesus,  but  when  the  Lydian  monarchy  was  overturned  by 
Cyrus  they  fell  under  the  Persian  yoke.  [See  page 
37.]  In  500  B.C.,  an  insurrection  against  Darius 
broke  out  at  Mi-le'tus,  the  capital  of  Ionia,  and 


Revolt  of  the 
colonies. 


spread  through  all  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia.  In  this  revolt,  an 
Athenian  force  was  sent  to  aid  the  lonians,  by  means  of 
which  the  city  of  Sardis  was  taken  and  birnt.     The  Ionian 


100 


Ancient  History, 


fleet  having  been  defeated,  and  tlie  city  of  Miletus  captured 
by  the  forces  of  Darius,  the  revolt  was  speedily  subdued,  and 
the  Greek  colonies  were  completely  subjugated,  and  treated 
with  great  severity.  Ail  the  inhabitants  of  Miletus  were 
either  put  to  death,  or  sent  into  captivity. 

29.  The  aid  given  by  Athens  to  the  lonians  and  the  burn- 
ing of  Sardis  drew  down  the  wrath  of  Darius  upon  all  Greece. 
As  soon  as  the  colonies  were  reduced,  he  resolved 
to  make  a  conquest  of  that  country.     Every  day, 
as  he  sat  down  to  dinner,  a  slave  wjis  ordered  to 


First  expedition 
of  Darius. 


Marathon 


repeat  thrice  the  words,  ''  Master,  remember  the  Athenians!" 

In  this  design,  he  was 
further  instigated  by 
the  revengeful  repre- 
sentations of  his  guest, 
the  tyi-ant  Hippias. 
The  first  expedition 
which  he  dispatched 
against  Greece  proved 
an  entire  failure,  the 
fleet  being  wrecked 
off  Mount  Athos  [see  map  No.  III.]  and  a  large  part  of  the 
army  drowned.  The  forces  were  still  further  weakened  in  a 
night  attack  made  by  the  Thracians,  and  Mardonius,  the  Per- 
sian general,  was  compelled  to  retreat  (492  B.C.). 

30.  A  second  expedition,  under  Da'tis  and  Ar-ta-pher'nes, 
sailed  across  the  ^-ge'an  "Sea,  and  after  reducing 
several  islands  landed  at  Mar'a-thon,  twenty-two 
miles  from  Athens.     Here  they  were  met   by  a 
small  army  of   Athenian   soldiers  under  Mil-ti'a-des,*  and 


Second 
expedition. 


*  Miltiades  was  only  one  of  ten  generals  to  whom  the  cominainl  of  the  army 
had  been  given,  each  in  succession  having  the  right  to  conduct  it  for  a  day. 
Aristides  (ar-in-ti'den),  however,  showed  his  moderation  and  patriotism  by  giving 
up  his  command  to  Miltiades,  as  being  the  best  general;  and,  his  example  having 
been  followed  by  the  others,  the  rt^sult  was  a  glorious  victory.  Few  of  the  char 
acters  of  history  are  so  worthy  of  jiraise  as  the  noble  and  patriotic  Aristides. 


Greece  and  Macedonia,  i  ^  ;  ; 


101 


completely  routed  (490  B.C.).     This  was^one^rjf  the^iivo^tt^eDl'- 
orable  battles  ever  fought.     The  Persians,  then 
famed  as  the  greatest  soldiers  in  the  world,  were 
more  than  ten  times  as  numerous  as  the  Greeks, 


Battle  of 
Marathon. 


and  previous  to  that  battle  had  scarcely  known  a  check  in 

their  conquests.     Had  they  succeeded  at  Marathon,  European 

civilization  would    probably   have 

assumed  a  new  face;  but,  through 

the  genius  of    Miltiades  and  the 

patriotic  daring  of  the  Athenians, 

aided  by  a  small  band  of  the  Pla- 

tae'ans,  the  invaders  were  driven 

back,  and  Greece  was  saved.* 

31.  The  attempt  was  not  re- 
newed by  the  Persians  till  ten  years 
afterward,  when  Xerxes,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Darius,  collected  one  of 
the  largest  armies  the  world  has  ever  known,  besides  an 
immense  fleet,  and  having  crossed  the  Hellespont 
by  means  of  two  bridges  which  he  had  caused  to 
be  constructed,!  marched  to  the  Pass  of  Ther- 
mop'y-lae,  on  his  way  into  Greece.  Here  he  was  opposed  by  a 
small  army  under  Le-on'i-das,  a  Spartan  general.  The  defense 
was  successful,  until  a  traitor  discovered  to  the  Persians  a 
path  across  the  mountains,  when,  seeing  no  hope  of  victory. 


MUiTIADES. 


Expedition  of 
Xerxes. 


*  Miltiades  did  not  retain  the  glory  which  he  gained  by  this  splendid  victory. 
He  died  in  prison,  of  wounds  received  in  a  treasonable  and  unsuccessful  attack 
upon  the  island  of  Paros. 

t  Herodotus  gives  a  picturesque  description  of  the  passage  of  this  vast  force 
across  the  strait  from  Asia  into  Europe,  after  a  review  by  Xerxes,  sitting  upon  a 
marble  throne ,  erected  for  the  haughty  monarch  on  a  hill  near  Abydos.  Libations 
were  made  by  him  with  a  golden  censer,  and  with  them  he  cast  into  the  sea  a 
golden  bowl  and  Persian  cimeter,  at  the  same  time  offering  up  prayers  to  Helios, 
the  god  of  the  sun.  The  ten  thousand  Persians  called  the  Immortals,  all  wearing 
garlands,  were  the  first  to  pass  over;  and  then  followed  Xerxes,  at  the  head  of  the 
army.  Notwithstanding  the  application  of  the  lash  to  accelerate  the  progress  of 
the  soldiers,  the  passage  occupied  no  less  than  seven  days  and  nights,  without 
tiny  intermission.    See  Grote's  History  of  Greece. 


102 


Ancient  History. 


t>i't-  beJrg  forbidden  by  the  laws  of  Sparta  to  flee  from  the 
enemy,  Leonicias  dismissed  the  forces  pf  the  allies  to  avoid 
useless  bloodshed,  and  then  formed  the  ranks  of  his  little 
band  of  three  hundred  for  a  final  stand  against 
the  enemy.     He  then  led  them  into  the  midst 


Thermopyla 


Thriasian  Tlain 
JSleus: 


of  the  Persians,  whence,  after  making  great  slaughter,  they 
retired  to  a  small  eminence,  and  there  fell,  one  by  one,  under 

the  arrows  of  the 
Medes  (480  B.C.). 
The  heroism  of 
Leonidas  and  his 
band  has  ever  been 
a  subject  of  praise 
and  admiration. 
Probably,  no  event 
in  the  history  of  the 
Spartans  has  shed 


MLHymettus 


so  much  glory  upon  their  character  as  the  sublime  self-devotion 
of  the  three  hundred;  yet  it  was  a  useless  sacrifice  of  the  lives 
of  these  brave  men,  who  might  have  served  their  country  far 
better  by  preserving  their  courage  and  strength  for  the  con- 
flicts that  were  to  come. 

32.  The  great  Persian  fleet  came  to  action  with  the  much 
smaller  one  of  the  Greeks  in  the  narrow  strait  of 
Sal'a-mis,  and  was  defeated  with  immense  loss; 


Salamis. 


so  that  Xerxes,  who  had  witnessed  the  fight,  fled  in  dismay 
to  Persia,  leaving  the  conquest  of  Greece  to  his  general, 
Mardonius.*      The   chief  command   of   the  fleet  had  been 

♦  The  Persian  monarch,  confident  of  victory,  seated  himself  upon  a  throne 
placed  on  a  lofty  proraontr)ry,  so  as  to  overlook  the  scene  of  the  naval  battle,    li 
was  of  this  event  that  Byron  wrote  the  following  lines: 
"  A  kinp  sat  on  the  rocky  brow 
Which  looks  o'er  sea-born  Salamis; 
And  ships  by  thousands  lay  below, 
And  men  in  nations,— all  were  his. 
He  counted  them  at  break  of  day, 
And  when  the  sun  set,  where  were  they?" 


Greece  and  Macedonia,  103 

given  to  the  Spartan  Eu-ry-bi'a-des;  but  the  credit  of  this 
great  victory  was  due  to  the  Athenian  The-mis'to-cles,  who, 
when  the  Greeks,  in  alarm,  were  about  to  disperse  their  fleet, 
sent  word  to  the  Persians  that  unless  they  made  an  immedi- 
ate attack  the  Grecian  fleet  would  escape  them.  By  this 
stratagem  he  succeeded  in  keeping  the  allies  together  and 
brought  on  the  action. 

33.  In  the  mean  time,  the  land  forces  of  the  Persians  had 
invaded  Attica  and  taken  and  destroyed  Athens,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  which  had  fled  to  the  neighboring  islands 
for  protection.  Thus  was  the  burning  of  Sardis 
avenged.     Still,  the  army  of  Mardonius,  300,000 


Burning  of 
Athens. 


strong,  and  assisted  by  Grecian  auxiliaries  (for  a  few  of  the 
Greek  states  had  gone  over  to  the  Persians),  did  not  come  to 
any  decisive  engagement  till  the  next  year  (479 
B.C.),  when  it  was  defeated  and  almost  utterly 
destroyed  at  Platae'a  by  the  allied  army  of  the 


Battle  of 
Plataea. 


Greeks,  consisting   of    110,000    men,  under  Pau-sa'ni-as, 
Spartan  general,  assisted  by  the  Athenian  A-ris- 
ti'des.      On  the  same  day  the  Athenians  gained 


Mycale. 


a  great  victory  over  the  combmed  land  and  naval  forces  of 
the  Persians  at  Myc'a-le,  in  Asia  Minor. 

34.  Having  driven  the  Persians  out  of  their  country,  the 
Greeks  sent  a  fleet  under  Pausanias  to  invade  the  Persian 
dominions.  This  expedition  was  entirely  suc- 
cessful ;  the  Greek  cities  were  set  free,  and 
Byzantium  {be-zan^slie-um),  after  a  long  siege, 


Byzantium 
taken. 


surrendered.  At  this  point  the  Spartans,  who  had  been  the 
leaders  in  the  war,  lost  their  ascendency  through  the  trea- 
son of  Pausanias.  Intoxicated  by  the  fame  and 
wealth  which  he  had  acquired  at  Plataea,  and  by 
his  subsequent  success,  and  ambitious  of   more 


Treason  of 
Pausanias. 


splendor  and  influence  than  the  little  state  of  Sparta  could 
confer  upon  him,  he  sent  a  letter  to  Xerxes,  offering  to 
deliver  Greece  into  his  power,  if  he  would  give  him  his 


104 


Ancient  History. 


daughter  in  marriage.  The  plot  was,  however,  discovered 
before  it  was  carried  into  effect,  and  Pausanias  was  recalled, 
and,  by  order  of  the  Ephori,  put  to  death  (471  B.C.).* 

35.  The  allies   then  transferred   the   chief  command  to 
Aristides,  who  had  at  this  time  a  great  reputation  for  in- 
tegrity and  prudence.     A  league  was  also  formed 
among  the  lonians  and  some  of  the  Greek  islands, 
under  the  leadership  of  Athens,  which  was  called 


Confederacy  of 
Delos. 


the  "  Confederacy  of  De'los,"  since  the  deputies  met  at  that 
island.  This  great  maritime  alliance  contributed  very  much 
to  the  subsequent  influence  of  Athens.  It  lasted  about 
seventy  years. 

36.  The  glory  which  Themistocles  had  gained  at  Salamis, 
together  with  his  great  ability  and  prudence,  gave  him  un- 
limited influence  at  Athens. 
After  the    retreat  of    the 


Themistocles. 


AUISTIDES. 


Persians,  he  caused  the  city  to  be  re- 
built and  strongly  fortified,  notwith- 
standing the  opposition  prompted  by 
the  mean  jealousy  of  the  Spartans. 
Biic  he  was  banished  by  the  Ostracism; 
and  after  the  fall  of  Pausanias  was  ac- 
cused of  participating  in  his  treason 
(471  B.C.).  He  then  took  refuge  in 
the  dominions  of  Ai-taxerxes,  the  Per- 
sian monarch,  where  he  lived  in  great  splendor  and  dignity 
till  his  death  (449  B.C.). 

37.  In  the  early  period  of  the  Persian  war,  Themistocles 
and  Aristides  were  the  most  distinguished  men  at  Athens. 
They  were  rivals  for  popular  favor,  particularly  during  the 
ten  years  preceding  the  invasion  of  Xerxes.     The  former  was 

*  Pausanias  was  a  man  of  great  ability,  but  hi.i  ambition,  pride,  and  desire  of 
display  destroyed  him.  On  his  return  to  Sparta  he  took  refuge  in  the  tt^mple  of 
Minerva,  from  which  he  could  not  lawfully  be  taken  by  violence.  Accordingly, 
the  entrance  was  fastened  and  the  building  unr<X)fed,  and  he  was  left  to  perish  by 
^am|a§  and  exposure.    [JJp/wri,  literaliy,  overseere;  magistrates.    See  page  88.] 


Greece  and  Macedonia. 


105 


especially  noted  for  his  genius  and  his  ambition;  the    latter 
for  his  prudence  and  stern  integrity.     Having  been  commis- 
sioned to  take  charge  of  the  spoils  after  the  battle 
of  Marathon,  Aristides  so  honorably  discharged 
his  duty  that  he  was  called  "  The  Just."  *     This 


Themistocles 
and  Aristides. 


brought  him  into  envy,  and  he  was  banished  by  the  Ostra- 
cism (483  B.C.).  He  returned,  however,  just  in  time  to  aid 
his  country  in  the  battle  of  Salamis.     Aristides  survived  the 


The  Acropolis  at  Athens. 

banishment  of  his  great  rival  only  a  short  time.  He  died 
honored  by  his  countrymen,  and  with  a  reputation  for  virtue 
and  patriotism  that  no  one  could  impeach  (468  B.C.);  but  as 
to  the  place  and  circumstances  of  his  death  the  accounts  given 
greatly  differ.  Notwithstanding  his  eminent  services,  he  was 
so  poor  that  his  funeral  had  to  be  provided  for  at  the  public 
expense,  and  his  children  supported  by  state  bounty.     It  is 

*  Themistocles  had  artfully  insinuated  that  Aristides  was  aiming  at  the  dicta- 
torship at  Athens,  and  thus  the  people  were  induced  to  banish  the  most  upright 
man  in  the  community.  While  the  shells  were  being  prepared  for  the  vote,  a 
peasant  approached  Aristides,  and  asked  him  to  write  the  name  of  Aristides  on 
the  shell.  "  Has  Aristides  ever  injured  you?"  he  ventured  to  ask.  "  Oh  no,"  said  the 
peasant;  "  I  do  not  even  know  him,  but  I  am  tired  of  hearing  hiw  Qa.Ued  The  JusV* 


106  Ancient  History, 


remarked  by  historians  that  for  two  or  three  generations  the 
poverty  of  his  descendants  was  a  subject  of  notice.* 

38.  Ci'mon,  son  of  Miltiades,  succeeded  Aristides  in  the 
leadership  at  Athens.     He  gained  a  splendid  victory  over  the 
Persians  at  the  Eu-rym'c-don  River  (Map,  p.  125), 
but  gave  offense  to  the  Athenians  by  favoring  the 


Cimon. 


Spartans,  lie  was,  accordingly,  banished,  through  the  con- 
trivance of  Per'i-cles,  who  b^  this  means  gained  a  position  of 
eminence  at  Athens  wliich  he  held  for  thirty  years.  Pericles 
was  a  brilliant  orator  and  statesman,  and  his  ad- 
ministration was  the  most  splendid  the  Athenians 


Pericles. 


ever  had.  During  the  **' Age  of  Pericles,"  art  and  literature 
flourished,  and  the  city  was  embellished  with  the  most  mag- 
nificent edifices.  Among  these,  the  temple  of  Minerva,  called 
the  Parthenon,  erected  on  the  A-crop'o-lis,f  may  claim  pre- 
eminence for  beauty  and  artistic  excellence. 

39.  Cimon,  after  a  few  years,  was  recalled  from  exile,  and 
served   in   the   war  against  the   Persians.     He    died   during 
the  siege  of  Citium  {sish'e-ui,i),  in  Cyprus.  J     The 
Athenians  soon  after  gained  another  victory  over 
the  Persians,  which  finally  brou^i^ht  this  lon«f  war 


End  of 
Persian  war. 


to  an  end  (449  B.C.).  Athens  gave  up  to  Persia  Cyprus  and 
Egypt,  while  Persia  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the 
Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor. 

*  "  Near  a  century  and  a  half  afterward,  a  poor  man,  a  descendant  of  the  ju.st 
Aristides,  was  to  be  seen  at  Athens  carrying  a  mysterious  tablet,  and  obtaining  his 
scanty  fee  of  two  obeli  [pence]  for  interpreting  the  dreams  of  the  passers-by."— 
Grote. 

t  Athens,  anciently  called  Cecro'pia,  from  its  founder  Cecrops.  was  originally 
built  on  the  summit  of  a  high  rock,  from  which  it  expanded  into  the  gr»^at  city  of 
Athens.  The  ancient  city  was  afterward  called  the  Acropolis,  or  Upper  Citt/.  and 
here  stood  many  beautiful  buildings,  besides  the  Parthenon.    [See  cut,  page  98.1 

t  Cimon  was  not  only  a  man  of  brilliant  talent,  both  as  a  general  and  a  states- 
man, but  po8sess<^d  that  generous,  affable  disposition,  and  kind  and  coiirteoua 
demeanor,  that  was  calculated  to  win  the  affections  of  the  i>eople.  It  is  said  h« 
threw  his  gardens  open  to  the  public,  and  kept  a  table  consUintly  laid  for  any  on© 
who  chose  to  dine  at  it.  lie  has  been  styled  "the  hwt  of  the  Greeks  whose  spirit 
and  boldness  defeated  the  annies  of  the  barbarians."  In  400  B.C.,  he  gained  three 
yictories  over  the  Persians  In  a  single  day. 


Greece  and  Macedonia,  107 

SECTION  V. 

Fourth    Period. 

From  the  Close  of  the  Persian  War  to  the  Rise  of  Macedon,  449-358  B.C. 

40.  After  the  repulse  of  the  Persians,  there  had  been  dis- 
cord and.  war  among  the  Grecian  states.  The  disgrace  of  Pau- 
sanias,  followed  by  the  Confederacy  of  Delos, 
impaired  the  influence  of  Sparta  and  strengthened 
that  of  Athens;  and  that  state  took  the  lead  during 


Inter-state 
wars. 


the  remainder  of  the  Persian  war.  Sparta  was  also  disabled  by 
the  revolt  of  the  Helots  (464  B.C.),  which  occupied  her  atten- 
tion for  nearly  ten  years.  [ See  page  95.  ]  Argos,  taking  advan- 
tage of  this,  claimed  the  leadership  of  Greece,  and  Athens 
made  an  alliance  with  that  state  against  Sparta.  Several  of 
the  states,  jealous  of  the  Athenian  power,  formed  a  league 
against  it;  but  Athens  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  allied 
fleet. 

41.  The  administrations  of  Cimon  and  Pericles  mark 
especially  the  period  of  the  greatest  glory  of  Athens.  This 
was,  in  part,  the  fruit  of  the  ability  of  Themis- 
tocles  and  the  wisdom  and  integrity  of  Aristides; 
but  it  needed  the  genius  of  Pericles  to  give   a 


Height  of 
Athenian  glory. 


finishing  stroke  to  the  work.  Among  his  great  works  was 
the  completion  of  the  'Hong  walls,"  which  connected  Athens 
with  her  port,  Piraeus.  He  was  distinguished  not  only  for 
eloquence  and  literary  taste,  but  for  the  highest  artistic  cul- 
ture. On  his  death-bed  he  remarked  to  nis  friends  that  his 
greatest  consolation  was,  that  none  of  his  fellow-citizens  had 
been  compelled,  through  any  act  of  his,  to  put  on  a  mourn- 
ing-robe. * 

*  To  every  student  of  Grecian  history,  Pericles  must  ever  appear  as  its  central 
figure.  His  foim  and  manner  and  outward  appearance  are  all  well  known.  His 
aspect  was  stem,  almost  forbidding,  repelling  rather  than  inviting  intimacy;  and 
this,  with  his  majestic  stature  and  massive  head,  silvered  over  with  the  marks  of 


108  Ancient  History, 


42.  Sparta  made  an  effort  to  check  the  growing  power  of 
Athens;  but  Athenian  arms  were  triumphant,  and  Pericles 
concluded  a  peace  with  Sparta  for  five  years  (451 
B.C.).      Only  four  years  later,  Athens  received  a 
severe  blow,  in  the  rebellion  of  Boeotia,  followed  by 


Strife  between 

Athens 

and  Sparta. 


a  serious  defeat  at  Cor-o-ne'a  (447  B.C.).  At  the  close  of  the 
five  years'  peace,  Sparta  renewed  her  efforts  to  destroy  her 
rival,  and  Athens  was  compelled  to  make  concessions,  which 
led  to  a  thirty  years'  peace  (445  B.C.).  But  this  treaty,  as  we 
shall  see,  was  not  fully  observed,  owing  to  the  rivalship  and 
deadly  animosity  of  Athens  and  Sparta. 

The  Peloponnesian  War. 

43.  The  struggle  that  now  commenced,  known  as  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  extended  over  the  greater  part  of  the 
Grecian  world,  and  lasted  twenty-seven  years  (431-404  B.C.). 
It  was  not  only  a  war  between  rival  states,  but  a  "  war  of 
races;"  for,  on  one  side,  the  Ionian  Greeks  made  common 
cause  with  Athens,  as  the  Dorians  took  tlie  side 
of  Sparta.  It  was,  moreover,  a  war  of  principles, 
since  Athens  was  the  representative  of  democracy. 


Athens  and 
Sparta. 


and  Sparta  of  oligarchy.  Athens  was  chiefly  a  maritime 
power;  Sparta's  strength  lay  in  her  disciplined  armies.  The 
former's  influence  chiefly  prevailed  on  the  eastern  side  of 
Greece  and  in  Asia;  Sparta's,  on  the  western  side  and  in 
Italy  and  Sicily.  Athens  assumed  the  position  of  mistress  of 
an  empire  she  had  for  fifty  years  been  building  up;  Sparta 


age  even  from  his  fiftieth  year,  excited  sometlilng:  like  awe  in  the  beholder.  The 
most  stately  reserve  reigned  through  his  whole  life.  Never  were  his  features 
seen  to  relax  into  laughter,  and  only  twice  in  his  long  career  did  they  melt 
into  tears.  During  that  long  period  he  never  accepted  but  once  an  invitation  to 
dinner.  He  was  in  the  liabit  of  writing  out  carcfjilly  all  liis  speeches,  but  the 
effect  of  his  delivery  seem.s  to  have  been  overwhelming.  It  was  sometimes  com- 
pared to  the  thunder  and  lightning  of  the  Olympian  Jove,  whom  in  majesty  and 
dignity  he  himself  resembled.  Such  Is  the  picture  we  have  of  tliis  most  remark- 
able man. 


Greece  and  Macedonia,         -  109 

professed  to  be  only  the  leader  of  a  confederacy  formed  to 
liberate  Greece  from  the  oppressive  yoke  of  the  Athenians. 

44.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  war  was  a  difficulty 
between  Corinth  and  Cor-cy'ra,  one  of  her  colonies;  for, 
because  Athens  took  sides  with  the  latter,  the 
Dorian  Confederacy  accused  her  of  violating  the 
terms  of  the  thirty  years'  peace,  and  a  Spartan 


Cause  of  the 
war. 


army  was  sent  to  invade  Attica  (431  B.C.).  Unable,  with  his 
few  allies,  to  contend  against  the  superior  military  power  of 
the  Spartans,  Pericles  pursued  the  policy  of  keep- 
ing within  the  city,  and  sent  his  numerous  fleet 


First  steps. 


to  ravage  the  enemies'  coasts.  A  dreadful  plague  at  this 
time  broke  out  in  Athens,  causing  the  death  of  thousands. 
Pericles  himself  fell  a  victim  to  it  (429  B.C.).* 

45.  The  most  noted  events  in  the  early  part  of  the  war 
were  the  revolt  of  Lesbos  from  Athens,  and  the  brave  defense 
of  Plataea  against  the  Spartans.  The  flower  of 
the  Spartan  army  having  been  blockaded  by  the 


Early  events. 


Athenian  fleet  at  Sphac-te'ri-a,  the  Spartans  applied  to  the 
Athenians  for  peace,  which,  through  the  influence  of  Cle'on, 
a  low  and  noisy  demagogue  who  had  succeeded 
Pericles  in  the  leadership  of  the  popular  assem- 


Cleon. 


blies,  was  refused.  Sphacteria  was  afterward  attacked,  and 
the  Spartans  compelled  to  surrender.  The  Athenians  were 
severely  defeated  by  the  Boeotians  at  De'li-um, 
and  a  short  time  afterward  lost  their  empire  in 


Delium. 


Thrace  by  the  battle  of  Am-phip'o-lis,  in  which  Bras'i-das, 
a  distinguished  Spartan  leader,  defeated  Cleon,  the  Athenian, 


*  This  dreadful  pestilence  commenced  in  Ethiopia,  passed  through  Libya,  and 
crossed  the  Mediten-anean  Sea  to  Greece.  The  sufferers  were  aflSicted  with  an 
Intolerable  thirst,  and  many  dragged  themselves  to  the  fountains  and  then  fell 
dead,  with  none  to  bury  them.  It  was  midsummer,  and  not  only  was  every  house 
occupied,  but  many  families  were  crowded  together  in  stifling  huts,  where  they 
died  in  heaps.  The  very  temples  were  filled  with  the  dead.  The  Peloponnesian 
army,  after  laying  waste  the  vale  of  Attica  for  forty  days,  becoming  panic-stricken 
at  the  pestilence,  hastened  home  ward 


110  Ancient  History. 


both  generals  being  slain.  This  terminated  the  first  period 
of  the  war;  for,  through  the  influence  of  Nicias 
{nish'e-as),   the  successor  of  Cleon,  peace   was 


Amphipolis. 


made  with  Sparta. 

46.  There  was,  however,  only  a  brief  cessation  of  hostili- 
ties.     Al-ci-bi'a-des,  a  handsome  and  talented  but  dissolute 
pupil  of  the  great  philosopher  Soc'ra-tes,  per- 
suaded Argos  to  renew  the  war.     He  then  in- 


Alcibiades. 


duced  the  Athenians  to  send  an  expedition  against  Syracuse, 
to  the  command  of  which  himself  and  Nicias  were  assigned. 
But  Alcibiades,  being  accused  of  committing  an  act  of  great 
outrage  and  impiety,  was  recalled,  and  was  condemned  to 
death.  He,  however,  escaped,  and  went  over  to  Sparta. 
Nicias  suffered  a  most  disastrous  defeat,  losing 
one  of  the  finest  armaments  that  Athens  had  ever 


Nicias. 


equipped  (413  B.C.).  This  terminated  what  is  regarded  as  the 
second  period  of  the  war,  during  which  there  was  a  nominal 
observance  of  the  peace,  each  rival  refraining  from  direct  at- 
tacks on  the  other's  territories. 

47.  Alcibiades,  acting  in  the  interest  of  Sparta,  went  to 
Ionia,  and  raised  a  revolt  against  Athens;  but  finding  the 
Spartan  generals  hostile  to  him,  he  took  refuge 
with  the   Persian   Satrap,  Tis-sa-])hcr'ncs.      His 
old  feeling   of    patriotism    returning,   he  made 


victories  of 
Alcibiades. 


overtures  to  the  Athenian  army  at  Samos,  and  was  made  their 
general.  He  soon  gained  some  brilliant  naval  victories 
over  the  Spartans,  and  was  recalled  to  Athene 
with  great   enthusiasm    and  joy;   but,  after  an 


Defeat. 


unfortunate  defeat,  he  was  again  driven  into  exile  (407  B.C.).* 


*  He  retired  to  Asia,  where,  through  the  Influence  of  T.ysander,  he  was 
nat«d  by  the  Persians,  in  404  B.r.  With  such  resplendent  and  versatile  talents, 
Alcibiades  might  have  shed  glory  upon  himself  and  his  oountry;  but  he  was  "a 
slave  to  every  passion."  an.i  plunged  into  every  excess,  lie  was  distinguished  as 
an  orator,  a  statesman.  an<i  a  general:  nnd  possessed  of  vast  ri<>hes.  S<«'rfttes 
greaUy  loved  him,  and  at  one  time  saved  his  life  by  carrying  him  off  the  battle 
field.    This  favor  Alci>)iade8  is  said  to  have  reciprocate<l  by  saving  the  life  of  his 


Greece  and  Macedonia. 


Ill 


48.  The  chief  command  was  then  given  to  Co'non.  Though 
an  able  officer,  he  lost  in  the  first  engagement,  a  large  part  of 
his  fleet,  and  was  blockaded  by  the  Spartans.  But  reinforce- 
ments promptly  arriving  from  Athens,  gained  a  victory,  and  re- 
leased him.  The  next  year,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  surpriscfl 
by  the  Spartan  general  Ly-san'der,  at  a  place 
called  ^'gos-pot'a-mos,  on  the  Hellespont,  and 
nearly  all  the  fleet  was  destroyed  (405  B.C.).  Lysander,  fol- 
lowing up  his  victory,  the  next  year  proceeded  to 
Athens,  captured  the  city,  and  thus  ended  this 
long  war.     For  a  minute  account  of  these  events  we  are 


Conon. 


Lysander. 


indebted  to  the  historians  Thu-cyd'i-des  and  Xen'o-phon. 
49.  Athens  was  thus  driven  to  the  most  humiliating  sub- 
mission.    She  was  compelled,  to  de- 
stroy her  port,  to  agree 
to  undertake  no  military 
enterprise,  except  under 


Humiliation  of 
Athens. 


Socrates, 


Thirty  Tyrants. 


the  command  of  Sparta,  and  also  to 
consent  to  the  abolition  of  her  popu- 
lar government,  accepting  in  its 
stead  the  rule  of  thirty  magistrates, 
styled  afterward,  from  their  cruel 
and  oppressive  measures,  the  TJiirty 
Tyrant,^.  While  it  lasted, 
this  was  truly  the  *  *  reign 
of  terror"  in  Athens.  But  the  democratic  government  was 
soon  restored  through  the  courage  and  patriotism  of  Thras- 
y-bu'lus,  by  whom  and  his  associates,  after  captiiring  the 
fortress  _of  Phy'le,  near  Athens,  the  tyrants  were  expelled 
(403  B.C.). 

60.  A  short  time  after  this,  perished,  by  an  unjust  sen- 
tence of  the  Athenian  judges,  at  the  age  of  seventy,  Socrates, 


teacher.  "If  he  was  not  altogether  worthy  to  be  the  preserver  of  the  Athenian 
greatness,  he  merited  the  honor  of  casting  the  last  rays  of  glory  over  it,  and  having 
his  fall  forever  identified  with  its  destruction." 


112  Ancient  History, 

the  most  virtuous  and  illustrious  of  all  the  ancient  philoso^ 
phers.  Accused  of  irreligion,  and  of  corrupting  the  youth 
of  Athens  by  teaching  false  doctrine,  lie  defended 
himself  with  great  ability  and  courage;  but  he 


Socrates. 


gave  offense  to  the  judges  by  not  supplicating  their  mercy. 
He  spent  the  interval  of  thirty  days  between  his  condemna- 
tion and  death  in  tranquil  discourse  with  his  disciples;  and 
having  drunk  the  cup  of  hemlock,*  with  a  firm  and  cheerful 
countenance,  amid  his  weeping  friends,  died  with  perfect 
composure,  expressing  to  the  last  his  belief  in  an  immortality 
beyond  the  grave  (399  b  c.).t  His  most  eminent  disciples 
were  Plato  and  Xenophon,  from  whom  we  derive  our  knowl- 
edge of  his  doctrines,  since  he  himself  committed  nothing  to 
writing.  X 


*  "  The  Athenians  were  humane  in  their  executions.  They  took  pains  to  ascer- 
tain the  most  easy  and  gentle  mode  of  death,  as  Xenophon  points  out  in  his 
Apologia;  and  on  this  account  poisoning  with  hemlock  was  employed.  Even  the 
executioner,  who  handed  the  cup  of  poison  to  Socrates,  shed  tears;  for  he  saw  his 
magnanimity,  and  felt  his  innocence.  It  has  been  remarked  that  in  their  execu- 
tions the  Athenians  were  far  more  merciful  than  the  modern  Christian  nations."— 
Mahaffy''s  Social  Life  in  Greece. 

+  Socrates  was  pronounced  by  the  Delphic  Oracle  "  the  wisest  of  men."  This, 
he  at  one  time  remarked,  seemed  to  be  true,  because  "he  knew  that  he  knew 
nothing,  while  other  men,  he  found,  did  not  even  know  that."  It  has  been  said 
that  "  bis  unin.spired  wisdom  made  the  nearest  approach  to  the  divine  doctrines 
of  the  Gospel."  One  of  his  disciples  said  to  him  when  in  prison,  "How  sad  it  is 
that  thou  shouldst  die  innocent!"  "What!"  hie  replied,  "would  you  have  me  die 
guilty?"  To  the  last  he  taught  the  Christian  principle  that  "  it  is  better  to  forgive 
injuries  than  to  avenge  them." 

t  When  Socrates  was  in  middle  age,  there  seemed  to  come  to  him  a  call— he 
said  he  heard  a  voice— bidding  him  to  devote  himself  to  the  instruction  of  his 
fellow-men ;  and  with  a  devotion  unparalleled  in  all  pagan  history,  he  obeyed  it. 
From  that  time,  for  thirty  years,  neglecting  all  other  occupations,  he  applied 
himself  to  the  duty  imposed  upon  him.  He  was  ever  at  his  post.— in-the  public 
walks,  at  the  gymnasia,  in  the  market  place,  wherever  men  congn^gated,  there  he 
stood,  ready  to  talk  with  any  one  wlio  would  listen,  young  or  old,  rich  or  poor, 
never  accepting  foe  or  reward.  His  singular  appearance  attracted  the  attention 
of  all;  the  repulsive  features,  unwieldy  figure,  naked  feet,  rough  threadbare  attire, 
sometimes  caused  laughter,  sometimes  disgust.  But  those  who  stojjped  to  listen 
soon  became  interested,  then  spell-bound,  at  the  woiulerftil  ymwer  of  his  logic,  the 
beauty  of  his  speech,  the  elevation  and  originality  of  his  sentiments,  and  the 
keenness  of  his  wit;  and  while  they  felt  they  knew  less  than  they  had  thought 
they  did,  they  invariably  desired  to  learn  more. 


Greece  and  Macedonia. 


113 


51.  A  short  time  after  the  close  of  the  1  slopoimesian  war, 
the  Greek  soldiers  being  unemployed,  a  large  number  (about 
14,000),  under  a  Spartan  leader,  named  Cle-ar'- 
chus,  entered  into  the  service  of  Cyrus,  sur- 
named  the  Younger,  a  'Persian  prince,  and  the 
brother  of  the  reigning  king,  Artaxerxes  II.     His  object  was 


Expedition  of 
Cyrus. 


declared  to  be  an  attack  upon  the  Pisidians,  but  his  real  design 
was  to  deprive  his  brother  of  the  throne  of  Persia.  They 
marched  to  Cu-nax'a,  near  Babylon,  where  an  immense  army 
of  900,000  Persians  engaged  the  forces  of  Cyrus,  consisting  of 


300,000  besides  the  (xrecian  mercenaries.  The  latter  gained 
a  complete  victory;  but  Cyrus,  in  a  rash  attempt  to  slay  his 
brother,  was  himself  killed,  and  the  expedition  was  aban- 
doned (401  B.C.). 

52.  On  their  retreat,  the  Greek  leaders  were  drawn  into  a 
conference  with  the  Persians,  and  treacherously 
put  to  death.    Xenophon,  who  had  been  a  volun- 
teer in  the  expedition,  was  then   chosen   com 


Retreat  of  the 
Ten  Thousand. 


mander;  and  the  retreat  was  continued  by  the  Greeks  for  a 


114 


Ancient  History. 


distance  of  more  thun  1500  miles,  jiiniil  incredible  hardships 
from  cold,  hunger,  and  the  constant  assaults  of  their  enemies. 
They  at  last  reached  the  Euxine,  when  they  found  their 
numbers  reduced  to  about  10,000.  This  celebrated  expedi- 
tion, as  well  as  the  retreat  which  closed  it,  forms  the  subject 
of  perhaps  the  most  interesting  work  of  Xenophon  (the 
An-ab'a-sis).  He  afterward,  with  the  same  forces,  entered 
the  service  of  a  Thracian  king,  and  subsequently  assisted  the 
Spartans  in  Asia  Minor  against  the  Persians.  * 

63.  In  this  war  with  the  Persians,  A-ges-i-la'us,  the  Spartan 
king,  gained  several  important  vic- 
tories, but  was   suddenly  recalled 
to    defend    his    coun- 
try against  a  powerful 


Agesilaus. 


league,  consisting  of  Argos,  Cor- 
inth, Athens,  and  Thebes,  formed 
to  attack  her.  The  confederate 
army  was,  however,  defeated  by 
Agesilaus  in  the  battle  of  Cor-o- 
ne'a;  but,  about  the  same  time,  the 
Spartan  fleet  was  almost  entirely 
destroyed  at  Cnidus  {ni'dus)  by 
Co'non,  the  Athenian  (394  B.C.). 
By  this  victory  the  Athenians  regained  the  naval  supremacy 
which  they  had  lost  at  ^gospotamos. 

54.  The  Grecian  states  being  thus  at  war  with  one  another, 
each  party  contended  for  the  alliance  and  aid  of  ihe  Persians. 
Conon,  who  by  means  of  Persian  gold  had  been  enabled  to 


Xenophon. 


*  The  execution  of  Socrates  took  place  during  the  absence  of  Xenophon  from 
Athens;  and,  upon  his  return  to  his  native  city,  he  found  that  a  decree  of  banish- 
ment had  been  issued  against  himself.  It  was  then  that  he  went  to  Asia  Minor, 
and  joined  the  Spartan  army.  The  I^ceda?monians,  at  the  close  of  the  war,  gave 
him  the  little  town  of  Scillus,  on  the  border  of  Ells,  where  he  Iive<l  for  some  time 
with  his  wife  and  two  sons.  Though  Invited  to  r«^tum  to  Athens,  he  nevt«r  lived 
again  in  that  city.  He  died  at  Corinth  in  th«^  ninetielli  year  of  liis  age.  Xenojilion, 
as  a  soldier,  philosopher,  and  writer,  holds  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  annals  of 
Greece. 


Greece  and  Macedonia. 


115 


equip  his  fleet  and  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Athens,  was, 
through  the  machinations  of  Sparta,  brought  under  sus- 
picion with  the  king  of  Persia,  and  thrown  into  prison. 
The  Spartans  thus  obtained  the  alliance  of  the 
Persians,  and  through  their  emissary,  An- tal'ci-das, 
negotiated  a  peace  by  which  the  Greek  cities  of 
Asia  were  given  up  to  Persian  rule.  This  disgraceful  treaty 
was  ratified  by  the  other  states  (387  B.C.). 


Peace  of 

Antalcidas. 


Theban  war. 


65.  The  Spartans,  having  unjustly  seized  the  citadel  of 
Thebes,  and  held  it  for  four  years,  were  expelled, 
through  the  influence  of  Pelop'idas  and  Epami- 
non'das,  two  distinguished  Theban  patriots.  This  brought 
on  a  war  between  Thebes  and 
Sparta,  by  which  the  former  state 
rose  to  a  great  height  of  power 
and  distinction.  In  the  noted 
battle  of  Leuc'tra  (371  B.C.),  the 
Spartan  army  was  defeated  by 
forces  much  inferior  in  number, 
commanded  by  Epaminondas  and 
Pelopidas;  and  the  Peloponnesus 
was  thrown  open  to  invasion. 
Agesilaus,  however,  by  his  vigor- 
ous measures,  saved  Sparta  from 
capture;  and  Epaminondas,  after 
laying  waste  the  territory  of  Laconia  with  fire  and  sword, 
retired  from  the  Peninsula.  The  Thebans  afterward  again 
invaded  the  Peloponnesus,  and  in  the  battle  of  Man-ti-ne'a 
(362  B.C.)  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Spartans  command- 
ed by  Agesilaus;  but  Epaminondas  was  mortally  wounded. 
He  died,  as  he  had  lived,  a  hero.  A  javelin  had  pierced  his 
bosom;  but  in  the  agonies  of  death  his  inquiries  were  only  for 
his  country,  and  when  told  that  the  Thebans  had  triumphed, 
hQ  exclaimed,  ''Then  all  is  well!"  and  drawing  the  weapon 
from  his  breast,  he  immediately  expired. 


Epaminondas. 


116  Ancient  History. 


66.  Epaminoudas  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest 

heroes  and  patriots  Greece  ever  produced.     Wise  in  council, 

Epaminondas  '  ^"^  ^^*^^^  ^^^^  skillful  in  battle,  an  accomplished 

__ — J  statesman  and  orator,  and,  what  is  still  more,  a 

man  of  unswerving  truth  and  honesty,  he  was,  during  all  the 
subsequent  history  of  Greece,  universally  considered  the  best 
model  for  imitation.  With  him  the  influence  of  Thebes 
began  and  ended.  His  last  advice  was  followed  by  his 
mourning  countrymen,  and  peace  was  concluded  before  they 
deimrted  from  the  Peloponnesus.  Agesilaus  died  the  next 
year,  while  on  his  return  from  an  expedition  in 
which  he  had  engaged,  though    eighty  years  of 


Agesilaus. 


age,  to  assist  Egypt  against  the  Persians.*  Though,  perhaps, 
inferior  to  Epaminondas  as  a  general,  he  was  in  wisdom  and 
virtue  his  equal,  being  entirely  free  from  the  selfishness,  deceit, 
and  ill-faith  that  too  often  disgraced  the  Spartan  character.  He 
was  small,  mean-looking,  and  lame  in  one  foot ;  and  on  that 
account  objection  had  been  made  to  his  accession,  for  the 
oracle  had  warned  Sparta  of  evils  to  occur  during  **alame 
sovereignty." 

67.  For  more  than  sixty  years,  covering  the  period  of  the 
Peloponnesian  and  Theban  wars,  the  Greek  states  had  been 
wasting  their  strength  in  these  constant  struggles 
with  each  other.     While,  had  they  been  united, 
they  could  have  defied  the  hostilities  of  every 


Greek 
dissensions. 


other  nation,  they  had  now  reached  a  state  of  exhaustion  that 
made  them  an  easy  prey  to  the  first  ambitious  potentate  who 
might  plan  their  conquest.  Such  a.  personage  now  appeared 
on  the  stage  of  history  in  Philip,  king  of  Maccdon;  and  the 
narration  of  Grecian  affairs  now  becomes  merged  into  that  of 
Macedonia,  just  emerging  into  prominence. 


♦  "Upon  his  arrival  in  Egypt,  all  the  great  oflficers  of  the  kingdom  euine  to  pay 
their  court  to  him;  but  when  they  beheld  no  pomp  or  grandeur  of  appearance,  but 
only  a  little  old  man  in  mean  attire  seated  on  the  grass  by  the  sea-side,  they  could 
scarcely  conceal  their  contempt,  saying  it  reminded  them  of  the  old  fable  of  the 
WountfUn  in  labor  that  brought  forth  a  mous?."— /*/t«^arcA. 


Macedonian  Supremacy.  117 


SECTION  YI. 
Fifth    Period. 

MACEDONIAN    SUPREMACY. 

From  358  B.C.  to  301  B.C. 


58.  Previous  to  the  time  of  Philip,  Macedo'nia  occupied 
only  an  obscure  position  among  the  nations  of  the  world, 
though  it  had  existed  as  a  kingdom  for  about 
four  centuries.     Being  detained  as  a  hostage  at 


Philip. 


Thebes,  Philip  had  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  a  thorough  educa- 
tion under  Epaminondas;  and  when,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
four,  he  ascended  the  throne  (359  B.C.),  he  possessed  all  the 
accomplishments  of  a  skillful  soldier  and  statesman;  while  his 
great  talent  for  artifice  made  him  especially  suited  for  the 
part  of  a  wily  politician. 

69.  Greece,  at  that  time,  presented  an  excellent  field  for 
these  peculiar  talents.  Torn  to  pieces  by  internal  dissen- 
sions, possessing  no  national  union,  the  states  were 
constantly  forming  temporary  leagues  against  each 
other,  and  preparing  themselves  for  the  attack  of 


Condition 

of  the 

Grecian  states. 


some  crafty  and  powerful  invader.  Athens,  distinguished 
for  her  progress  in  literature  and  art,  was  very  much  weak- 
ened by  luxury.  Sparta  had  become  corrupted  and  enervated 
by  the  gold  gained  in  her  conquests,  and  though  still  war- 
like, was  actuated  only  by  the  meanest  sentiments  of  jealousy 
and  revenge  toward  her  sister  states.  The  other  states  were 
only  influential  in  promoting,  by  petty  disputes,  the  general 
anarchy. 

60.  Philip  commenced  his  artful  encroachments  on  the 
liberties  of  Greece  by  his  intrigues  in  connection  with  the 
affairs  of  Athens,  which,  in  358  B.C.,  had  reached 
the  culminating  point  of  the  second  period  of  her 


Social  war. 


glory  and  prosperity.     Unfortunately,  at  this  time   a  dis- 


118  Ancient  History. 


astrous  war  broke  out,  caused  by  tlie  revolt  of  some  of  her 
maritime  allies,  and  letiding  to  what  is  known  in  history  as 
the  Social  War,  that  is,  the  war  of  the  states.  This  lasted 
about  three  years,  and  ended  in  the  defeat  of  Athens,  thus 
securing  the  independence  of  the  more  important  of  the  revolt- 
ed allies  (355  B.C.).  It  was  during  this  period  that  Philip, 
taking  advantage  of  the  troubles  of  Athens,  seized  Am-phip'o- 
lis,  and  established  a  military  station  at  Phi-lip'pi. 

61.  Soon  afterward  another  war  broke  out  in   Greece, 
caused  by  the  Phocians,  who,  instead  of  paying  a  fine  imposed 
by  the  Amphictyonic  Council  for  having  occupied 
and  cultivated  a  tract  of  land   devoted   to  the 


Sacred  war. 


Delphian  Apollo,  invaded  the  sacred  territory,  and  surprised 
and  took  Delphi  itself.  This  brought  on  what  is  called  the 
Sacred  War  (357  B.C.),  in  which  most  of  the  states  took  tip 
arms  against  the  Phocians,  while  the  latter  succeeded  in 
forming  an  alliance  with  Athens  and  Sparta.  Thebes  was 
the  chief  enemy  of  the  Phocians,  and  at  last,  to  satisfy  her 
revenge,  she  invited  the  aid  of  Philip,  and  thus  brouglit  on 
the  destruction  of  Grecian  independence.  For  Thebes  hated 
Pliocis,  because  the  latter  had  taken  sides  with  the  Spartans 
during  the  first  ])art  of  the  Tlicban  war;  and  she  succeeded 
in  getting  a  decision  of  the  Amphictyonic  Council  against 
the  Phocians.  The  Litter,  being  utterly  unable  to  pay  the 
fine,  were  compelled  to  fight;  and,  in  self-defense,  seized  the 
Delphic  treasures  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war.  They  thus 
t)rolonged  the  struggle  for  eleven  years. 

62.  Philip,always  eager  to  add  to  his  dominions,  had  already 
attacked  and  defeated  the  army  of  the  Phocians  in  Thessaly, 
and  had  taken  and  destroyed  Olynthus.     He  now 
marched  into  Greece,  and  after  taking  possession 
of  Phocis,  occupied  Delphi.     He  next  assembled 


Measur«i  of 
Philip. 


the  Amphiclyons,  and  procured  a  decree  tbat  tlio  towns  of 
the  Phocians  should  be  destroyed,  and  that  their  two  votes 
should  be  transferred  to  Macedon,  thus  obtaining  admission 


Macedonian  Supremacy.  119 

himself  to  the  Council.  Thus  ended  the  Sacred  War  (346  B.C.), 
the  effect  of  which  was  to  make  Macedon  the  leading  state 
of  Greece. 

63.  Meanwhile,  the  great  Athenian  orator,  De-mos'the-nes, 
had  endeavored,  by  his  sj^lendid  eloquence,  to  arouse  his 
countrymen  against  the  crafty  designs  of  Philip; 
but,  although  the  latter  persisted  in  his  schemes 
of  conquest,  it  was  not  until  338  B.C.  that  any 


Subjugation  of 
Greece. 


effort  was  made  to  oppose  his  progress.  In  that  year  a  battle 
was  fought  at  Chse-ro-ne'a,  in  which  Philip  disastrously  de- 
feated the  combined  forces  of  Athens  and  Thebes,  and  thus 
completed  the  subjugation  of  all  Greece.  He,  however,  left 
to  the  states  a  nominal  independence  in  their  local  affairs,  he 
himself  controlling  all  measures  affecting  the  general  interests. 
64.  Philip  next  convened  a  congress  of  the  Grecian  states 
at  Corinth,  and  obtained  from  it  a  formal  declaration  of  war 
against  Persia,  and  the  appointment  of  himself  as 
generalissimo  of  all  Greece.     He  then  returned 


Death  of  Philip. 


home  to  prepare  an  expedition  for  the  conquest  of  that 
country,  which  he  had  for  some  time  meditated.  Before, 
however,  these  preparations  were  completed,  he  was  assassi- 
nated by  Pausanias,  a  young  Macedonian  noble  (336  B.C.);  and 
Alexander,  his  son,  afterward  called  the  Great,  ascended  the 
throne,  being  then  only  twenty  years  of  age,  but  thoroughly 
educated,  partly  under  the  celebrated  philosopher,  Aristotle 
(ar-is-tot'l)*  Thebes,  having  received  a  report 
of  Alexander's  death,  and  thinking  the  opportun- 
ity  a   good   one    to    regain   her    independence. 


Destruction  of 
Thebes. 


revolted;    but   Alexander,  with   characteristic    promptitude, 
marched  against  the  city,  took  it,  and  razed  it  to  the  ground, 

*  This  distinguished  philosopher  was  bom  at  Stagira,  a  city  near  the  Mace- 
donian coast,  B.C.  .384.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  went  to  Athens  and  studied 
philosophy  in  the  school  of  Plato.  He  afterward  e.stablished  a  school  of  his  own 
in  the  grove  called  Lyceum,  which  received  the  name  of  the  Peripatetic  School, 
because  Aristotle  delivered  his  lectures  while  walking  about  (from  the  Greek  word 
peripatein,  to  walk  about).    He  died  in  Chalcis,  Euboea,  at  the  age  of  sixty -three. 


120  Ancient  History. 


Belling  its  inhabitants  to  the  number  of  30,000  into  slavery. 
Thus  a  general  rising  was  prevented  (335  B.C.).* 

Conquests  of  Alexander  the  Geeat. 

65.  After  making  this  terrible  example  of  Thebes,  he  set  out 
on  the  expedition  planned  by  his  father,  leaving  An-tip'a-ter 
to  administer  the  government  of  Macedon  and 
Greece  (334  B.C.).     In  the  spring  of  that  year,  he 
passed  the  Hellespont  with  an  army  of  35,000 


Persian 
expedition. 


men,  encountering  no  opposition  from  the  Persians,  who  were 
hesitating  as  to  the  plan  of  opposing  his  march.  The  wise 
suggestions  of  Memnon,  the  Rhodian,  then  in  the 
service  of  the  Persian  monarch,  to  send  the  fleet 
against  Macedon,  was  rejected;  and  a  battle  was 


Battle  of  the 
Granicus. 


fought  on  the  banks  of  the  Gra-ni'cus  River,  in  which  Alex- 
ander gained  a  great  victory,  enabling  him  to  overrun  Asia 
Minor  without  opposition. 

66.  The  next  year  he  defeated  a  vast  army,  commanded 
by  Darius,  the    Persian  monarch,  at  Is'sus.     So   complete 
was  the  rout  that  Darius  fled  in  dismay,  leav- 
ing his  mother  and  wife  to  the  mercy  of  the 


Battle  of  Issus. 


victor.  These  Alexander  ordered  to  be  treated  with  the 
greatest  respect  and  attention.  He  then  advanced  toward 
the  south,  and  all  the  cities  of  Phoenicia  surrendered  to  him, 

*  "  A  general  assembly  of  the  Greeks  being  held  at  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  they 
came  to  a  resolution  to  send  their  quotas  with  Alexander  against  the  Persians,  and 
he  was  unanimously  elected  captain-general.  Many  statesmen  an<l  philosophers 
came  to  congratulate  him  on  the  occasion;  and  he  hoped  that  Diogenes  of  Sinope, 
who  then  lived  at  Corinth,  would  be  of  the  number.  Finding,  however,  that  he 
made  but^itfle  account  of  Alexander,  and  that  he  preferred  the  enjoyment  of  his 
leisure  in  a  part  of  the  suburbs,  called  Cranium,  the  king  went  to  see  him. 
Diogenes  happened  to  be  lying  in  the  sun;  and  at  the  approach  of  so  many  i)eople, 
he  raised  himself  up  a  little,  and  fixed  his  eyes  upon  Alexander.  The  king 
addressed  him  in  an  obliging  manner,  and  asked  him,  'If  there  was  anything  he 
could  serve  him  in?'  'Only  stand  a  little  out  of  my  sunshine,'  said  Diogenes. 
Alexander,  we  are  told,  was  struck  with  such  surprise  at  fln<Hng  hinis<»lf  s<:>  little 
regarded,  and  saw  something  so  great  in  that  carelessness,  that,  wiiile  his  courtiers 
were  ridiculing  the  philosopher  as  a  monster,  hu  said,  'If  I  were  not  Alexander, 
'should  wish  to  be  Diogenes,'  ''—Plutarch. 


122 


Ancient  History. 


except  Tyre,  the  siege  of  which  delayed  him  seven  months. 

He  built  a  pier  across  the  strait,  half  a  mile  wide,  which 
separated  the  city  from  the  mainland,  and  thus 
haying  gained  access  to  the  walls,  he  battered 

them  to  pieces  and  took  the  city  by  storm  (332  B.c).     No 


Taking  of  Tyre. 


mercy  was  shown  to  the  wretched  inhabitants,  eight  thousand 
of  whom  are  said  to  have  been  massacred;  and  the  remainder, 
numbering  at  least  30,000,  were  sold  into  slavery. 

67.    In   the   mean  time,  Darius  solicited  peace,  offering 


to  cede  to  Alexander  the 
to  give  him  his  daughter 
in  marriage.  This,  how- 
ever, Alexander  promptly 
refused,  and 
continued  his 
march   toward 


western  half  of  the  empire,  and 


Egyptian 
expedition. 


Battering  Ram. 


Egypt,  capturing  Ga'za  on 

the  way.    Passing  through 

Egypt,  he  penetrated  the 

Lib'yan   desert,  and   paid 

a  visit  to   the    temple  of 

Jupiter  Am'mon.    He  also 

founded  in  Egypt  the  city 

of  Alexandria,  which  for  many  centuries  afterward  was  the 
first  commercial  city  in  the  world,  being  the 
gi'and  emporium  of  Europe,  Africa,  and  India. 
This  was  the  first  city  founded  by  Alexander  and 

named  after  him.     He  subsequently  founded  no  less  than 

seventeen  cities  in  different  parts  of    Asia  to  each  of  which 

he  gave  the  name  of  Alexandria. 

68.  Turning  again  to  the  east,  he  crossed  the  Euphrates, 

and  prepared  for  the  battle  which  was  to  decide  the  fate  of 

1  Persia.     On    the  plain  of  Gau-ga-me'la,  a  few 

'  ^'' I  miles  from  Ar-be'la,  Darius  drew  up  his  immense 

army,  consisting  of   over  a  million   Persians,  which,  with 


Alexandria 
founded. 


Macedonian  Supremacy. 


123 


40,000  foot  and  7,000  horse,  Alexander,  after  a  brief  engage- 
ment, entirel}'  defeated  and  put  to  flight  (331  B.C.).  Pro- 
ceeding to  Babylon,  he  entered  the  city  in  triumph,  having 
made  himself,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  master  of  the  whole 
of  Western  Asia,  together  with  Egypt. 

69.  He  next  advanced  to   Su'sa,  a  treasure-city  of  the 
Persians,  which  surrendered  without  resistance.     Here  were 

obtained  gold  and  silver 


amounting  to  fifty  mil- 
lion   dollars, 
and,  what  was 
still  more  in- 


Taking  of 

Susa 
and    Persepolis. 


Death  of  Darius. 


teresting  to  the  Greeks, 
the  spoils  which  Xerxes 
had  carried  off  from 
Greece.  Per-sep'o-lis,the 
real  capital  of  the  Per- 
sian kings,  was  the  next 
city  occu])ied  by  the  inva- 
der; and  liere,  it  is  said, 
the  treasure  captured 
amounted  to  120  million  dollars.  Darius,  in  the  mean  while, 
had  fled  to  Ecbatana,  and  thither  Alexander  went 
in  pursuit,  which  he  continued  with  great  rapid- 
ity, until  he  reached  Bactria,  where  he  found  that  the  Persian 
monarch  had  been  seized  and  put  to  death  by  the  satrap  of 
that  province.  Alexander,  still  pursuing  his  career  of  con- 
quest, defeated  the  Scythians  on  the  banks  of  the  I-ax'ar-tes, 
and  took  possession  of  Mar-a-can'da  (now  Samar- 
cand),  the  capital  of  Sog-di-a'na,  where  he  mar- 
ried a  Bactrian  princess,  named  Rox-a'na  (328 
B.C.).  Here  too  it  was  that,  at  a  banquet,  in  a  fit  of  anger,  he 
murdered  his  friend  Cli'tus,  who  had  saved  his  life  at  the  battle 
of  the  Granicus.  He  next  invaded  India,  defeated  Po'rus, 
the  king  of  that  country,  on  the  banks  of  the  Hy-das'pes,  and 


Further 
conquests. 


124  Ancient  History. 


after  a  brief  rest,  pushed  on  to  the  Hyph'a-sis  (the  modern 
Sut'lej),  when  the  soldiers,  worn  out  with  their  toils,  posi- 
tively refused  to  proceed  any  farther.  He  then  gave  orders 
to  return.     [See  map,  page  121.] 

70.  Having  built  a  fleet,  he  sailed  down  the  Indus  to  its 
mouth;  and  then,  leaving  Ne-ar'chus  to  pursue  the  voyage 
of  exploration,  he  marched  through  the  burning 
desert  of  Ge-dro'sia  to  Persepolis,  and  thence  by 


Return. 


way  of  Susa  and  Ecbatana  to  Babylon,  where  he  indulged  in 
various  schemes  of  further  conquest.  But,  as  he  was  about 
to  set  otit  on  a  campaign  in  Arabia,  he  was  seized  with  a  fever, 
said  to  have  been  occasioned  by  intemperance; 
and  after  eleven  days'  illness,  he  expired  (323 
B.C.).     On  his  death-bed,  being  asked  by  one  of 


Death  of 
Alexander. 


his  generals  to  whom  he  desired  to  leave  his  throne,  he 
answered:  '^To  the  worthiest  among  you;  but  I  am  afraid 
my  obsequies  will  be  celebrated  with  bloody  hands."  He, 
however,  gave  his  ring  to  Per-dic'cas. 

71.  Of  all  the  conquerors  of  antiquity,  Alexander  was, 
witliout  doubt,  the  most  enterprising  and  renowned.     The 
splendor  of  his  military  achievements  should  not, 
however,  blind  us  to  the  moral  depravity  which 


Character. 


could  sacrifice,  without  a  single  pang  of  remorse,  so  many 
thousands  of  his  fellow-creatures,  merely  to  gratify  a  thirst 
for  vainglory.  This  insatiable  desire  seems  to  have  been 
unmixed  with  any  wish  to  benefit  his  subjects  or  mankind, 
although  he  founded  cities  that  promised  to  be  useful  to 
him  in  carrying  out  his  ambitious  views,  and  in  perpetuating 
his  memory.  In  the  hands  of  Providence,  however,  he  was 
undoubtedly  an  instrument  of  good;  since,  by  his  conquests, 
the  two  continents  were  brought  into  closer  communication 
with  each  other,  and  tlie  language,  literature,  and  arts  of 
Greece  were  carried  into  tlie  East. 

72.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Spartans,  under  their  king  Agis, 
had  made  a  vigorous  effort,  in   common  witli  most  of  the 


Macedonian  Supremacy. 


125 


Agis. 


other  Peloponnesian  states,  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Macedon; 

but  they  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  by 

Antipater,  Agis   being  slain  in  the  battle  (331 

B.C.).     Athens  took  no  part  in  the  struggle;  but  under  the 

influence  of  Pho'cion,  illustrious  for  the  wisdom 

and  moderation  of  his  counsels,  as  well  as  for  his 

stern  republican  simplicity  and  honesty,  prosecuted 


Conduct  of 
Athens. 


the  orators  who  had  been  active  against  the  Macedonian  rule, 
and  because  they  had  been  found  guilty  of  bribery  drove  them 


30  Uast    from  XonLdon.    35 


into  exile.  Among  these  was  Demosthenes.  When,  however, 
the  news  arrived  of  the  death  of  Alexander,  the  city  of  Athens 
gave  way  to  the  most  excessive  demonstrations  of  joy, 
and  Phocion's  party  lost  all  their  influence. 

73.  In  an  expedition  under  Le-os'the-nes,  the  Athenians 
and  their  allies  gained  some  important  victories  over  Anti- 
pater,  near  La'mia,  a  fortified  town  near  the 
border  of  Thessaly;  but  Antipater  being  joined 


Lamian  war. 


by  Crat'e-rus,  one  of  the  ablest  of  Alexander's  generals,  with 


Ancient  History. 


a  considerable  force  from  Asia,  entirely  defeated  them  in 
Thessaly,  and  prevented  any  further  resistance  to  the  Mace- 
donian authority  (322  B.C.).  Athens  was  compelled  to  give 
up  her  orators,  including  Demosthenes,  who  had  been  recalled 
from  exile  during  the  war.  The  latter,  however,  escaped, 
but  was  finally  compelled  to  take  poison  in  order  to  prevent 
being  captured  by  his  pursuers;  while  the  others  were  cruelly 
put  to  death.*  Thus  ended  what  was  called  the  Lamian  War; 
and  the  defeat  riveted  the  yoke  of  Macedonia  upon  Greece 
more  firmly  than  ever,  f 

Alexandee's  Successoes. 

74.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  the  great  Miicedonian 
Empire,  which  had  been  formed  by  his  genius  and  valor,  fell 
to  pieces,  as  he  left  no  successor  able  to  control 
the  restless  ambition  and  rivalry  of  his  generals. 
At  first,  his  half-brother,  Philip,  and  his  infant  son 


Disposition  of 
the  empire. 


Death  of 
Perdiccas. 


by  Hoxana  were  declared  partners  of  the  throne,  while  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  empire  were  assigned  to  the  generals,  who 
were  to  rule  as  satraps;  but  Perdiccas  was  to 
act  as  regent.  The  latter  was  shortly  afterward 
suspected  of  a  design  to  usurp  the  throne,  and  a 
league  was  formed  against  him  by  An-tig'o-nus,  Ptol'e-my, 

*  Demosthenes  retii-ed  to  the  island  of  Calauria,  near  the  coast  of  Argolis,  and 
took  refuge  in  the  temple  of  Neptune  from  the  emissaries  of  Antipater.  He  died 
at  the  age  of  about  sixty  years.  When  he  commenced  to  speak  in  public.  Ins 
impediment  of  speech,  weakness  of  voice,  and  awkwardness  of  manner  nuule 
him  an  object  of  ridicule;  but  all  these  difficulties  he  overcame  by  intense  effort 
and  application,  and  became  the  greatest  orator  of  his  own  or  perhaps  any  other 
time.  He  saw  through  tlie  designs  of  Philip  from  the  first,  and  pronounced  his 
most  brilliant  orations  in  exposing  them.  These  were  called  "  Thilippics,"  because 
they  were  delivered  against  Philip. 

t  Leosthenes  was  a  brave  and  skillful  general,  and  had  he  not  been  killed 
during  the  siege  of  I^mia.  in  which  Antipater  shut  himself  up  after  his  defeat^ 
the  war  might  have  resulted  difTerently.  B«»sides,  the  diss«»nsions  \\\  Athens  pre- 
vented the  sending  of  reinforcements  to  the  army.  Leostlienes  was  an  orator  as 
well  as  a  general;  and  it  was  to  him,  on  the  fK'casion  of  one  of  his  harangues,  that 
Phocion  said:  "Young  man,  thy  words  are  like  the  cypress,  VaW  and  large,  but 
they  bear  no  fruit."    He  was  a  vigorfjus  supporter  of  the  party  of  Demosthenea 


Macedonian  Supremacy.  127 

and  Crat'e-rus.  A  war  ensued,  during  which  Perdiccas  was 
assassinated  by  his  own  troops  (321  B.C.).  Antipater  was 
then  made  regent,  and  the  empire  was  again  divided. 

75.  Antipater  died  three  years  afterward,  at  the  age  of 
eighty,  leaving  the  regency  to  Pol-y-sper'chon,  a  veteran 
general  of  Alexander.  This  displeased  Cas-san'- 
der,  Antipater's  son,  who  had  expected  to  succeed 


Renewal  of  war. 


his  father,  and  kindled  a  war  of  several  years  between  the  two 
generals,  which  resulted  in  Cassander's  success.  During  this 
war  Cassander  placed  the  administration  at  Athens  under 
De-me'tri-us  Pha-le'reus,  a  distinguished  Athenian  orator, 
statesman,  and  writer,  who  ruled  the  city  for  ten  years  with 
so  much  popularity  that  the  Athenians  raised  three  hundred 
and  sixty  brazen  statues  to  his  honor.  War  having  arisen 
between  Antigonus  and  the  other  generals,  Athens  surren- 
dered to  Deme'trius  Po-li-or-ce'tes  (the  Town-Taker),  the  son 
of  Antigonus.  Phalereus,  who,  by  liis  dissipated  habits,  had 
lost  his  popularity,  was  compelled  to  flee,  and  all  his  statues 
were  thrown  down  except  one  (307  B.C.).* 

76.  The  war  against  Antigonus,  which  continued  for 
nearly  fifteen  years  (from  315  B.C.),  was  brought  to  a  close  by 
a  decisive  battle  fought  near  Ipsus,  in  Phrygia 
(301  B.C.).     Antigonus  was  defeated,  and  died  of 


Battle  of  Ipsus. 


his  wounds.  This  event  nearly  closed  the  long  series  of  wars 
which  followed  the  death  of  Alexander,  and  which  proved  his 
sagacity  and  foresight  when  he  remarked  that  his  obsequies 
would  be  celebrated  by  bloody  hands.  During  these  wars  the 
whole  of  his  relations,  including  his  mother,  Olympias,  and 
his  wife  and  son,  were  successively  put  to  death,  f 

•  Demetrius  found  a  place  of  refuge  at  the  court  of  Ptolemy  in  Alexandria, 
where  he  lived  upward  of  twenty  years.  His  talents  were  of  great  service  to  the 
Egyptian  monarch;  and  it  is  stated  that  it  was  by  his  advice  that  the  famous 
museum  and  Alexandrian  library  were  founded.  Demetrius  wrote  many  valuable 
treatises,  but  none  of  them  are  now  extant.  He  was  the  last  of  the  great  orators 
of  Greece. 

t  Roxana  and  the  young  Alexander  were  put  to  death  by  order  of  Cassander, 
after  a  treaty  of  peace,  made  in  311  b.c,  one  of  the  articles  of  which  was,  that 


128  Ancient  History. 

77.  A  more  permanent  partition  of  the  empire  followed 
tlie  battle  of  Ipsus.     Greece  and  Macedonia  were  assigned  to 
Cassander;  Egypt,  to  Ptolemy,  who  had  previous- 
ly ruled  over  it;    Thrace  and  the  greatest  part 
of  Asia  Minor,  to  Ly  sim'a-chus;   and  western 


Pjrt!tion  of  the 
empire. 


Asia,  including  the  whole  country  from  the  coast  of  Syria  to 
the  Euphrates,  to  Seleucus.  The  latter  founded  on  the  river 
0-ron'tes  a  new  capital  of  his  empire,  which  he  named  An- 
tioch,  in  honor  of  his  father,  An-ti'o-chus. 

78.  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Antigonus,  who  had  retreated 
from  Ipsus,  still  continued  tne  struggle.     Ho  proceeded  to 

Greece,  but  the  Athenians  refused  to  receive  him. 

After  forming  an  alliance  with  Seleucus,  he  again 


Demetrius. 


appeared  before  Athens,  which,  after  a  long  siege,  he  cap- 
tured, expelling  the  tyrannical  governor  whom  Cassander  had 
appointed  (295  B.C.).  The  Athenians  were  greatly  moved  by 
his  noble  forgiveness  and  lenity;  for,  instead  of  the  dreadful 
punishment  which  they  had  expected,  he  supplied  their 
wants,  and  did  his  best  to  relieve  the  miseries  occasioned  by 
the  long  siege  which  they  had  suffered.* 

Cassander  should  retain  his  power  until  the  prince  became  of  age.  The  treaty  sus- 
pended hostilities  only  for  a  few  months.  Olyrapias  having  engaged  in  a  war 
against  Cassander,  about  five  years  previously,  was  taken  prisoner  by  him,  and 
ordered  to  be  put  to  death(316  B.C.). 

*  Demetrius  had  been  the  friend  of  the  Athenians,  freeing  tliem  from  the  power 
of  Cassander  and  Ptolemy,  and  expelling  the  garrison  which  had  been  statione<i  at 
Athens  under  Demetrius  Phalereus.  After  the  fall  of  Antigonus,  ho  fled  precipi- 
tately, and  with  his  fleet  and  a  small  remnant  of  his  army  he  sailed  to  Athens. 
Word  was  sent  to  him  that  the  Athenians  had  resolved  to  admit  no  king  within 
their  city.  His  triumphant  entry  into  Athens  is  thus  described  by  Plutarch:  "He 
ordered  all  the  Athenians  to  assemble  in  the  theater,  which  he  surrounded  with 
his  troops;  and  having  planted  his  guards  on  each  side  of  the  stage,  he  camo  down 
through  the  passage  by  which  the  tragedians  ent«r.  The  fears  of  the  people,  on 
bis  appearance,  increased,  but  they  were  entirely  dissipate<l  when  he  l>egan  to 
speak;  for  neither  the  accent  of  his  voice  was  loud,  nor  his  e.vpresslon  severe. 
He  complained  of  them  in  soft  and  easy  terms,  and  taking  them  again  Into  favor, 
made  them  a  present  of  a  hundred  thousand  measures  of  wheat,  and  re-estAb- 
lished  such  an  administration  as  was  most  agreeable  to  them.** 


No.  6. 


Macedon  and  Greece.  129 

SECTION  VII. 
Sixth    Period. 

DIVieiONS  OF  THE  MACEDONIAN    EMPIRE. 

From  301  B.C.  io  the  Conquest  of  Greece  (146  B.C.). 

I.    IffACEDON   AND    GBEECE. 

79.  Cassander  survived  the  victory  at  Ipsiis  only  three 
years;  and  at  his  death  he  left  the  throne  to  the  eldest  of  his 
three  sons,  who  died  soon  afterward.  Family 
dissensions  followed,  by  means  of  which  Deme- 


Cassander, 


trius  possessed  himself  of  the  throne  (294  B.C.),  and  held  it 
for  seven  years,  when  it  was  seized  by  Pyr'rhus, 
king   of   Epirus,  against   whom    Demetrius   had 


Demelrius. 


made  war.  The  latter,  attacked  by  both  Pyrrhus  and  Ly- 
simachus,  abandoned  the  Macedonian  throne,  and  fled* 
Soon  afterward,  Lysimachus,  after  vanquishing 
Pyrrhus,  obtained  possession  of  the  Macedonian 


Lysimachus. 


territories,  and  united  them  with  his  own  (286  B.C.).  Thus 
the  whole  Macedonian  Empire,  except  Egypt,  was  divided 
between  Lysimachus  and  Seleucus.  Demetrius  died  a  captive 
at  the  court  of  the  latter  (283  B.C.).* 

80.  The  throne  of  Macedon  was  filled  by  Lysimachus 
about  five  years,  when  hostilities  arose  between  him  and  Seleu- 
cus; and,  in  a  battle  near  Saidis,  the  former  was 
defeated  and  slain.     This  gave  nearly  the  whole 


Seleucus. 


empire  to  Seleucus,  thus  reuniting,  with  the  exception  of 
Egypt,  the  whole  of  the  dominions  of  Alexander.  But  this 
union  was  of  short  duration,  for  within  a  few  weeks  of  his 


*  "  That  hair-brained  prince,  after  gaining  and  then  losing  Macedonia,  plunged 
suddenly  into  Asia,  where  he  hoped  to  win  by  his  sword  a  new  dominion.  Unable 
to  make  any  serious  impression  on  the  kingdom  of  Lysimachus,  he  entered 
Cilicia,  and  became  engaged  in  hostilities  with  Seleucus,  who  defeated  him,  took 
him  prisoner,  and  kept  him  in  a  private  condition  for  the  rest  of  his  life"— 
RawUnson. 


130  Ancient  History. 

victory,  Seleucus  was  assassinated  by  Ptolemy  Ccraunus, 
an  Egyptian  prince,  brother  of  Ar-sin'o-e,  the 
wife  ofLysimachus.  This  prince,  being  prevented 
from  succeeding  to  the  throne  of  Egypt   by  liis 


Ptolemy 
Ceraunus. 


father's  selection  of  another  son,  Philadelphus,  had  taken 
refuge  at  the  court  of  Lysimachus,  and  afterward  at  that  of 
Seleucus,  by  whom  he  had  been  protected. 

81.  The  throne  of  Macedon  was  occupied  by  Ptolemy  Ce- 
raunus but  a  short  time;  for  a  great  migration  of  the  Gauls 
the  same  year  swept  over  Thrace  and  Macedonia, 
under  several  leaders  named  Belgius,  Brennus, 
and  others;  and   Ptolemy   rashly  opposing  their 


Invasion  of  the 
Gauls. 


furious  onset  with  his  hastily-gathered  forces,  was  defeated, 
and  falling  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  was  cruelly  put  to 
death  (279  B.C.).  The  Gauls  then  passed  into  Greece,  and 
reached  Delphi,  where  they  were  repulsed  with  great  loss. 
Some  of  them  afterward  settled  on  the  Danube;  others,  in 
Thrace;  while  a  third  part  passed  into  Asia,  and  settled  in 
the  country  called,  after  them,  Ga-la'tia.* 

82.  After  the  death  of  Ptolemy,  the  throne  of  Macedon 
was  occupied  by  Antigonus,  tlie  son  of  Demetrius,  surnamed 
Go-na'tas,  from  the  place  of  his  birth.  He  reigned  till  243 
B.C.,  exercising  a  severe  rule  over  the  Greeks,  whose  cities  he 
governed  by  means  of  petty  tyrants  ap])ointed  by 
himself.     This  tyranny  led  to  a  noted  confeder- 


Achasan  league. 


acy,  styled  in  history  the  "Achaean  Lengue,"  it  being  in  fact 
the  revival  of  an  ancient  league  which  had  existed  among  the 

♦  "The  invasion  of  the  Gauls  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  events  of  the  post 
Alexandrine  history.    It  had  permanent  eflfects  on  Ea.stem  Europe  nnd  Western 

Asia,  protlucing  among  other  results  the  new  country  of  Galatia By  the 

end  of  the  year  280  b.c,  a  large  mass  of  hungry  immigrant.'^  had  accumulated  in 
northern  Illyria,  and  in  the  regions  about  moinits  Scomius  and  Soanlus.  This 
mass,  in  279  B.n.,  rolled  fnrwarrl  in  three  waves,  which  toolt  three  different  direc- 
tions. One,  under  Cerethrius,  took  a  north-easterly  course  against  the  Triballi  and 
the  Thracians ;  another,  under  Brennus  and  Acichorius,  procee<le<l  due  east 
against  the  Pasonians;  the  third,  undpr  a  chief  named  Belgius,  marched  south-east 
and  fell  upon  Macedonia.  It  was  this  last  leader  and  his  troojw  with  whom 
Ptolemy  Ceraunus  came  into  contact."— 7iVi«'/<»«ou. 


Macedon  and  Greece.  131 

twelve  chief  cities  of  Achaia.*  It  was  soon  joined  by  most  of 
the  important  states  of  Greece,  including  Athens;  and,  under 
its  wise  and  patriotic  leader,  A-ra'tus  of  Sicyon  {sisU'e-on), 
acquired  very  great  influence  (243  B.C.). 

83.  At  this  period,  the  formation  of  such  confederacies  or 
leagues  became  a  new  and«  striking  feature  in  the  affairs  of 
Greece  ;  for  the  people  began  to  see  the  result  of  their  many  dis- 
sensions, and  to  understand  that  they  could  curb  the  despotism 
of  the  Macedonian  kings  only  by  uniting  their  forces.  The 
most  important  of  these  confederacies  were  the  Achaean  League, 
already  mentioned,  and  the  ^to'lian  League.  But 
the  Spartans  held  to  themselves.     The  ^tolian 


yCtolian  league. 


league  was  a  confederation  of  tribes,  which  had  gradually 
made  themselves  masters  of  Locris,  Phocis,  Boeotia,  and  some 
other  states.  The  Spartans,  under  their  celebrated  kings 
A'gis  and  Cle-om'e-nes,  attempted  to  regain  their  ancient 
simplicity  of  manners  and  military  hardihood,  but  without 
success,  t 

84.  Jealousy  and  dissension  among  the  Greeks  prevailed 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  prevent  all  efficient  resistance  against 
the  Maceidbnian  power.  Indeed,  they  were  compelled  to  call 
in  the  aid  of  that  very  power  against  the  encroachments  of 
each  other.  Thus  Aratus,  having  been  defeated  by  the 
Spartans  under  their  king  Oleomenes,  invoked  the  assistance 


*  Rawlinson  oays:  "The  old  confederacy  of  the  twelve  Achaean  cities  appears 
to  have  been  dissolved  soon  after  the  death  of  Alexander,  by  the  influence  of  the 
Macedonian  princes,  especially  Cassander  and  Demetrius,  about  300  b.c."  The 
revival  commenced  about  280  b.c,  and  in  abount  five  years  was  consummated. 
It  did  not,  however,  assimae  much  import;ance  till  the  admission  of  Sicyon  into  the 
confederacy,  251  b.c,  which  gave  it  partly  the  character  of  a  general  Hellenic 
union. 

+  Agis,  one  of  the  noblest  characters  of  Spartan  history,  made  an  effort  to  re- 
vive the  institutions  of  Lycurgus;  and  at  first  met  with  some  success.  But  he 
excited  great  opposition,  and  his  enemies  brought  about  his  condemnation  and 
execution  (240  B.C.).  Agis  observing  that  one  of  his  executioners  was  moved  to 
tears,  said:  "Weep  not  for  me;  suffering  as  I  do  unjustly,  T  am  happier  than 
my  murderers."  He  wa,g  Xh^  ^r§t  K^g  qt  Sparta  that  was  put  to  death  by  thQ 
ephors. 


•^32  Ancient  History. 


of  Antigonus  Do'son,*  king  of  Macedon,  by  whom  Cleomenes 
was  overtlirown,  and  compelled  to  flee  into  Egypt. 
Sparta,   which   had    hitherto    remained    uncon- 


Sparta  taken. 


quered,  was  taken  by  the  Macedonian  monarch  (221  B.C.). 

Aratus  afterward  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Philip,  king 
of  Macedon,  in  a  war.against  the  iEtolians,  which 
lasted  till  217  B.C.;  but  having  displeased  Philip, 


Death  of  Aratus. 


he  was  by  the  orders  of  the  latter  poisoned  (213  B.C.). 

85.  Phil-o-i3oe'men,   sometimes  styled   ''the  last   of   the 
Greeks,"  succeeded  Aratus  in  administering  the  affairs  of  the 
Achaean  league.     He  was  a  man  of  great  talents 
and  virtue.     In  207  B.C.,  he  gained  a  great  victory 


Philopcemen. 


over  the  Spartans,  notwithstanding  they  were  assisted  by  the 
Romans;  and,  in  the  general  assembly  of  the  Greeks,  was 
hailed  as  the  liberator  of  their  country.  The  Romans,  a  few 
years  after  this,  made  war  upon  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  and 
defeated  him  in  the  famous  battle  of  Cyn-os- 
ceph'a-lae,t  in  Thessaly  (197  B.c).  Philip  was 
then  compelled  to  withdraw  his  garrisons  from 


Battle  of 
Cynoscaphalae. 


the  Grecian  towns;  and,  at  the  ensuing  Isthmian  games,  the 
independence  of  Greece  was  solemnly  proclaimed  by  the 
Romans. J  This  seemingly  generous  policy  left  the  Greek 
states  entirely  under  Roman  protection,  and  by  removing  all 
outside  pressure  gave  full  scope  for  internal  dissensions.  The 
Achaean  and  ^tolian  leagues  were  undisturbed,  the  one  hold- 
ing the  other  in  check. 

♦  Dos(m  means  ahoxit  to  give,  and  was  applied  to  this  Iting  on  account  of  his 
habit  of  promising  but  not  performing. 

+  Cynoscephnlce  means  dogs'  hrruls,  and  was  given  to  a  range  of  elevated  rocks 
in  Thessaly,  resembling  in  appeal ance  the  heads  of  dogs.  It  is  sometimes  written 
Cynocephnle. 

$  "Immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty,  followed  the  memorable 
scene  at  the  Isthmian  games,  when  it  was  announcefl  to  all  the  multitude  assembled 
on  that  occasion,  that  the  Romans  bestoweil  entire  freedom  upon  all  those  states 
of  Greece  which  ha<l  been  subject  to  Mace<lon.  The  Oroeks,  mmble  to  read  the 
future,  and  having  as  yet  had  no  experience  of  the  ambition  of  Rome,  received 
this  act  with  the  warmest  gratitude,  and  seemed  to  acknowledge  the  Romans  in 
the  character  which  they  assumed,  of  protectors  and  deliverers  of  Oreece." 


Kingdom  of  the  Seleucidce.  133 

86.  The  JEtolians  soon  afterward  became  involved  in  a 
war  with  the  Romans,  and  were  entirely  subdued  (190  B.C.). 
The  Achaean  league,  strengthened  by  the  fall  of  its  great 
rival,  was  joined  by  Sparta,  and  under  Philo- 
poemen  acquired  very  great  influence.  But  the 
Messenians  revolted  against  its  authority;  and  in 


Revolt  of  the 
Messenians. 


an  attempt  to  reduce  them  to  submission,  Philopoemen  was 
taken  prisoner  and  barbarously  put  to  death  (183  B.C.). 
Mes-se'ne  was,  however,  captured  by  the  Achaeans  the  next 
year,  and  the  murderers  of  Philopoemen  were  punished.  The 
historian  Po-lyb'i-us  sums  up  the  character  of 
this  illustrious  man  by  saying  that  "in  forty 
years,   during  which  he  played   a  distinguished 


Character  of 
Philopoemen. 


part  in  a  democratic  community,  he  never  incurred  the 
enmity  of  the  people,  though  he  always  spoke  with  openness 
and  freedom,  nor  ever  courted  popular  favor  by  unworthy 
compliance."  He  was  seventy  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  his 
death. 

87.  The  Romans,  again  invading  Macedonia,  defeated 
Per'seus,  its  last  king,  in  the  battle  of  Pyd'na  (168  B.C.),  and 
divided  the  kingdom  into  tributary  states.  The 
Roman    general,   entering    Greece,    surrendered 


Battle  of  Pydna. 


many  of  its  cities  to  the  pillage  of  the  soldiers;  and  no  fewer 
than  150,000  of  the  inhabitants  were  captured,  and  sold  as 
slaves.  A  few  years  later,  the  Romans  under 
Mum'mi-us  again  invaded  Greece,  being  invited 
by  the   Spartans,   who  had   quarreled  with   the 


Final  conquest 
of  Greece, 


Achaeans.  The  last  army  of  the  latter  surrendered  at  Corinth 
(146  B.  c. ),  and  Greece  became  a  Roman  province,  under  the 
name  of  Achaia. 

n.  Syrian  Kingdom  of  the  Seleucid^, 

88.  This  kingdom  was  founded  by  Seleucus,  surnamed 
Nicator  (the  Conqueror),  in  312  B.C.,  and  lasted  about  two 
and  a  half  centuries.     It  originally  consisted  of  Babylonia 


134 


Ancient  History. 


and  the  adjacent  province  Su-si-a'na,  together  with  Media 
and  Persia;  but  afterward  was  so  extended  as  to 
embrace  all  the  countries  between  the  Euphrates 


Extent 


and  the  Indus  rivers,  and  from  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the 
lax'-artes  River.  After  the  battle  of  Ipsus  it  was  still  further 
enlarged  by  the  addition  of  Cappadocia,  part  of  Phrygia,  and 
Upper  Syria.     The  capital   was  at  first  a  city  which  Seleucus 


Ruins  of  Baalbeo. 


Antioch 


had  bnilt  on  the  Tigris,  and  named  Seleucia;  but  it  was 
jifterward  removed  to  the  newly-founded  city  of  Antioch. 
The  placing  of  the  seat  of  government  so  far 
to  the  west  led  to  the  loss  of  the  eastern  prov- 
inces, giving  rise  to  the  formation  of  the  Parthian  and 
Bactrian  kingdoms  during  the  reign  of  Antiochus  II. 
(261-246  B.C.).*    The  ancient  city  of  Baalbec,  in  southern 


a 


*  "  Had  Babylon  or  Seleucia  continued  the  seat  of  government,  the  East  mifirht 
probably  have  been  retained;  the  kingdom  of  the  Parthians  miKht  never  have 
grown  up.    Rome,  when  Bh«  Interfered  with  the  affairs  9(  Asl*,  would  have  found 


Kingdom  of  the  Seleucidce.  135 

Syria  (Coele- Syria),*  rose  to  great  splendor  at  this  period, 
under  the  Greek  name  Heliopolis  (city  of  the  sun).  Its 
ancient  history  is  obscure;  but  its  ruined  temples  and  other 
edifices,  built  of  huge  blocks  of  stone,  and  other  architectural 
remains,  attest  the  magnificence  of  the  city  both  in  its  ancient 
and  Greek  period.  It  was  situated  on  the  great  caravan 
route  between  Babylon  and  Phoenicia. 

89.  The  rupture  that  subsequently  occurred  between  Seleu- 
cus  and  Lysimachus,  ending  in  the  defeat  of  the  latter, 
gave  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  to  the  Syrian  kingdom;  but 
the  career  of  Seleucus  was  soon  afterward  terminated  by  the 
assassin's  hand  of  Ptolemy  Ceraunus.  His  son 
Antiochus  I.  succeeded,  during  whose  reign  the 


Anliochus  I. 


Gauls  overran  the  country,  but  were  checked  for  a  time  by  a 
great  defeat  which  Antiochus  inflicted  upon  them,  receiving 
on  that  account  the  surname  So'tei'  (the  Savior)-,  but  he  was 
afterward  defeated  by  them  in  a  great  battle  near  Ephesus, 
in  which  he  lost  his  life  (261  B.C.). 

90.  A  long  list  of  kings  succeeded,  the  particular  history 
of  whose  reigns  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  relate.  These  are 
called  the  Seleucidse  (se-Joo'se-de),  or  descend- 
ants of  Seleucus,  the  founder  of  the  monarchy. 


Seleucidae. 


Among  them  Antiochus  III.,  surnamed  "The  Great,"  de- 
serves  special   mention;    since   his   reign,  which 
lasted   more   than   thirty-six   years,   is,  perhaps, 
the  most   eventful  period  of  the  history  of  this 


Antiochus  the 
Great. 


monarchy.  He  checked  the  progress  of  the  Parthians  Jind 
Bactrians,  restoring  the  extent  of  his  territories  toward  India, 
drove  the  Egyptians  out  of  Asia,  and  at  one  time  extended 
his  sway  over  a  part  of  Europe. 

a  great  Greek  empire  situated  beyond  the  Euphrates,  and  so  almost  inaccessible 
to  her  arms;  the  two  civilizations  would  have  coexisted,  instead  of  being  super- 
seded the  one  by  the  other,  and  the  history  of  Asia  and  of  the  world  would  have 
been  widely  different.'"— Rawlinson. 

*  Ccele-Syria  means  the  hollow  Syria,  so  Called  from  its  situation  in  the  valley 
between  the  Lib'anus  and  the  Anti-Lil?'ftnus  cbaiu  Qt  mountains, 


136  Ancient  History. 


91.  He,  however,  became  embroiled   with  the  Romans, 
entering  into  a  union  with  the  ^tolians  against  them;  but, 
in  a  great  battle  at  Thermopyla3,  tlie  allied  forces 
were  signally  defeated  (191  B.C.).    The  next  year, 
he  suffered  another  disastrous  defeat  in  the  battle 


War  with  the 
Romans. 


of  Magnesia,  which  placed  him  at  the  mercy  of  the  Romans. 

He  purchased  peace  by  giving  up  the  northern  part  of  Asia 
Minor  and  aU  his  ships  of  war,  and  consenting  to 
pay  an  immense  sum  of  money.  The  provinces 
which  he  ceded  were  added  to  the  kingdom  of 


Armenia 
independent. 


Pergamus,  thus  making  it  a  rival  with  Syria.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  revolt  of  Armenia,  which  became  an  independent 
s^tate.     Antiochus  died  in  187  B.C. 

92.  During  the  subsequent  history  of  this  monarchy,  there 
was  a  continuous  series  of  interferences  by  the  Romans,  then 
rising  to  the  zenith  of  their  power,  and  extend- 
ing their  conquering  arms  in  all  directions.     The 


Later  history. 


minor  kingdoms,  including  Pontus,  Parthia,  Armenia,  etc., 
had  risen  to  positions  of  importance.  In  the  great  war  between 
Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  and  the  Romans,  Ti-gra'nes, 
king  of  Armenia,  who  then  occupied  the  Syrian  throne,  had 
interfered;  and  this  brought  upon  him  the  vengeance  of  the 
Romans.  He  was  defeated,  and  compelled  to  relinquisli  Syria, 
which,  four  years  later,  was  conquered  by  Pompey  the  Great, 
and  reduced  to  a  Roman  province  (65  B.C.). 

III.  Egyptian  Kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies. 

98.  The  history  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies  is  the 
history  of    the  later  civilization   of    the   Egyptians.      The 
foundation   of   Alexandria    by   the    Macedonian 
conqueror  was  followed  by  results  of  which  he 


Foundation. 


could  not  have  dreamed.  The  transfer  of  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment from  Memphis  to  the  great  Alexaiulrian  mart  changed 
the  whole  character  of  Egyptian  ideas  and  pursuits.  Com- 
merce was  encouraged,  and  intci'course  with  foreigners  was 


Kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies. 


137 


no  longer  condemned;  while  industrial  and  literary  pursuits 
received  an  impulse  which  was  unknown  in  the 
ancient  periods  of  Egyptian  civilization.     Alex- 


Commerce. 


Alexandria. 


andria  was  the  center  of  this  wonderful  national  transforma- 
tion; indeed,  during  the  period  of  the  Ptolemies, 
the  history  of  this  city  is  the  history  of  Egypt. 
Here  the  court  dwelt  in  all  its  splendor,  and  here  were  con- 
gregated  the  three  great  elements  of  the  national  life — the 
Greeks,  the  Jews, 


A|® 


and  the  Egyptians; 
for  the  first  Ptol- 
emy granted  ex- 
tensive privileges 
to  the  Jews  of 
Alexandria.* 

94.  Ptolemy, 
surnamed  Lagi 
( son  of  Lagus  ), 
and  also  Soter, who 
founded  this  king- 
dom, was  one  of 
Alexander's  great- 
est generals.  On 
the  first  division  of 
the  empire,  he  re- 
ceived the  administration  of  the  African  provinces,  and  deter- 
mined to  build  up  there  a  great  naval  power.  In 
this  he  succeeded,  and  soon  extended  his  author- 
ity over  Palestine,  Phoenicia,  and  Coele-Syria.  He  also  took 
possession  of  Cyprus;  and  for  a  time  held  Corinth  and  Sicyon, 
in  Greece.  Cyrenaica  and  Libya  were  also  brought  under  his 
sway.     He  retained   the   old  Egyptian  nomes,  or  divisions. 


Pharos. 


Ptolemy  Lagi 


*  He  had  transported  to  Alexandria  more  than  100,000  prisoners  from  Jerusalem, 
on  his  reduction  of  that  city ;  and,  in  order  to  attach  them  to  his  government,  and 
reconcile  them  to  their  new  home,  he  treated  them  with  special  UberaUty. 


138 


Ancient  History. 


placing  a  governor  over  each,  and  causing  the  Egyptian 
religion  and  laws  to  be  respected.  In  tliis  v/ay  he  reconciled 
the  people  to  his  rule,  but  he  constantly  kept  a  standing 
army  of  Greeks  and  Macedonians. 

96.    Of  all  the  successors  of  Alexander,  he  alone  partici 
pated  in  the  scientific  and  literary  taste  of  the  great  con- 
queror.   He  collected  an  immense  library,  invited 
men  of  learning  to  take  up  their  residence  at  his 


Literature,  etc. 


POUT  OF  AT.FXAM>UIA 


capital,  and  established  the  Mvseum,,  a  kind  of  University, 
which  drew  together  a  vast  body  of  students  from  all  parts. 
He  also  adorned  his  capital 
I  with  many  splen- 

Pharos.  -^      ^ 

did  edinces;  con- 
structed the  lofty  Pharos,  of 
white  marble,  four  hundred 
feet  high,  upon  the  island 
which  formed  the  port  of  the 
city,  I  and  a  mole  or  cause- 
way connecting  the  island 
with  the  shore  {Hep-ta-sta' - 
di-um) ;  also  a  mausoleum 
{So'ina)  to  contain  the  body 
of    Alexander,    the    Hippo- 


other  buildings. 


drome,  and  the  temple  of  Se-ra'pis.     He  like 
wise  rebuilt    the  inner    chamber  of    the  great 
temple  at  Karnak.     He  died,  after  a  reign  of  forty  years, 


♦Alexandria  was  built  upon  a  grand  plan.  Including  the  suburbs,  It  had  a  cir 
cuit  of  fifteen  miles,  and  was  cro.ssed  at  right  angles  by  two  avenues  a  hundred 
feet  wide  and  adorned  with  temples,  eolounades,  and  palaces.  At  the  iutei-section 
of  these  there  was  a  lofty  esplanade,  or  square,  from  which  could  be  viewed  the 
entire  harbor, 

t  This  edifice  was  reckoned  among  the  "seven  wonders  of  the  world."  It  was 
not  completed  till  three  years  after  Ptolemy's  death.  The  light  constantly  burn- 
ing on  its  summit  was  visible,  it  is  said,  for  forty  miles.  Tlie  "seven  wonders" 
were  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt,  the  flanging  Oarden  of  IJabylon  (p.  .30),  the  TtMnple 
of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  the  Statue  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia,  the  Mausoleum  at  Ilall- 
camassue  (p.  140),  the  Colots^u?  ftt  Rhodes  (p.  147),  and  the  Pharos  (p.  137)  at  Alex 
andiHo. 


Kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies,  1^^ 

at  the  age  of  eighty-four  (283  B.C.).  Ptolemy  I.  was  cer- 
tainly one  of  the  ablest  and  most  enlightened  kings  that  ever 
reigned. 

96.  Ptolemy  II.,  called  Philadelphus  (because  he  married 
his  own  sister),  was  also  a  great  patron  of  literature. and 
science,  and  did  much  to  advance  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  the  country.  He  reopened  the  canal 
connecting  the  Red  Sea  with  the  Nile  (originally 


Ptolemy 
Philadelphus. 


constructed  by  Ramescs  II.),  and  built  the  port  of  Ar-sin'o-e, 
on  the  site  of  the  modern  Suez.  He  likewise  founded  Bere- 
nice on  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  opened  a  high-road 
from  it  to  a  point  on  the  Nile  near  Thebes  (Coptos),  forming 
part  of  the  caravan  route  by  which  the  merchandise  of  Arabia, 
Ethiopia,  and  India  was,  for  many  centuries,  carried  into 
Europe*  Ptolemais,  on  the  Red  Sea,  became  the  emporium 
of  the  ivory  trade,  which  was  very  vahiable  at  that  time. 
Ptolemy  boasted  that  ^'no  citizen  was  idle  in  Alexandria?" 
"  Glass-blowing,  the  weaving  of  linen,  paper-making  from  the 
papyrus,  and  the  arts  connected  with  the  shipping  trade," 
employed  the  whole  people.  Even  the  blind  and  lame,  it  was 
said,  were  taught  to  labor. 

97.  The  a'lnual  revenue  of  this  king  from  Egypt  alone, 
exclusive  of  the  tribute  in  grain,  amounted  to  nearly  eighteen 
millions  of  dollars.  His  military  force  comprised 
an  army  of  about  250,000  men,  besides  elephants 
and  war-chariots;  and  he  had  a  fleet  of  1500  ves- 


State  of  the 
kingdom. 


sels.  But  his  efforts  in  behalf  of  learning  were  the  chief 
source  of  his  fame.  He  augmented  vastiy  the  library  com- 
menced by  his  father;  invited  learned  men  to  his  court,  and 
patronized  important  literary  works.     Among  the  latter  was 

*  The  vessels  of  the  Alexandrian  merchants,  starting  from  Berenice,  sailed  down 
the  Red  Sea,  and  along  the  Arabian  and  Indian  coasts  to  the  mouths  of  the  Indus, 
or  sometimes  as  far  as  Mangalore,  on  the  Malabar  coast.  Then,  after  receiving 
their  cargoes,  they  returned  by  the  same  cautious  navigation  to  Berenice,  whence 
the  merchandise  was  transported  by  caravans  to  Coptos  on  the  Nile,  and  thence 
floated  down  to  Alexandria. 


140 


Ancient  History, 


the  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  into  Greek,*  and 
the  History  of  Egypt,  by  Manetho.  Philadelphus 
was  also  a  great  patron  -of  the  arts,  and  adorned 


Literary  works. 


Alexandria  with  architectural  works  of  great  magnificence. 
He  died  after  a  reign  of  thirty-eight  years  (247  b.g.) 

98.   Under   Ptolemy   Eu-er'ge-tes   (the  Benefactor),   the 
kingdom  attained  its  greatest  extension,  comprising  Egypt, 


Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus. 

Nubia,  the  Cyrenaica,  i)art  of  Ethiopia,  a  ]>ortion  of  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Arabia,  Palestine,  Phcenicia,  and  Coele-Syria, 
Oilicia,  Pamphylia,  Lycia,  Caria,  including  the  famous  city 
of    Halicarnas'sus,!    and    Ionia,    besides    Cyprus    and    the 

♦  This  was  the  famous  translation  called  the  Septnarjint  (septxinginta,  seventy), 
BO  called  from  the  ntiml>er  of  persons  engaged  in  the  work.  It  was  prosecuU^d 
during  several  reigns. 

t  Halicarnassus  was  the  birth-place  of  Herodotus.  It  was  at  first  a  Dorian  city, 
but  afterward  conquered  by  the  Persians,  tliough  It  retained  its  Greek  character. 
The  most  noted  of  Its  rulers  was  Mausulus,  whose  widow  Artemisia,  after  his 


The  Minor  Kingdoms.  141 

Cyclades,  and  a  part  of  Thrace.     [See  map  IV.]     This  king 
was  not  only  a  great  conqueror,  but  a  j^atron 
of  learning  and   art;    and    many   distinguished 
scholars  flourished  during  his  reign.     The  glorious 


Ptolemy 
Euergetes. 


period  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies  terminates  with 
Euergetes.  A  succession  of  wicked  and  incapable  monarchs 
occupied  the  throne  during  the  remaining  period  of  its  history, 
until  its  final  conquest  by  Kome,  during  the  reign  of  Queen 
Cleopatra,  the  last  of  the  Ptolemies  (31  B.C.). 

rv.  The  Minor  Kingdoms. 

99.  In  addition  to  the  three  great  kingdoms  of  Macedonia, 
Syria,  and  Egypt,  formed  out  of  the  vast  dominions  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  there  were  several  smaller  states, 
which  played  an  important  part  in  the  history  of 


Minor  states. 


this  period.  Chief  among  these  were  Pergamus,  Bithynia, 
Paphlagonia,  Pontus,  and  Cappadocia,  in  Asia  Minor;  Ar- 
menia, Bactria,  and  Parthia,  in  the  East;  and  Judea.  The 
last  mentioned  has  already  been  treated  of;  and  a  brief  sketch 
will  here  be  given  of  the  others,  in  order  that  tlie  subsequent 
history  may  be  better  understood.     [See  map  IV.] 

100.  Pergamus  was  founded  by  a  lieutenant  of  Lysimachus 
(283  B.C.),  but  did  not  acquire  any  prominence  until  the 
reign  of  Attains,  who  distinguished  himself  by  his  alliance 
with  the  Romans  in  the  war  against  Antiochus.  This  king- 
dom lasted  150  years,  at  the  end  of  which  its  last  king, 
Attains  III.,  left  it,  with  all  its  treasures,  to  the  Romans 

death  (352  b.c),  erected  to  his  memory  so  magnificent  a  monument  that  every 
similar  structure  has  been  called  a  mausoleum.  This  monument  was  ranked 
among  the  "seven  wonders  of  the  world,"  on  account  of  its  size  and  artistic 
beauty.  The  basement  was  nearly  square,  about  400  feet  in  circumference  and 
50  feet  high,  above  which  rose  a  structure  surrounded  with  Ionic  columns,  sup- 
porting a  pyramid,  which  was  surmounted  by  a  four-horse  chariot,  containing  a 
statue  of  Mausolus,  about  ten  feet  high.  Tliis  statue  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  cut  represents  the  design  as  restored  by  means  of  portions  of  the  building 
recovered  by  excavations  made  within  the  last  twenty-five  years. 


142  Ancient  History. 


(133  B.C.).     The  kings  of  Pergamus  were  noted  for  their 

attention  to  literature;  and  they  collected  an  immense  library, 

which  was  afterward  carried  to  Alexandria. 

101.  Bithynia,   even  in  the   Persian  period,  was  partly 

governed  by  native  princes,  and  was  not  completely  reduced 
by  Alexander.  It  continued  to  be  an  independent 
kingdom  until  the  Roman  conquests  began  in  the 


Bithynia. 


east,  and  was  brought  to  an  end  by  Nic-o-me'des,  its  last 
king,  who  bequeathed  it  to  the  Romans  (74  B.C.). 

102.   Paphlagonia  had,  like  Bithynia,  partially  achieved 
its  independence  dunng  the  time  of -the  Persian  Empire;  but, 
on    the    destruction   of    that   monarchy,  it  was 
annexed   to   Pontus.      It  regained   its  indepen- 


Paphlagonia. 


dence  about  200  B.C.,  but  was  again  seized  by  Mithrida'tes 

the  Great,  of  Pontus,  and  was  once  more  united  with  that 

kingdom. 

103.  Pontus,  originally  a  part  of  the  Persian  satrapy  of 

Cappadocia,  declared  its  independence  about  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century  B.C.,  and  maintained  itself  as 
a  separate  kingdom,  under  a  line  of  able  mon- 


Pontus. 


archs,  till  the  time  of  the  long  war  between  the  Romans  and 
its  great  king  Mithridates.  At  the  close  of  that  war,  the 
greater  part  of  its  dominions  was  formed  into  a  Roman 
province. 

104.    Cappadocia,   the  southern  portion  of   the  Persian 
satrapy  of  that  name,  revolted  from  the  sway  of  th.e  Mace- 
donian rulers,  about  315  B.C.,   and  no  attempt 
was  made  by  Antigonus  or  Seleucus  to  reduce 


Cappadocia. 


it  to  obedience.     It  came  into  frequent  conflicts  with  the 
Roman  power,  but  was  not  finally  subdued  till  17  a.d. 

105.  Armenia,  after  its  revolt  from  the  rule  of  Antiochus 
the  Great  (190   B.C.),  was  split  up  into  two  kingdoms — tlie 
Greater  and   the  Lesser  Armenia.     The  former 
(Armenia  Major)  continued  till  its  conquest  by 


Armenfa. 


tlie  Romans  under  Trajan  (114  a.d.);  the  latter  had  been 


Grecian  Cimlization.  143 

many  years  previously  absorbed  by  Pontils,  and  conquered, 
with  that  kingdom,  by  the  Romans. 

106.  Bactria  assumed  the  position  of  a  free  state  in  the 
middle  of  the  third  century  B.C.,  and  retained  its  indepen- 
dence until  it  was  overwhelmed  by  the  Parthians 
and  the  Scythian  hordes  from  the  north  during 
the  next  century.      Parthia  arose  at  about  the 


Bactria  and 
Parthia. 


same  time  as  Bactria,  during  the  weak  reign  of  Antiochus  XL 
(about  255  B.C.).  The  revolt  of  the  Parthians  was  the  uprising 
of  a  Turanian  people  against  their  foreign  rulers;  and,  from  a 
small  beginning,  they  gradually  spread  their  power  over  the 
greater  part  of  Western  Asia.*  For  five  centuries  the  Par- 
thian nation  retained  its  independence  and  influence,  until  it 
finally  succumbed  again  to  the  Aryan  race,  as  represented  in  the 
New  Persian  Monarchy  (226  A. p.).     [See  maps  V.  and  VIL] 


SECTION  VIII. 

Grecian  Civilization". 

I  Eaely  Customs  and  Institutions. 

107.  In  the  early  period  of  Greek  civilization,  the  people 
were  the  willing  subjects  of  their  kings;  and  accounts  of  the 
chiefs,  warriors,  and  heroes  occupy  all  the  space 
in   the  annals   or  literature   of  the  time.     The 


Early  period. 


king,  at  first,  was  merely  a  chief  among  the  patriarchs,  or 
heads  of  families.  Unlike  the  mighty  Babylonian  or  Egyp- 
tian monarchs,  he  was  a  simple  ruler,  witiiout  any  grand 
palace,  military  host,  or  crowd  of  slaves.  The  affluent  re- 
joiced in  their  extensive  flocks  and   herds,  faiTns  and  vine- 

»  The  Parthians  checked  the  Roman  conquests  by  the  signal  defeat  of  Crassus 
and  his  army  (52  b.c).  Their  cavalry  of  mounted  archers  was  the  most  formidable 
known,  their  arrows  being  discharged  backward  with  deadly  effect  while  they 
were  retreating  with  the  speed  of  the  wind. 


i44  Ancient  History. 

yards;  the  poor  were  agricultural  or  pastoral  laborers.  But 
this  was  only  the  primitive  state  of  things,  and  among  the 
earliest  inhabitants,  to  whom  reference  is  made  in  the  mythSy 
or  traditionary  legends  of  that  remote  period. 

108.  When  the  people  living  near  the  coasts  came  into 
communication  with  the  Phoenician   merchants,  a  new  life 
began;    and  the   energies  of    the   Greeks   were 
aroused  to  build  ships  and  trade  with  foreign 
peoples.     They  also  learned  the  Phoenician  mode 


Rise  of 
commerce. 


of  writing,  as  well  as  their  system  of  weights  and  measures, 
and  many  other  things;  and  they,  moreover,  learned  to  employ 
their  skill  in  ship-building  and  navigation  for  the  purpose  of 
piracy  and  pillage. 

109.  The  poems  of  Homer  give  us  a  pretty  clear  idea  of 
Greek  life  and  manners  during  the  period  of  the  Trojan  war, 
in  the  twelfth  century  B.C.     The  king  was  ruler, 
priest,  and  judge,  presiding  over  religious  cerenio- 


Homeric  period. 


nies,  and  offering  up  public  prayers  and  sacrifices.  He  assem- 
bled the  chiefs  in  council  to  discuss  the  affairs  of  the  com- 
munity, and  to  deliberate  upon  the  measures  to  be  adopted ;  and 
of  these  notice  was  given  to  the  people  convened  in  the  market- 
place {ag'ora),  but  there  was  no  popular  vote.  The  king 
and  his  council  (bou'U)  decided  everything.  The  Homeric 
period  was  a  time  of  war  and  lawless  violence.  Neither 
property  nor  life  was  respected;  and  those  who  resisted  the 
depredations  of  powerful  robbers  or  pirates  were  liable  to 
be  carried  off  as  slaves.  We  find,  however,  that  women  were 
treated  with  more  tenderness  and  respect  than  by  many  other 
of  the  peoples  of  that  age;  and  instances  of  generosity,  friend- 
ship, and  honor  abound  in  the  mythical  narratives  of  tlie  time. 
110.  The  stories  of  that  age  about  the  great  kings  and 
heroes  that  flourished,  and  p6rformed  prodigies 
of  daring  and  strength,  ])()ssess  a  })eculiar  interest. 
J  Such  are  the  accounts  given  of  those  who  took 


Kings  and 
heroes. 


Dart  in  the  famous  siege  of   Troy — Ag-a-mcm'non,  king  of 


O^ redan  Cimlization.  145 

My-ce'nag,  in  Argolis,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Greek 
forces  engaged  in  that  famous  war;  U-lys'ses,  king  of  the 
Island  of  Ithaca;  Nes'tor,  the  sage  monarch  of  Pylus;  the 
valiant  Di-o-me'dss,  of  Argos ;  and  the  terrible  heroes 
Achilles  (a-hiVUz)  and  Ajax. 

111.  The  ruins  of  Mycenae  and  Ti'ryns,  in  Argolis,  show 
that  their  builders  possessed  a  remarkable  knowledge  of  many 
arts.  Some  of  the  walls  are  made  of  blocks 
of  stone  so  enormous  that  it  would  seem  they 
could  have  been  moved  only  by  people  of  gigantic 


Mycenae  and 
Tiryns. 


strength.  Of  these  the  massive  gate  of  Mycenae  and  the  arch 
of  Tiryns  are  examples.  Hence,  this  style  of  architecture  has 
been  called  Cyclopean  (from  Cy'clops^  the  name  of  a  giant). 
At  Tiryns  there  are  walls  twenty-five  feet  thick;  and  both 
there  and  at  Mycenae  the  most  wonderful  remains  have  been 
exhumed  by  that  diligent  explorer.  Dr.  Schlie- 
mann,  who  has  also  discovered  and  explored,  it  is 
believed,  the  site  of  ancient  Troy.     It  is  made 


Schliemann' 
discoveries. 


evident  by  these  researches  that  the  houses  of  the  nobles  of 
this  period  were  adorned  with  gold,  silver,  and  bronze  orna- 
ments of  elegant  design  and  workmanship. 

n.  Religion  of  the  Greeks. 

112.  As  a  people  the  Greeks  were  very  religious.  They 
lived  under  a  constant  sense  of  the  presence  and  influence  of 
unseen  powers  and  intelligences,  and  worshiped  them  with  a 
variety  of  rites  and  ceremonies.  All  the  events  and  incidents 
of  life  were  construed  as  the  effects  of  the  interference  of 
their  deities,  towards  whom  they  constantly  maintained  a 
feeling  of  reverence  and  awe.  The  objects  of  their  worship 
were  very  numerous,  but  there  were  certain  deities  that 
received  a  special  adoration,  among  whom  the  following 
twelve  were  regarded  as  the  great  gods  and  goddesses  of 
Olympus,  upon  the  summit  of  which  mountain,  it  was  con- 
ceived, they  had  their  abode:  Zeus  (zuse),  or  Jupiter,  as  called 


146 


Ancient  History, 


by  the 


Gods  of 
Olympus. 


Romans,  Po-sei'don  (Ne])tiine),  A-pol'lo,  A'n's 
(Mars),  He-phtes'tos  (Vulcan),  Her'mes  (Mer- 
cury), He're  (Juno),  Athe'ne  (Minerva),  Ar'- 
temis    (Diana),    Apli-ro-di'te    (Venus),    Hcs'tia 


(Vesta),  De-me'ter  (Ceres). 

113.  In  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks,  who  attributed  tlie 
characteristics  of  mortals  to  their  deities,  Zeus  was  conceived 


Zeus. 


to  be  the  king  of  the  Gods.  He  ruled  over  the 
divine  ag'ora  when  in  session  upon  the  heights  of 
Olympus,  and  kept  each  of  the  lesser  deities  within  the  s})ecial 
scope  of  his  or  her  powers.     He  was  the  descendant  of  Kron'os, 

and  himself  the  progenitor 
of  many  of  the  otlier  deities. 
Thus  Minerva  is  said  to 
have  sprung  from  his  brain. 
His  wife  was  Here  or  Juno. 
It  was,  according  to  the 
Greek  conception,  Zeus  who 
punished  crime  and  wicked- 
ness and  rewarded  virtue  and 
heroism.  He  wielded  the 
tliunderbolt,  and  often  in- 
flicted swift  and  unrelent- 
ing chastisement  upon  the 
wrong-doer.  In  the  early  period,  such  a  human  personage 
might  satisfy  the  ideas  of  an  undeveloped  race;  but  wlion 
Greece,  and  more  particularly  Athens,  rose  to  its  wonderful 
height  in  intellectual  culture,  the  thinkers  and  philosophers 
turned  from  it  to  loftier  and  more  spiritual  conceptions  of  a 
supreme,  over-ruling  deity. 

114.  The  following  are  the  characteristics  and  modes  of 
representation  of  these  several  personages: 

1.  iA'\%,  called  tlie  Gloud-ffntJierer,  tho.  Thunderer,  the  Supreme  Unler, 
the  Father  of  god»  and  man,  was  usually  roprescnted  as  seated  on  a 
throne  with  the  thunderbolts  in  his  right  hand,  a  scepter  in  his  left,  and 


A  Grj 


Grecian  Cimlization.  147 

an  eagle  by  his  side,  as  a  symbol  of  bis  kingship  among  the  gods.  His 
statue  at  Olympia,  made  of  gold  and  ivory,  was  forty  feet  in  height, 
and  was  reckoned  among  the  "seven  wonders."  It  was  the  work  ot 
Phi'di-as,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Greek  sculptors. 

2.  Poseidon,  the  Roman  Neptune,  the  brother  of  Zeus,  was  the  ruler 
of  the  sea.  He  is  called  by  Homer  the  Earth-shaker,  for  he  had  con- 
trol of  earth-quakes.  He  is  represented  as  driving  over  the  sea  in  a 
chariot  drawn  by  sea-horses,  holding  the  trident  in  his  hand.  His 
wife  was  a  sea-goddess  named  Am-phi-tri''te ;  and  various  sea-deities, 
Ne're-ids,  Tri'tons,  etc.,  were  his  attendants, 

3.  Apollo,  the  son  of  Zeus,  and  god  of  the  sun,  called  sometimes 
PhceboS' Apollo,  or  god  of  light.  He  was 
worshiped  occasionally  as  He'lios,  the  sun, 
particularly  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  where 
there  was  an  enormous  bronze  statue  of 
him — the  famous  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  reck- 
oned among  the  Seven  Wonders;*  though, 
originally,  Helios  was  a  separate  divinity. 
Apollo  was  also  the  god  of  music,  song,  and 
poetry ;  of  medicine,  and  of  various  earth- 
ly blessings;  and  he  was  the  imperson- 
ation of  manly  beauty,  as  he  is  repre- 
sented by  the  sculptors.  The  Apollo  Bel- 
videre  is  an  example.  Apollo  presided 
over  the  greatest  oracle  of  antiquity.  Zeus,  or  Jupiter. 

4.  Ares,  son  of  Zeus  and  Here,  presided  over  war,  like  the  Roman 
Mars.  Of  all  the  higher  gods  he  was  the  most  fierce  and  terrible, 
taking  pleasure  in  slaughter  and  destruction.  Hence  he  is  represented 
as  a  warrior  with  helmet,  spear,  and  shield.  The  celebrated  Areopagus, 
at  Athens,  was  thought  to  be  his  principal  seat. 

6.  Hephaestos,  son  of  Zeus  and  Here,  was  the  god  of  fire,  correspond- 
ing  to  the  Roman  Vulcan.  He  was  represented  as  lame  and  deformed. 
He  presided  over  all  the  arts  in  which  fire  is  used;  and  was  kept  busy  in 

*  This  wonderful  work  was  made  from  the  spoils  left  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
when  he  raised  the  protracted  siege  of  Rhodes.  It  was  commenced  by  a  sculptor 
named  Chares,  who,  finding  the  "um  of  money  appropriated  for  its  construction 
exhausted  before  it  was  half  completed,  committed  suicide.  It  was,  accordingly, 
finished  by  another  artist.  The  statue  vas  105  feet  high,  and  contained  a  winding 
staircase  reaching  to  the  head.  It  was  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake  after  it  had 
Ktood  56  years  (224  B.C.),  and  lay  prostrate  nine  ceaturies,  when  it  was  sold  to  a  Jew 
by  the  Saracens  after  their  capture  of  Rhodes  According  to  the  Roman  writer 
Pliny,  Rhodes  bad  one  hundred  colossal  statues,  though  none  so  large  as  the  Colossus. 


148  Ancieiii  History. 


his  blacksmith-shop  in  Vesuvius,  forging  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupiter 
and  the  arms  and  armor  of  Ares.     He  was  married  to  Aphrodite. 

6.  Hermes,  sou  of  Zeus,  the  Mercury  of  the  Romans,  was  the  mes- 
senger of  the  gods.  He  presided  over  trade  and  commerce,  and  was 
noted  for  his  cunning  and  adroitness.  He  is  represented  as  a  strong, 
beardless  youth,  with  short  hair,  a  winged  cap  {pet'asus),  a  herald's  staff 
with  wings  (cadiiceus),  twined  with  snakes,  in  one  hand,  and  a  pui-se  in 
the  other,  and  having  winged  sandals  on  his  feet. 

7.  Here,  or  Juno,  was  the  sister  as  well  as  the  wife  of  Zeus,  being 
the  daughter  of  Krouos.  She  wears  a  royal  diadem  and  scepter,  and 
a  veil  spangled  with  stars,  to  indicate  her  rank  as  the  queen  of  heaven. 
She  is  represented  as  a  woman  of  beauty,  but  of  great  majesty  and 
sternness.  She  was  the  patron  and  protectress  of  marriage,  but  the 
impersonation  of  jealousy,  pride,  and  revenge. 

8.  Athene,  or  Minerva,  called  also  Pallas,  or  Pallas- Athene,  was  the 
daughter  of  Zeus,  according  to  the  myth,  springing  from  his  brain  fully 
armed.  She  was  the  goddess  of  war  and  wisdom,  and  is  represented  tis 
a  stately  woman  of  great  beauty,  with  spear,  shield,  and  helmet.  On 
her  breast  was  the  aegis,  having  the  head  of  Medusa  in  the  centre,  sur- 
rounded by  a  border  of  snakes.  She  was  always  represented  as  a  pure 
virgin.  She  was  the  patron  goddess  of  Athens,  where  the  celebrated 
temple  called  the  Parthenon  (see  page  165)  was  constructed  in  her  honor. 
This  temple  contiiined  a  magnificent  gold  and  ivory  statue  of  the  god- 
dess, carved  by  Phidias.  This  statue  no  longer  exists,  having  perished 
in  some  manner  entirely  unknown.  The  last  record  we  have  of  it  is  in 
the  year  375  a.d.  There  was  another  statue  of  the  goddess  at  Athens, 
made  by  the  same  artist.  The  oldest  statue  was  the  famous  Palladium, 
which  the  Greeks  carried  off  from  Troy,  during  the  Trojan  war.  It 
was  an  immense  wooden  figure,  which  was  believed  to  have  fallen  from 
heaven,  and  was  held  in  great  reverence  by  the  Trojans  as  the  special 
safeguard  of  their  city.  Several  of  the  Grecian  cities  afterwards 
claimed  to  have  ix)ssession  of  it,  as  it  was  thought  to  afford  protection 
and  safety.  Hence  the  term  palladium  has  been  used  to  express  what- 
ever gives  special  assurance  of  security. 

9.  Artemis,  or  Diana,  was  the  twin  sister  of  Apollo,  and  was  the 
goddess  of  the  moon,  of  night,  and  of  hunting.  She  is  represented  as 
very  beautiful,  wearing  sandals  on  her  feet,  a  quiver  full  of  arrows, 
and  a  bow  or  spear  in  her  hand.* 


*  The  worship  of  Diana  prevailed  more  in  some  parts  of  colonial  Greece  than  in 
Greece  proper.  At  Ephe8iis  she  had  a  temple  which,  on  account  of  its  maf^rnili- 
cence,   was  counted  among  the  seven  woiulere  of  the  world.    Here  Diana  was 


Grecian  Civilization.  149 

10.  Aphrodite,  or  Venus,  was  the  goddess  of  love  and  beauty.  She 
is  represented  with  her  son  Eros,  or  Cupid.  Her  worship  was  very 
extensive. 

11.  Hestia,  or  Vesta,  a  daughter  of  Kronos,  was  the  goddess  of  the 
home-fire  or  -hearth,  and  the  guardian  of  family  life.  She  is  repre- 
sented as  a  virgin  standing  or  sitting,  neatly  clad,  and  holding  a  lamp 
in  one  hand  and  a  scepter  in  the  other. 

12.  Demeter;  or  Ceres,  a  sister  of  Zeus,  was  the  goddess  of  the  fruits 
of  the  earth,  particularly  grain.  She  is  represented  as  wearing  a  long 
robe,  with  a  poppy  and  ears  of  w^heat  in  her  right  hand  and  a  torch  in 
the  left.  She  was  the  mother  of  Per-seph'o-ne,  or  Pros'er-pine,  who  was 
stolen  from  her  by  Pluto,  and  carried  to  Ha'des. 

115.  These  deities  were,  during  tlie  period  of  Greek 
paganism,  the  primary  objects  of  religious  worship ;  but 
there  were  several  others,  some  of  whom  were 
almost  as  prominent.     Thus  the  most  ancient  of 


Other  deities. 


all  was  Gaea  (the  earth),  who  was  married  to  her  own  son 
Uranos  (heaven),  with  whom  commenced  the  race  of  the 
gods.  Uranos  was  the  father  of  the  Titans  and  other  mon- 
sters, those  mighty  beings  who  personified  the  forces  of 
nature,  by  which  the  great  geological  changes  of  the  earth 
were  effected.  Kronos,  the  father  of  Zeus,  and  Oceanus  (the 
ocean)  were  the  sons  of  Uranos,  who  had  a  numerous  off- 
spring. All  these  seem  to  personify  the  great  physical  prin- 
ciples and  forces  concerned  in  the  operations  of  nature.  Thus 
from  Uranos  (the  sky)  comes  the  fertility  which  the  earth 
receives  from  rain,  dew,  etc.  Similar  personifications  were 
also  Nyx  (night),  Hyp'nos  (sleep),  and  0-nei'ros  (dream);  but 
in  the  mythology  their  actual,  not  allegorical,  personality  was 
i-ecognized.* 

represented  in  a  peculiar  manner.  This  temple  was  set  on  fire  by  a  man  named 
Heros'tratos,  on  the  night  of  the  birth  of  Alexander  the  Great,  but  was  afterwards 
rebuilt  with  greater  splendor;  but  not  a  vestige  of  it  now  remains.  The  worship 
of  Diana  was  at  its  height  when  St.  Paul  went  to  Ephesus  to  preach  Christianity. 

*  "  I  maintain  fully  tne  character  of  these  great  divine  agents  as  persons,  which 
is  the  light  in  which  they  presented  themselves  to  the  Homeric  or  Hesiodio  audi- 
ence. To  resolve  them  into  mere  allegories  is  unsafe  and  unprofitable;  we  then 
depart  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  original  hearers  without  acquiring  any  con- 
sistent or  philosophical  point  of  view  of  our  own."— (rro^e. 


150  Ancient  History. 


116.  The  Greeks  believed  in  an  unseen  world,  which  they 
called  Ha'des,  and  which  they  placed  below  the  surface  of  the 
earth.    This  was  the  abode  of  the  invisible  spirits, 
or  *' shades  of  the  dead,"  in  various  conditions  of 


Hades. 


bliss  or  misery,  expiating  the  crimes  committed  in  their  earthly 
lives.  Over  this  realm  presided  the  King  of  the  Dead,  Pluto, 
sometimes  called  Hades,  who  was  a  brother  of  Zeus.  Di-o-ny'- 
sos,  or  Bacchus,  was  also  a  famous  deity,  being 
devoted  to  wine,  feasting,  and  merriment.     His 


Dionysos. 


worship  was  accompanied  with  many  shocking  customs.  The 
Dionysia,  or  Bacchanaliay  were  wild  ceremonies  in  which  men 
(Bacchantes)  and  women  (Bacchae)  often  abandoned  them- 
selves, for  days  and  nights  together,  to  the  wildest  and  most 
licentious  orgies.  These  rites  were  permitted  only  at  certain 
times  of  the  year. 

117.  There  were  also  deities  who  performed  special  ser- 
vices to  the  greater  gods,  suchasl'ris,  He'be,  etc.;  the  Muses, 
who  presided  over  the  different  departments  of 
literature,   music,   and  art ;    the   three   Graces : 


Special  deities. 


besides  deified  heroes  and  benefactors  of  mankind,  as  Per'seus, 
Her'cu-les,  ^s-cu-la'pi-us,  etc.;  and  monsters, 
the  offspring  of  the  gods,  as  the  nur'})ies,  the 


Monsters. 


Gor'gons,  Cen'taurs,  Cer'be-rus,  the  Dragon  of  the  Hesper'- 

i-des,  etc. 

118.  All  these  deities  were  not  universally  worshiped,  at 

any  rate  not  in  the  same  degree.  Different  places  were 
especially  devoted  to  the  worship  of  different 
gods  and  goddesses;    and   some  of  them  were 


Local  religion. 


worshiped  only  in  particular  places,.bcing  unknown  in  others; 
as,  for  instance,  marine  deities  among  people  connected  with 
the  sea.  This,  however,  was  the  case  only  with  the  minor  deities; 
while  a  belief  in  the  great  Olympian  gods  and  goddesses  was 
common  to  the  whole  Hellenic  nation.  Thus  all  shared  in 
paying  honor  to  Zeus  in  the  great  festivals  at  Olymjiia;  to 
Demeter  in  the  mysteries  of  Elcusis;  and  to  Apollo  by  con- 


Grecian  Oivilization.  151 

suiting  the  oracles;  and  all  had  faith  in  the  power  of  Poseidon, 
as  the  ruler  of  the  sea,  in  Pluto  as  the  king  of  Hades,  in  Here 
as  the  queen  of  heaven,  in  Ares  as  the  god  of  war,  and  in 
Aphrodite  as  the  goddess  of  love. 

119.  The  worship  of  the  Greeks  consisted  chiefly  of  prayers 
and  sacrifices.  The  former  were  frequent  and  universal,  being 
offered  up  both  in  the  temples  and  in  other  public 
places,  in  the  public  assemblies,  courts  of  justice, 


Worship. 


and  in  the  home-circle,  morning  and  evening  before  meals. 
These  prayers  were  usually  oral,  but  were  sometimes  written  on 
tablets  and  deposited  beside  the  image  of  the  god.  One  such 
tablet  reads:  ''Zeus,  our  lord,  give  unto  us  whatever  is  good, 
whether  we  ask  it  of  thee  or  not;  whatever  is  evil  keep  far 
from  us,  even  if  we  ask  it  of  thee."  The  sacrifices  were  either 
animals,  led  to  the  altar  decked  with  garlands  and  ribbons, 
or  fruits,  cakes,  etc.  Wine,  milk,  honey,  and  oil  were  usually 
poured  out  in  libations.  These  sacrifices  were  offered  at 
regular  times,  as,  for  example,  at  the  time  of  harvest,  when  a 
portion  of  the  first-fruits  was  offered  to  the  gods  as  a  token 
of  thankfulness  for  blessings  received. 

120.  Religious  festivals  among  the  Greeks  took  the  place 
of  the  Jewish  or  Christian  Sabbath.  Of  these  some  were  held 
at  certain  times;  others  came  at  irregular  inter- 
vals, and  often  lasted  two  or  three  days  at  a  time; 


Festivals. 


while  occasions  of  temple  service,  sacrifices,  and  entertainments 
were  quite  frequent.  During  the  regular  festivals,  which  were 
also  numerous,  there  was  a  general  relaxation,  all  giving 
way  to  festivity  and  merriment.*     Among  these  festivals 

*  "When  the  appointed  day  arrives,  the  priests  open  the  temples,  pay  diligent 
attention  to  the  statues,  and  nothing  is  neglected  which  contributes  to  the  pubUc 
convenience.  The  cities,  too,  are  crowded  with  a  conflux  of  the  neighboring 
inhabitants,  assembled  to  celebrate  the  festival,  some  coming  on  foot,  others  in 
ships.  At  sunrise  they  enter  the  temples,  in  splendid  garments,  worshiping  that 
divinity  to  whom  the  festival  is^cred.  Every  master  of  a  house  precedes, 
bearing  frankincense;  a  servant  follows  him,  leading  a  victim;  and  children  walk 
by  the  side  of  their  parents,  some  very  young,  and  others  of  a  more  advanced  age, 
already  feeling  the  strong  influence  of  the  gods.    One)  having  perfonned  bis 


153 


Ancient  History, 


were  the  Dionysia,  in  honor  of  Bacchus,  already  referred  to, 
ihe  mysteries  of  E-leu'sis,  and  the  Thes-mo-pho'ri-a  in  honor  of 
Demeter,  the  Pan-a-then-a'ic  Festival  at  Athens,  in  honor 
of  Athene,  the  patron  goddess,  and  the  Daph-ne-pho'ria, 
of  Thebes,  sacred  to  Apollo.  Besides  these,  were  the  great 
national  festivals  of  Greece — the  0-lym'pic,  Pyth'i-an,  Isth'- 
mi-an,  and  Ne'me-an  games,  combining  worship,  festive  recrea- 
tion, and  trials  of  athletic  strength,  as  well  as,  sometimes,  liter- 
ai-y  and  artistic  attainment. 


Olympic 
festival. 


Thb  Foot-rack, 

121.  The  Olympic  festival  was  held  in  honor  of  Zeus,  on 
the  plain  of  Olympia,  in  Elis.  It  took  place  every  fifth  year, 
and  drew  together  an  immense  assemblage  from 
all  parts  of  Greece.  The  exercises  at  the  Olym'pic 
games  consisted  of  running,  wrestling,  boxing, 
chariot-racing,  and  horse-racing;  and  to  be  proclaimed  a 
victor  in  these  games  was  considered  the  highest  honor  a 
Grecian  could  attain.  None  could  contend  in  them  but  those 
of  the  Hellenic  race,  and  all  who  entered  into  these  contests 
were  obliged  to  take  an  oath  that  they  would  use  no  unfair 
— — , 

sacrifice,  departs;  another  comes  forward  to  perform  his.  Numerous  prayers  are 
everywhere  poured  forth,  and  words  of  good   omen  are  mutually  spokoo."— 


Grecian  Civilization,  153 

means  to  obtain  the  yictory.  The  only  prize  bestowed  on  the 
victor  was  a  simple  garland  of  wild  olive.  These  games  were 
the  most  ancient.  They  were  revived,  it  is  said,  by  Lycurgus, 
in  776  B.C.;  and  hence  this  date,  called  the  First  Olympiad, 
was  afterward  employed  by  the  Greeks  as  their  principal 
chronological  era.* 

122.  The  Pythian  games  were  celebrated  in  honor  of 
Apollo,  every  fifth  year,  near  Delphi;  the  Nemean  and  Isth- 
mian games,  once  in  two  years;  the  former,  at 
Ne'mea,  in  honor  of  Zeus;  and  the  latter  on  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth,  in  honor  of  Poseidon.     In 


Pythian  and 
Nemean  games. 


these  festivals  there  were  contests  in  poetry  and  music,  as 
well  as  trials  of  strength.  The  Eleusinian  Mysteries  were 
celebrated  every  year,  and  lasted  ten  days.  It 
was  deemed  the  duty  of  every  Athenian  citizen 


Mysteries. 


to  go  to  Eleusis  at  least  once  during  his  life  for  the  purpose 
of  being  initiated.  These  ceremonies  were  nocturnal;  and, 
it  is  supposed,  were  intended  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of 
the  initiated  the  truth  of  an  existence  beyond  the  grave. 
They  were  sacred  to  Demeter,  and  taught  the  story  of  her 
sorrows  in  the  loss  of  Proserpine,  or  Persephone,  the  stolen 
bride  of  the  dark  king  of  Hades;  but  it  was  a  common  saying 
among  the  Athenians,  "  In  the  mysteries  no  one  is  sad." 

123.  The  habit  of  consulting  the  oracles  for  the  purpose 
of  learning  the  will  of  the  gods  was  another 
important  feature  of   the  Greek   religion.     The 


Oracles. 


oracles  of  Apollo  were  very  numerous,  but  that  at  Delphi  was 

*  "  The  origin  of  this  festival  is  lost  in  the  mythical  ages.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  revived  by  Iph'itus,  king  of  Elis,  and  Lycui^us,  the  Spartan  legislator,  in  the 
year  776  b.c.  ;  and,  accordingly,  when  the  Greeks,  at  a  later  time,  began  to  use  the 
Olympic  contest  as  a  chronological  era,  this  year  was  regarded  as  the  first 
Olympiad,  It  continued  to  maintain  its  celebrity  for  many  centuries  after  the 
extinction  of  Greek  freedom ;  and  it  was  not  till  a.d.  394  that  it  was  finally 
abolished  by  the  Emperor  Theodosius.  It  was  celebrated  at  the  end  of  four  years, 
and  the  interval  which  elapsed  between  each  celebration  was  called  an  Olympiad. 
The  festival  was  called  by  the  Greeks  a  Pentaeteris,  because  it  was  celebrated 
every  fifth  year,  according  to  the  ancient  mode  of  reckoning."— Smith's  History  of 
(jreece. 


154  Ancient  History. 


the  most  famous,  being  greatly  venerated  in  all  parts  of 
Greece,  and  sometimes  consulted  by  foreign  nations,  as  the 
Lydians,  the  Phrygians,  and  the  Romans.  In  the  middle  of 
the  Delphic  temple  there  was  a  small  aperture  in  the  ground, 
over  which  was  placed  the  seat  (tripod)  of  the  Pythia,  a  virgin 
priestess;  and  a  sulphurous  gas  or  vapor  arising  from  the 
opening  acted  upon  her  brain,  putting  her  in  a  kind  of  trance 
or  ecstatic  condition,  during  which  she  gave  expression  to 
what  was  deemed  the  answer  of  the  god,  always  in  hexameter 
verse.  There  were  oracles  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  and  Do-do'na, 
also  in  Libya  (Jupiter  Ammon);  and  of  other  gods  and  heroes 
at  different  places.* 

124.  The  Greeks  also  sought  to  ascertain  the  will  of  the 
gods,  or  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  future  events,  not  only  by 
means  of  the  oracles,  but  by  certain  kinds  of  divination, 
through  interpreting  dreams,  observing  the  flight  of  birds, 
the  entrails  of  sacrificed  animals,  the  direction  of  the  flames 
and  smoke  from  the  altar,  etc.  These  were  auguries  of  good 
or  evil  as  declared  by  the  regularly  ai)pointed  soothsayers. 
Great  attention  was  also  paid  to  omens,  as  earthquakes, 
eclipses,  and  other  unusual  phenomena  of  nature;  and  numy 
of  the  commonest  occurrences  of  life,  if  unavoidable,  were 
looked  upon  as  indicating  the  future.  Even  the  act  of  sneez- 
ing, among  these  superstitious  people,  was  sometimes  deemed 
to  present  an  indication  of  the  will  of  the  gods. 

III.   Greek  Literature. 

FIRST  OR  EARLY  PEIIIOD. 

125.  No  literature  is  more  complete  or  more  interesting 
and  valuable  than  that  of  the  Greeks.     The  genius  or  intel- 

♦  The  responses  of  the  oracles  were  usually  ambiguous.  Thus  when  Cnssus, 
tht;  rich  kinff  of  Lydia,  consulted  the  oracle  before  entering  upon  the  war  with 
Cynis,  the  reply  was  that  if  he  crossed  a  certain  river  he  would  destroy  a  {?reat 
empire.  He  construed  this  to  mean  the  Persian  Kmninr,  but,  as  it  turned  out,  it 
was  Lydia  itself;  for  he  crossed  the  river,  and  was  utterly  defeated  and  liis  kin^ 
Uom  finally  overthrown. 


Grecian  Cimlization. 


155 


lectual  greatness  of  this  people  displayed  itself  in  every  variety 
of  production.     The  epic  poems  attributed  to  Homer — the 

Iliad  and  the  Odyssey — are  still  unrivaled  among  i " 

works   of   their  class.     Little   is   known  of   this  I 
illustrious  poet.     He  was,  most  probably,  one  of  the  Ionic 


and  ^olic  minstrels  of  the  Greek  colonies  in  Asia  Minor,  the 
brightness  of  whose  genius  eclipsed  the  others;  and  hence  his 
name  has  been  given  to  these  wonderful  poems,  collected  many 
centuries  after  they  were  composed.  To  the 
same  age  belongs  He'si-od,  a  native  of  Boeotia, 


Hesiod. 


Lyric  poetry. 


whose  poems — The-og'o-ny  and  Works  and  Days — tell  us  of 
^,,^525^;.  the  birth  and  origin  of  the  gods 

and  goddesses  of  the  Greek  my- 
thology. 

126.  At  a  later  period  (in  the 
seventh  century  B.C.),  when  the 
art  of  music  had  made  progress, 
we  find  lyric  poetry 
beginning  to  flourish, 
among  the  earliest  to  cultivate  it 
being  Ar-chil'o-chus  (about  700 
B.C.),  who,  it  is  said,  was  the 
Homer.  inventor  of  the  elegy,  a  form  of 

emotional  poetry.  It  was  about  this  time  that  Tyr-tae'us,  by 
his  soul-stirring  elegies,  inspired  the  Spartans  to  deeds  of 
patriotism  and  valor,  during  the  Messenian  war,  and  a  little 
later  A-ri'on  flourished,  of  whom  Herodotus  tells  the  wonder- 
ful  story  that  he  was  carried  to  Corinth  on  the  back  of  a 
dolphin,  which  was  charmed  by  his  beautiful  melodies,  for 
poets  sang  and  played,  as  well  as  composed  verses  in  those  days. 
Al-cae'us  and  Sappho  (saffo),  both  of  the  island  of  Lesbos, 
were  a  little  later  (about  600  B.C.).  The  latter  was  the  greatest 
of  all  the  Greek  poetesses,  but  only  fragments  of  her  poetry 
are  extant.  To  these  names  must  be  added  A-na'cre-on,  of 
Ionia,  whose  odes  possess  unrivaled  gi-ace  and  sweetness. 


156  Ancient  History. 


127.  It  was  during  this  early  period  that  the  Seven  Sages 
of  Greece  flourished,  and  also  many  of  the  wisest  of  the 
philosophers.     Among  the  latter  were  (1)  Thales 
of  Miletus  (born  640  B.C.),  the  founder  of  the 


Seven  Sages 


Ionic  school,  and  celebrated  for  his  researches  in  astronomy 
and  geometry;  (2)  Xenophanes  of  Elea  (a  Greek  colony  in 
southern  Italy),  who  founded  the  E-le-at'ic  school,  the  doc- 
trines of  which  were  afterward  developed  by  Par-men'i-des  and 
Zeno;  (3)  Py-thag'o-ras,  of  Samos  (born  about  580  B.C.),  one 
of  the  greatest  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  who  founded  at 
Croton,  in  Italy,  the  Pythagorean  school,  the  doctrines  of 
which  rapidly  spread  over  the  whole  of  Magna  Graecia. 
Pythagoras  taught  the  doctrine  of  the  *  transmigration  of 
souls,"  which  he  seems  to  have  learned  in  his  travels  in 
Egypt  and  Babylonia.  He  also  taught,  it  is  said,  the  ro- 
tundity of  the  earth,  and  the  central  position  of  the  sun  in 
the  solar  system."  His  moral  teachings  were  pure  and  ele- 
vated, and  exercised  a  very  wide  and  powerful  influence. 

SECOND  OR  MIDDLE  TERIOD. 

128.  The  second  or  middle  period   of   Greek  literature 
commences  at  about  the  opening  of  the  Persian  war.     Lyric 
poetry  reached  its  highest  development  in  the 
poems  of  Si-mon'i-des  and  Pindar.     The  former 


Lyric  poetry. 


carried  off  the  prize  for  an  elegy  on  the  fallen  heroes  of 
Marathon;  and  he  afterward  celebrated  in  beautiful  verses 
those  who  gave  their  lives  to  their  country  at  Thermopylae, 
Salamis,  and  Plat^a.  Simonides  died  in  477  B.C.,  at  the  age 
•)f  80.  Pindar,  of  Thebes,  in  B(Botia,  was  somewhat  younger. 
His  odes  are  much  admired  for  their  sublimity;  hence  he  has 
been  styled  the  "Theban  eagle." 

129.  Greek  tragedy,  the  rude  beginnings  of  which  had 
been  made  by  Thcspis,  about  tlie  middle  of  the 
sixth  century,  wiuj  carried  to  a  point  of  great 


Tragedy. 


excellence  by  ^schylns  (es'TcoAvs),  who  may  be  regarded  as 


Grecian  Oimlization,  157 

the  founder  of  the  tragic  art,  which  Eurip'i-des  and  Soph'o-cles 
subsequently  advanced  to  so  high  a  degree  of  perfection  and 
beauty.  Among  the  prose  writers  of  this  period, 
Herodotus,  of  Halicarnassus,  called  the  "Father 


Herodotus. 


of  History,"  claims  the  first  place.  In  his  famous  history  he 
embodied  all  the  results  of  his  extensive  travels  in  Egypt  and 
the  East;  and  it  is  related  that  he  read  his  nine  books  to 
the  assembled  throng  at  the  great  Olympian  festival;  and 
that  the  delighted  audience  gave  the  names  of  the  nine 
muses  to  his  books,  and  paid  him  honors  superior  to  those 
decreed  to  the  victors  in  the  games.*  Herodotus  was  born  in 
484  B.C.,  and  lived  to  the  end  of  the  century. 

130.  Thu-cyd'i-des  merits  the  praise  of  being  a  far  more 
philosophic  historian  than  Herodotus.  His  history  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war  is  written  in  a  chaste  and 
dignified  style,  and  displays  a  remarkable  insight 


Thucydides. 


in  regard  to  the  causes  of  events  and  the  inner  motives  of  men's 
actions.  He  was  born  in  471  B.C.,  being  contemporaneous 
with  Herodotus.  Xenophon  was  a  little  later,  as  he  lived  to 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  He  also  wrote 
history  as  well  as  philosophy.     His  most  noted 


Xenophon. 


works  are  Memorahil'ia  (memorable  things)  of  Socrates,  a 
defense  of  his  great  master;  the  Cyropmdi' a,  an  account  of 
the  life  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  a  kind  of  historical  romance, 
designed  to  illustrate  the  institutions  of  the  early  Persians; 
the  Anab'asis  (ascent),  or  expedition  of  the  younger  Cyrus, 
one  of  the  most  charming  histories  in  existence  ;  and  the 
Helle'nica,  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  Thucydides. 
The  style  of  Xenophon,  clear,  natural,  and  graceful,  won  for 
him  the  title  of  the  "  Attic  bee." 


*  It  is  said  that  Thucydides,  afterward  so  distinguished  as  an  historian,  then  a 
boy,  was  present  at  the  festival  with  his  father,  and  was  so  affected  by  the  recital 
of  Herodotus  that  he  shed  tears,  upon  which  the  great  historian  congratulated  the 
father  upon  having  a  son  who  displayed  so  eariv  such  a  zeal  for  knowledge  and 
literature 


158  Ancient  History. 


131.  Plato  (429-347  B.C.)  stands  pre-eminent  among  the 
philosophers  and  writers  of  his  time,  for  the  extreme  beauty 
of  his  style  and  the  purity  and  spirituality  of  his 
teachings.     He  was  the  founder  of  the  Academic 


Plato. 


school,  so  called  from  the  grove  of  Acade'mus,  near  Athens, 
where  he  delivered  his  lectures.  His  doctrines  are  presented 
in  the  form  of  dialogues,  in  which  the  chief  speaker  is 
Socrates.  Thus,  while  he  imparted  his  own  views,  he  illus- 
trated the  philosophic  teachings  of  his  gi'eat  master,  an 
account  of  whom  has  already  been  given. 

132.  Contemporaneous  with  Socrates  and  Plato,  were  the 
following  philosophers:   An-ax-ag'o-ras,  an  intimate  friend  of 
Pericles,  who  taught  mathematics  and  astronomy; 
Xen-oc'ra-tes,  an  eminent  pupil  of  Plato  ;  Di-og'- 
e-nes,  a  famous  cynic,  who  taught  and  practiced 


Contemporary 
philosophers. 


a  supreme  contempt  for  all  the  usages,  conveniences,  and 
proprieties  of  life,  living,  it  is  said,  for  some  time  in  a  tub; 
Ar-is-tip'pus,  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  who  founded  what  was 
called  the  Cyrenaic  school,  teaching  that  the  highest  good 
consists  in  rational  enjoyment;  and  De-moc'ri-tus,  sometimes 
called  the  *  laughing  philosopher,"  because  he  treated  the 
follies  and  vices  of  mankind  with  ridicule.  He  taught  that 
the  physical  universe  consists  of  atoms,  and  that  nature, 
space,  and  motion  are  eternal. 

133.  Epicurus  (342-270   R.c),  the  founder  of  the  Epi- 
curean  school,  expanded  the  doctrine  of  Aristijipus,  teach- 
ing that  happiness  consists  in  pleasure  derived 
from  the  practice  of  virtue;  while  his  great  con- 


Epicurut. 


temporary,  Zeno,  founded  the  school  of  the  Stoics,  who  were 
noted  for  their  simplicity  and  severity  of  manners,  their 

1  fortitude,  and  the  rigidness  of  their  moral  princi- 

^*"°'  I  pies.  Zeno  selected  for  his  school  a  j)lace  called 
the  Porch  (stoa),  and  hence  his  followers  were  called  the  "  men 
of  the  porch."  This  was  perhaps  the  most  influential,  in  a 
moral  point  of  view,  of  all  the  schools  of  practical  philosophy. 


Grecian  Cimlization.  159 

The  most  illustrious  of  the  writers  on  the  Stoic  philosophy 
were  Ep-ic-te'tus  and  the  Eoman  emperor,  Marcus  Aurelius. 
.     134.   The   Peripatetic   school,  which    Aj'istotle    founded 
(384-322  B.C.),  exerted  the  greatest   intellectual   influence, 
not  only  upon  his  own  age,  but  for  nearly  two 
thousand  years  afterward.     His  works  covered  a 


Aristotle. 


vast  field  of  research,  embracing  the  consideration  of  natural 
as  well  as  moral  philosophy,  besides  history,  rhetoric,  and 
criticism.  His  greatest  claim  to  credit  is  for  his  logical 
system,  which,  as  the  art  of  reasoning,  exerted  great  influence, 
and  is  still  accepted  and  used  as  a  true  analysis  of  the  process 
of  argumentation.  Aristotle  lectured  in  a  place  at  Athens 
called  the  Lyce'um;  and  from  his  habit  of  walking  up  and 
down  while  delivering  his  lectures,  his  school  was  called  the 
Peripatetic  (from  peripatein,  to  walk  about).  Aristotle  was 
selected  by  Philip  of  Macedon  to  be  the  preceptor  of  his  illus- 
trious son  Alexander,  and  the  monarch  afterward  liberally 
assisted  him  in  the  prosecution  of  his  researches. 

136.  The  Greek  drama  embraced  both  tragedy  and  comedy. 
The  former,  as  seen  in  the  works  of  the  two  great  masters, 
Sophocles  and  Euripides,  was  designed  to  illustrate 
not  only  certain  phases  of  human  life  and  passion. 


Drama. 


but  the  relation  of  these  to  the  overruling  power  of  the  gods. 
These  works  were  confined  within  much  more  strict  limita- 
tions as  to  form  and  plot  than  the  modern  tragedy  of  Shake- 
speare and  others.  Athenian  Comedy,  like  tragedy,  derived 
its  origin  from  the  celebration  of  the  Dionysia.  Its  greatest 
masters  were  Ar-is-toph'a-nes  (born  at  Athens  432  B.C.),  who 
ridiculed  Socrates  in  his  comedies,  and  Menander  (born  342 
B.C.),  who  wrote  more  than  one  hundred  comedies,  upon 
which  those  of  the  Roman  dramatists  Plautus  and  Terence 
were  afterward  based. 

136.  Oratory,  which  bears  an  intimate  relation  to  litera- 
ture, was  cultivated  with  wonderful  success,  especially  by  the 
Athenians,  among  whom  schools  of  rhetoric  and  eloquence 


160 


Ancient  History. 


were  early  established.  The  oratory  of  Pericles  has  already 
been  referred  to;  but  it  was  in  the  period  suc- 
ceeding him  that  eloquence  reached  its  greatest 


Oratory. 


height.  Among  the  most  noted  orators  were  Lys'i-as,  I-soc'- 
ra-tes,  ^s-chi'nes,  and  Demosthenes;  but  the  last  mentioned 
eclipsed  all  the  others.  By  the  moderns,  who  have  only 
read  his  orations,  as  well  as  by  the  ancients  who  heard  them 
delivered,  Demosthenes  has  been  pronounced  the  greatest 
orator  that  ever  lived. 


THIRD  OR  LATER  PERIOD. 


Poetry. 


137.  During  this  period,  Alexandria  became  the  seat  of 
learning;  and  the  patronage  of  the  early  Ptole- 
mies drew  to  that  city  the  most  distinguished 

wi'iters  from  all  parts  of   Greece.      Among  these  may  be 

mentioned  The-oc'ri-tus,  the  most 
charming  of  pastoral  poets,  a  na- 
tive of  Syracuse.  Mos'chus,  also 
of  Syracuse,  and  Bi'on,  of  Smyrna, 
were  his  contemporaries  and  imi- 
tators. Their  poems  are  very 
graceful  and  beautiful.  The 
hymns  and  elegies  of  Cal-lim'a- 
chus,  who  also  flourished  at 
Alexandria,  were  widely  admired. 
Ap-oMo'ni-usEho-dius,  the  author 
of  a  noted  poem  on  the  Argo- 

nautic  expedition,  in  the  Homeric  style,  also  belongs  to  this 

period. 

138.  At  Alexandria  flourished,  moreover,  the  schools  of 
the  grammarians  and  critics  Aristophanes  and  Ar-is-tar'chus, 

the  former  being  the  cliief  librarian  during  the 
reigns  of  the  second  and  third  Ptolemy.  Eu'clid, 
the  famous  mathematician,  author  of  tlie  elements 


Demosthenes. 


Grammar  artd 
critlciam. 


of  geometry,  still  used  as  a  text-book,  flourished  at  Alexan- 


Science. 


Chrecian  Cimlization.  161 

dria,  as  also  his  successor  ApoUonius,  who  wiv^te  on  the 
conic  sections,  besides  many  other  mathematicians. 
Ptolemy,  the  greatest  astronomer  and  geographer 
of  antiquity,  also  lived  in  Alexandria  about  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  a.d.  He  was  the  author  of  i.he  famous 
Ptolemaic  system  of  astronomy,  which  placed  the  ettrth  in  the 
center  of  the  universe,  a  theory  that  continued  to  be  main- 
tained until  quite  modern  times. 

139.  Prominent  among  the  prose  writers  of  this  period 
should  be  mentioned  Polyb'ius  (204-122  B.C.),  who  lived  in 
Eome,  and  wrote  a  history  of  the  Koman  republic; 
Dionysius,  of  Halicarnassus,  who  also  wrote  on 


Prose  writers. 


Roman  history  and  on  criticism  ;  Di-o-do'rus  Sici\lus  (the 
Sicilian),  the  author  of  a  general  history;  Plutarch,  a  native 
of  Boeotia,  whose  Lives  continue  to  be  read  with  pleasure; 
and  Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian,  born  in  Jerusalem, 
37  A.D.  To  these  may  be  added  Stra'bo,  the  geographer; 
Lu'cian,  the  satirist  of  the  Greek  mythology;  and  Ga'len,  the 
noted  physician,  whose  writings  form  an  epoch  in  the  science 
of  medicine.  Galen  was  born  in  Pergamus,  but  studied  in 
Alexandria,  Corinth,  and  Smyrna.  He  visited  Rome  several 
times.  Most  of  these  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  this  period. 
140.  Greek  literature  does  not  wholly  terminate  at  this 
point,  but  extends  to  the  fall  of  the  Greek  Empire  (1453  a.d.). 
A  sketch  of  it  during  this  period  will  be  given 
in   connection  with  the  history  of  the   Middle 


Later  literature. 


Ages,  in  another  part  of  this  work.  The  Greek  language,  it 
may  here  be  observed,  was  not  only  the  vehicle  of  pagan  civ- 
ilization and  culture,  but  that  by  which  tlie  great  truths  of 
Christ's  life  and  teachings  were  imparted  to  mankind  in  the 
early  Christian  period.  Three  at  least  of  the  Gospels  were 
written  in  Greek,  as  well  as  most  of  the  other  books  of  the 
New  Testament.  Many  of  the  Fathers  of  the  early  Church 
also  wrote  in  the  Greek  language.  The  translation  of  the  He- 
brew Scriptures  into  Greek  (the  Septuagint),  by  the  Seventy, 


162 


Ancient  History. 


has  already  been  referred  to  iu  connection  with  the  history  of 
Alexandria  under  the  Ptolemies. 

141.  Books  and  Writing.  The  books  of  the  ancient 
Greeks  were  very  different  from  those  of  modern  times. 
They  were  written  by  hand  on  long  sheets  of 
paper,  made  from  the  bark  of  the  Egyptian  plant 
papyrus.  These  sheets  were  rolled  on  a  staff;  hence  the 
name  volume,  a  roll.  The  title  of  the  book  was  usually 
written  on  a  tag,  suspended  to  the  roll.  Sometimes  parch- 
ment was  used  instead  of  paper.  A  reed  sharp- 
ened and  split  at  the  point  served  as  a  pen;  and 


Books. 


Pens  and  ink. 


the  ink  was  a  black  or  red  pigment,  kept  in  inkstands  of 


c  a      tL 

Writing  Materials  op  the  Greeks. 


various  forms.  Letters,  memoranda,  etc.,  were  written  upon 
wax-covered  tablets  (c)  by  means  of  a  sharp  in- 
strument, of  ivory  or  metal,  called  a  stylus,  which 
usually  had   a   flattened  end  for  erasing  (a,  c?); 


Tablets  and 
stylus. 


but  sometimes  a  broad  erasing  instrument  {b)  was  used. 


IV.  Greek  Art. 

142.  Greek  art  dates  back  beyond  the  Homeric  perix)d, 
as  is  evident  from  the  remains  found  at  Myccna3  and  other 
places,  which  sliow  that  statuary,  drawing,  design- 
ing, and  painting  n  ust  have  already  made  con- 
siderable progress.  But  it  was  d  iring  the  ])ori<)d  immediately 
succeeding  the  Persian  War  that  Greek  art  reached  its  culmi- 


Early  art. 


: 


Grecian  Cimlization. 


163 


nation,  in  those  masterpieces  of  architecture  and  sculpture 
which  the  highest  genius  of  the  modern  world  has  scarcely 
approached,  much  less  surpassed.*  It  was  in 
these  two  arts  that  the  Greeks  especially  excelled; 
for,  although  they  had  some  great  painters,  the 


Architecture 
and  sculpture. 


highest  achievements  in  painting,  as  well  as  in  music,  were 
left  to  subsequent  peoples  and  times. 


Doric. 


Ionic. 


Corinthian. 


The  Three  Orders  of  Greek  Architecture. 

143.  There  were  three  styles  or  orders  of  architecture 
during  the  classic  period,  which  are  still  recognized  by  builders: 
the   Doric,  the   Ionic,    and  the   Corinthian,    the  difference 


*  Speaking  of  the  Parthenon,  at  Athens,  Ferguson  says  in  his  History  of  Archi- 
tecture :  "  In  its  own  class  it  is  undoubtedly  the  most  beautiful  building  in  the 
world.  It  is  true  it  has  neither  the  dimensions  nor  the  wondrous  expression  of 
power  and  eternity  inherent  in  Egyptian  temples ;  nor  has  it  the  variety  and  poetry 
of  the  Gothic  cathedral ;  but  for  intellectual  beauty,  for  perfection  of  proportion, 
for  beauty  of  detail,  and  for  the  exquisite  perception  of  the  highest  and  most 
recondite  principles  of  art  ever  applied  to  architecture,  it  stands  uttei'ly  alone  and 
unrivale4— the  ^lorjr  of  Greece  and  the  shame  of  the  rest  of  the  world." 


164 


Ancient  History, 


depending  chiefly  on  the  character  of  the  column.  Of  these 
the  Doric  is  the  oldest,  being,  as  its  name  implies, 
tlie  style  used  by  the  ancient  Dorians.  It  was 
plain  and  massive,  but  of  graceful   proportions. 


Orders  erf 
architecture. 


The  column  is  usually  without  a  base,  and  the  capital  desti- 
tute of  ornament.  The  finest  example  of  this 
style  is  the  famous   Parthenon  (House  of  the 


Doric. 


Virgin),  a  magnificent  temple  of  Athene,  erected  under  the 
supervision  of  Phidias,  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens.  The 
remains  of  the  great  temples  at  P^estum,  in  southern  Italy, 
present  some  fine  specimens  of  the  ancient  Doric  style.     The 

great  temple  at  Delphi, 
and  that  of  Juno,  at  Sa- 
mos,  the  largest  temple 
which  Herodotus  ever 
saw,  were  built  in  this 
style.  The  latter  was 
about  350  feet  in  length 
and  190  in  breadth. 

144.   The  Ionic  de- 
rived its  name  from  the 
Ionic  Capital.  Greek  cities  in    lonia, 

where  it  was  first  used.  Its  characteristics  are  lightness, 
gracefulness,  and  tastefulness  of  ornament.  The 
shaft  of  the  column  is  slender,  and  rests  upon  a 


Ionic. 


base;  and  the  capital  is  adorned  by  spiral  volutes.  The  great 
temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  commenced  about  600  B.C.,  was 
of  this  order.  Its  length  was  425  feet,  and  its  breadth  220 
feet.  The  Corinthian  is  really  a  modification  of  the  Ionic, 
and  abounds  in  graceful  ornamentation.  Its 
capital  is  said  to   have  been  suggested  to  the 


Corinthian. 


mind  of  Cal-lim'a-chus,  the  celebrated  sculptor,  by  seeing  a 
basket  covered  by  a  tile  and  overgrown  by  tlie  leaves  of  an 
acanthus.  The  earliest  building  in  this  style  is  the  monument 
of  Ly-sic'ra-tes,  sometimes  called  the  Lantern  of  Demosthenes, 


Grecian  Cwilization. 


165 


built  in  335  B.C.  The  Corinthian  style  was  usually  selected 
for  buildings  requiring  peculiar  elegance  and  delicacy,  as 
temples  dedicated  to  Venus,  etc. 

145.  Sculpture,  or  statuary,  like  architecture,  owed  its 
origin  to  religion.  The  first  statues  were  those  of  the  gods. 
These  were  at  first  very  rude  and  uncouth.  The 
adornment  of  the  temples  by  figures  in  relief 
preceded  the   sculpture  of  detached  figures.     We  have 


Sculpture. 


an 


example  of  this  in  the  two  lions  that  still  exist  over  the  gate- 
way of  the  ancient  city  of  Mycenae.     It  was  in  the  period  of 


The  Parthenon,  Restoeed. 

Athenian  greatness  that  this  beautiful  art  reached  its  perfec- 
tion, under  the  great  masters,  Phidias,  Po-ly-cle'tus,  My'ron, 
and  Prax-it'i-les.  It  was  Phidias  that  executed  the  ornamental 
statuary  for  the  Parthenon,  and  carved  the  great  statue  of 
Athene  placed  within  that  splendid  temple.  The  Olympian 
Zeus  at  Elis  was  another  of  his  works. 

146.  Painting  among  the  Greeks  was  of  later  develop- 
ment than  sculpture,  but  never  reached  the  same  degree  of 
excellence.  The  Greek  paintings  were  in  water 
colors  or  in  wax,  as  oil  colors  were  not  known. 


Painting, 


Contemporary  with  Phidias  at  Athens  was  Pol-yg-no'tus,  the 
first  Grecian  painter  of  fame.     He  devoted  himself  to  the 


166 


Ancietit  History, 


adornment  of  many  of  the  public  buildings  of  Athens;  the 
Painted  Porch  (PceciU  Stoa),  where  Zeno  afterward  taught, 
was  among  his  works.  Under  Zeux'is  and  Par-rha'si-us,  paint- 
ing reached  a  far  higher  degree  of  advancement,  as  the  fol- 
lowing interesting  incident  related  of  those  two  artists  shows. 
In  a  trial  of  skill,  Zeuxis  painted  a  bunch  of  grapes  so  naturally 

that  the  birds  came  and  picked  at 
them;  but  Parrhasius  said,  **  Now 
draw  aside  the  curtain  that  covers 
my  picture;"  and  on  attempting  to 
do  so,  Zeuxis  found  that  the  curtain 
was  the  picture,  and  at  once  con- 
ceded the  palm  of  superiority  to  his 
rival.  "I  paint  very  slowly,"  said 
Zeuxis  at  one  time,  '*  but  I  paint 
for  eternity."  The  greatest  paint- 
er of  the  time  of  Alexander  was 
A-pel'les,  who  had  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  painting  the  Macedon- 
ian monarch's  portrait.  The  most 
beautiful  work  of  Apelles  was  the 
picture  of  Venus  rising  from  the 
sea  {Aphrodite  A7i-a-dy-om^e-ne).* 
146.  The  various  arts  of  design  were  carried  by  the  Greeks 
to  the  greatest  degree  of  perfection.  In  all  these  they  showed 
a  taste  of  the  highest  delicacy  and  refinement,  in 
many  things  affording  a  standard  for  all  subse- 


A  Grecian  Vase. 


Arts  of  design. 


quent  times.      Not  only  in   architecture   and  sculpture  was 
Greek  art  illustrated,  but  in  the  internal  decorations  of  their 


•  Apelles  was  not  ashamed  to  learn  from  the  humhlest  critics  in  things  which 
they  understood;  and  he  used  to  exhibit  his  pictures  before  his  house,  and  conceal 
himself  so  as  to  hear  the  remarks  of  those  passing  by.  On  one  occasion  a  shoe- 
malcer  found  fault  with  the  shoes  of  one  of  his  figures;  and  noticing  aft<'rward 
that  it  was  corrected,  ventured  to  make  further  criticisms,  when  Apelles  rushed 
out  and  bade  th»  •'cobbler  \/Q  ^t^VK  t?  We  Jftst."    Hence  the  maxim:  Ne  sutor 


Grecian  Civilization.  167 


houses,  their  elaborately  painted  walls  and  ceilings,  their 
ornamental  tiling,  their  tastefully  constructed  furniture,  their 
beautiful  vases,  and  other  vessels  both  for  ornament  and  use, 
and  their  jewelry  (see  page  170).  In  all  these  they  showed  a 
genius  for  the  invention  of  beautiful  forms  which  has  never 
been  surpassed. 

V.  Social  Life  and  Manners. 

147.  In  considering  the  social  life  of  the  Greeks  in  general, 
the  Athenians  may  be  taken  as  a  model,  with  but  few  qualifi- 
cations. The  Spartan  ^  institutions,  which  were 
totally  dissimilar,  have  been  already  described. 
The  difference  between  the  Greek  civilization  and 


Gre«k 

civilization. 


our  own,  in  regard  to  morals  and  manners,  was  the  effect 
chiefly  of  their  widely  different  ideas  in  respect  to  religion, 
tlieir  peculiar  physical  and  intellectual  character,  and  the 
traditions  of  their  ancestors.  Their  religious  notions  were 
strong,  as  has  been  already  stated,  but  were  not  capable  of 
elevating  them  to  a  high  degree  of  spirituality  in  their  daily 
lives,  or  of  inspiring  them  with  an  exalted  morality,  or  unsel- 
fish regard  for  others.  The  institution  of  slavery  was  also  a 
fruitful  source  of  corruption  in  the  manners  and  institutions 
of  this  refined  people. 

148.  In  the  better  class  of  dwelling-houses,  there  was  a 
division  into  two  sets  of  apartments — for  the  men  and  the 
women  respectively.  Each  set  was  built  in  the 
form  of  a  square  with  an  open  court  in  the  in- 
terior, usually  paved  and  sometimes  ornamented 


Dwelling- 
houses. 


with  a  fountain  in  the  center.  The  rooms  were  entered  from 
porticoes  round  this  square.  The  street  door  opened  into  a 
wide  lobby  leading  directly  into  the  men's  court,  across  which 
a  passage  led  into  the  women's  court.  Attached  to  the 
women's  apartments  were  halls  for  spinning,  weaving,  and 
other  household  work.  The  heating  was  by  fireplaces,  and 
by  the  side  of  the  hearth  were  the  images  of  the  household 


168  Ancient  History. 


gods;  and  at  the  street  door  there  was  usually  an  image  as 
well  as  an  altar.  *  The  chief  peculiarity  in  respect  to  the  fur- 
niture was  the  use  of  sofas  or  couches,  instead  of  chairs, 
when  at  meals.  Glass  was  not  used;  and  the  dishes  and 
other  vessels  were  of  pottery,  metal,  or  wood.  Mirrors  were 
usually  made  of  polished  bronze.  Lamps  of  various  forms 
were  used,  some  of  very  beautiful  designs. 

149.  The  Greeks,  as  a  rule,  had  but  two  meals  a  day,  one  in 
the  morning  and  the  other  toward  evening,  which 
was  the  principal  meal.    They  were  not  luxurious 


Meals. 


eaters;  bread  made  of  wheat,  flour,  or  barley  was  used  as  a 
portion  of  each  meal,  with  flesh  or  fish,  the  former  always  used 
sparingly,  with  various  kinds  of  vegetables.  Ban- 
quets were  served  with  fish  of   various   kinds, 


Food. 


also  flesh  and  fowl,  followed  by  sweetmeats  and  fruits,  such 
as  olives,  figs,  nuts,  and  fresh  fruits  in  season.  At  the 
symposium  that  succeeded  the  meal,  wine  was  copiously 
drunk,  f  Conversation,  music,  or  games  amused  the  com- 
pany. They  used  no  knives  or  forks;  hence,  the  food  was 
served  cut  up  into  pieces,  which  were  taken  up  with  the 
fingers.     Convivial  feasts  were  frequent;    and  of  these  the 


*  These  household  gods  were  the  daimones,  corresponding  to  the  Lares  and 
Penates  of  the  Romans.  "  The  Lares  were  the  spirits  of  the  ancestors  of  each 
family,  who  exercised  after  death  a  protecting  power  over  the  well-being  and 
prosperity  of  the  family  to  which  they  had  in  life  belonged.  The  place  of  honor 
beside  the  hearth  was  occupied  by  the  statue  of  the  Lar  of  the  house,  who  was 
supposed  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  family.  This  statue  was  the  object  of 
profound  veneration,  and  was  honored  on  all  occasions  by  every  member  of  the 
family.  The  first  act  of  a  bride  on  entering  her  new  abode  was  to  do  homage  to 
the  Lar."  The  Penates  were  deities  selected  by  each  family  for  special  protection 
and  guardianship.  If,  for  example,  a  child  was  born  during  the  festival  of  Vesta, 
that  goddess  was  assumed  as  its  special  guardian.  If  a  youth  excelled  in  business 
talent,  Mercury  was  often  selected  as  his  guardian  deity;  if  in  music,  Apollo; 
and  so  on.  These  then  became  the  patron  deities  of  the  household,  and  their 
Images  adorned  the  hearth.  There  were  also  evil  spirits,  called  Lemures,  who 
were  believed  to  haunt  their  former  abodes,  their  crimes  depriving  them  of  rest 
To  propitiate  these,  the  festival  called  Lemura'lia  was  instituted  by  the  Romans. 

t  The  wine  was  not  used  as  drawn  from  the  flasks,  being  mixed  with  water  In  a 
large  vessel,  like  a  punch-bowl.  A  person,  called  the  symposiarch,  was  selected 
by  the  company  to  regulate  the  drinking,  and  prevent  excess. 


Grecian  Civilization. 


169 


symposium  formed  the  principal  part.     From  these  dinner 
and  drinking  parties  the  women  of  the  house 
were  excluded;  but  music  and  dancing  were  per? 


Feasts. 


formed  in  the  presence  of  the  guests  by  hired  artists,  often 
females.  The  company  were  expected 
to  be  dressed  in  their  most  elegant 
attire,  with  wreaths  of  flowers  on  their 
heads ;  and,  during  the  feast,  they 
reclined  on  couches,  before  which  small 
tables  were  placed.  Plato  and  Xeno- 
jihon  have  left  in  their  works  (the 
Symposia)  vivid  descriptions  of  these 
banquets. 

160.  The  costume  of  males  and 
females,  among  the  Greeks,  did  not 
differ  as  much  as  with  us.  It  con- 
sisted essentially  of  an 
inner  and  outer  covering. 


Costume. 


The  former  was  a  loose  dress  {chiton) 
of  woolen  or  linen,  worn  short  by  men, 
but  extending  down  to  the  feet  of 
women.  As  the  outer  covering  of  the 
latter  did  not  entirely  envelop  the 
body,  being  something  like  a  shawl, 
this  under-dress  was  often  highly  orna- 
mented, and  consisted  of  the  richest 
material.  The  outer  garment  of  men 
consisted  of  a  large  piece  of  cloth, 
worn  in  graceful  folds,  as  seen  in  the 
statues,  being  so  coiled  on  the  shoulders 
as  to  leave  the  right  arm  free.  This  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
the  M-mat'i-on;  by  the  Eomans,  the  paVlium.  It  was  often 
fringed  or  otherwise  ornamented.  Usually  it  was  thrown  over 
the  left  shoulder,  then  drawn  behind  the  back  and  under  the 
right  arm,  and  then  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder  ao^ain. 


lli'r;':iii"iinllilllllillliii!ill|iiiillilll 
Athenian  Female  Costume 


170 


Ancient  History. 


Sometimes  it  was  fastened  on  the  right  shoulder  by  a  button 
or  brooch;  it  was  then  called  the  chlam'ySf  or  scarf.  The 
women  had  a  great  variety  of  modes  of  dressing  their  hair. 
Coverings  for  the  feet  were  worn  only  out  of  doors.  These 
varied  from  the  simple  sandal  to  a  full  covering,  like  the 
modern  gaiter  or  short  boot.  The  ladies  adorned  themselves 
with  jewelry  of  various  forms,  often  of  very  beautiful  and 
artistic  designs.* 


at 


Gymnasiums. 


Earrings,  Bracelets,  Necklaces,  etc. 

161.  Gymnasiums,  or  places  for  exercise,  were  provided 
the  public  expense.  These  included  provision  for  the 
physical  and  also  the  intellectual  training  of 
youth.  The  exercises  consisted  of  running,  leap- 
ing, throwing  the  javelin  or  the  discus,  or  quoit,  shooting 
with  the  bow  and  arrow,  wrestling,  and  boxing.  The  ob- 
ject was  to  cultivate  physical  vigor,  and  thus  to  make  the 

•  The  cut  represents  articles  of  this  deseriptioc  found  in  various  parts  of  Greece: 
hair-pin  (a),  ear-rings  and  pendant  (6,  c,  d,  /),  armlets  (g,  h),  necklaces  (c, »).  The 
form  of  the  coiled  serpent  w^  a  ff^vofi^  one  for  armlets  aa  well  M  for  ringa 
used  for  the  lower  limbic 


Grecian  Cimlization.  171 

citizens  able-bodied  soldiers,  when  their  military  services 
were  needed.  But  in  the  later  years,  the  gymnasiums  de- 
generated into  mere  lounging  places,  or  pleasure  grounds. 
The  porticoes  were  the  resort  of  philosophers,  rhetoricians, 
and  sophists  (learned  men),  who  discussed  in  public  moral 
and  metaphysical  questions,  which  interested  so  much  the 
Greek  mind. 

152.  Boys  were  generally  instructed  in  schools;  but  those 
of  wealthy  parents  had  also  a  pcedagogue,  or  private  tutor, 
whose  office  it  was  to  watch  over  them  when  out 
of  school.     He  was  rather  a  guardian  than  a 


Education. 


teacher,  and  was  usually  selected  from  the  slaves.  The 
branches  taught  included  the  reading  of  the  poets,  from  whose 
works  passages  were  committed  to  memory;  also  music,  under 
which  the  Greeks  comprehended  singing,  playing  on  the  lyre, 
and  the  recitation  of  poetical  compositions.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  or  twenty,  the  sons  of  the  affluent  often  attended 
lectures  on  philosophy,  oratory,  etc. ,  in  the  Lyceum,  Academy, 
or  other  institution.* 

163.  Women  were  not  treated  by  the  Greeks  as  entitled  to 
the  consideration  due  to  the  other  sex,  being  accorded  only  a 
position  between  freemen  and  slaves.  They  re- 
ceived only  a  scanty  education  at  home,  and  were 
expected  to  devote  themselves  to  weaving,  spin 


Treatment  of 
females. 


ning,  and  other  household  employments.  They  were  confined 
to  their  own  apartments,  being  permitted  but  i-arely  to  leave 
the  house.  They  had  the  management  of  the  servants,  who 
were  slaves ;  and  were  expected  to  tak<j  care  of  the  sick. 
Marriages  were  usually  arranged  by  the  parents,  and  dowries 
were  always  expected.     There  was,  however,  a  class  of  women, 

>  t  Aristophanes  represents,  in  one  of  his  plays,  "  all  the  boys  of  Athens  going  in 
crowds  to  their  schools  early  in  the  morning,  and  not  even  deterred  by  the  heaviest 
snow.  He  describes  the  strict  supervision  and  discipline  under  which  they  were 
*cept,  how  every  gesture  was  watched,  and  every  transgression  strictly  punished. 
He  also  lauds  the  graceful  gymnastic  exercises,  and  the  fine  bodily  condition 
which  this  training  had  produced."— J/a/ia^«/'s  Social  Life  in  Greece. 


172  Ancient  History. 


called  He-tce'rcBy  principally  foreigners,  who  lived  in  a  state  of 
greater  social  freedom,  occupying  houses  of  their  own,  and 
receiving  guests  and  visitors  of  both  sexes.  They  were  usually 
distinguished  not  only  for  personal  beauty  and  grace  of  man- 
ners, but  for  literary  genius  and  culture,  and  are  spoken  of 
as  the  "most  witty  and  brilliant  talkers  at  Athens."  To  this 
class  belonged  the  celebrated  Aspasia,  the  friend  and  after- 
ward the  wife  of  Pericles. 

166.   Slavery  was  a  recognized  institution;  and  slaves  were 
very  numerous  and  of  all  classes  and  grades,  including  do- 
mestic servants,  agricultural  laborers,  and  artisans. 
Slaves  were  employed  by  the  government  to  exe- 


Slavery. 


cute  the  public  works.  These  slaves  were  generally  foreigners, 
or,  as  the  Greeks  called  them,  barbarians.  Many  Asiatic  and 
Thracian  tribes  sold  their  children  into  slavery;  and  the  buy- 
ing and  selling  of  slaves  was  a  regular  business  at  Athens  and 
other  parts  of  Greece.  Children  born  of  slave  women  were 
invariably  held  as  slaves.  Menial  slaves  were  almost  wholly 
at  the  mercy  of  their  masters  and  mistresses.  Slaves  were 
sometimes  tortured  to  compel  them  to  make  confession  of 
their  guilt,  or  the  guilt  of  their  masters.  * 

166.   The  industrial  arts  and  occupations  of  the  Greeks 
were  numerous  and  complicated.     They  worked  the  mines  of 
silver,  copper,  and  iron,  and  obtained  marble  and 
other  building  stone  from  the  quarries.      Their 


Industrial  arts. 


manufacturing  industries  included  spinning  and  weaving, 
pottery,  the  making  of  arms  and  armor,  gold  and  silver  orna- 
ments, hardware  of  various  kinds,  furniture,  etc.  All  these 
employed  large  numbers  of  people ;  besides  whom  were  the 
shopkeepers,  tradesmen,  merchants,  and  agriculturists.  The 
wholesale  trade  of  Athens  was  at  the  seaport,  Piraeus;  but 


♦  "  It  was  not  the  custom  to  torture  slaves  who  (?ave  evidence  to  a  fact,  but  only 
If  they  denied  any  knowledge,  or  appeared  to  supprtiss  It  in  the  interest  of  their 
master.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  common  enough  to  torture  female  slaves,  and 
also  free  men.^^—Mahaffy''s  Snriitl  Life  in  (h-rece. 


Oredan  Cimlization. 


173 


most  of  the  every-day  retail  business  was  carried  on  in  the 
town -markets.  * 

167.  The  Greeks  were  very  fond  of  music,  but  they  do  not 
seem  to  have  made  much  progress  in  it,  either  as  a  science  or 
an  art.  They  played  on  stringed  instruments, 
such  as  the  harp  and  lyre,  and  simple  wind  instru- 
ments, as  the  double  and  simple  pipe;  but  these  were  too 
poor  to  afford  much  melody.  Among  the  Athenians,  par- 
ticularly, musical  ac- 


Music. 


complishments  were 
very  highly  prized ; 
and  as  a  source  of 
entertainment  music 
was  generally  culti- 
vated. At  feasts  and 
social  gatherings,  fe- 
male musicians  were 
hired  to  heighten  the 
enjoyment  of  the 
guests.  In  the  cut  we  have  a  representation  of  performers  on 
the  lyre,  the  cithara,  and  a  kind  of  harp  {trigdnon).\ 


*  The  following  is  a  picturesque  description  of  a  market  scene  at  Athens:— 
"  All  the  wants  of  the  day,  from  bariey-groats  up  to  the  most  dainty  fish,  from 
garlic  to  the  incense  of  the  gods;  clear  pure  oil,  and  the  most  exquisite  ointments; 
fresh-made  cheese,  and  the  sweet  honey  of  the  bees  of  Hymettus;  cooks  ready  to 
l.e  hired;  slaves,  male  and  female,  on  sale — all  and  several  were  to  be  foimd  in 
abxmdance  at  their  customary  stands  in  the  market-place.  There  were  others  who 
went  about  crying  their  wares;  while,  every  now  and  then,  a  public  crier  crossed 
the  gToimds,  announcing  with  stentorian  voice  the  airival  of  some  goods  to  be 
sold,  or  the  sale  of  some  house,  or  perhaps  a  reward  for  the  apprehension  of  a 
robber  or  runaway  slave.  Slaves  of  both  sexes,  as  well  as  freemen,  kept  walking 
up  and  down,  bargaining,  and  inspecting  the  stalls  in  search  of  their  daily  require- 
ments."—-Pecfcer's  Charicles. 

t  The  word  mvsic  is  here  used  in  its  modem  sense;  but  with  the  Greeks  it  had  a 
much  wider  meaning.  "  It  comprehended, "  says  Grote,  "  everji;hing  appertaining 
to  the  Nine  Muses;  not  merely  learning  the  use  of  the  lyre,  or  how  to  bear  part  in 
a  chorus,  but  also  the  hearing,  learning,  and  repeating  of  poetical  compositions,  as 
well  as  the  practice  of  exact  and  elegant  pronunciation ;  which  latter  accomplish- 
ment, in  a  language  like  the  Greek,  must  have  been  far  more  difficult  to  acquire 
than  it  is  in  any  modem  European  language." 


174  Ancie9it  History, 

158.  The  Greeks  were  very  attentive  to  the  rites  of  sepul- 
ture; for  when  the  remains  were  unburied,  it  was 
thought  the  soul  wandered  in  Hades  without  rest. 


Funeral  rites. 


not  being  permitted  to  cross  the  river  Styx  into  the  realms 
of  happiness.*  Hence,  immediately  after  death,  a  small  coin 
(obolus)  was  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  deceased  to  pay  the 
ferryman  Charon  for  taking  his  shade  across  the  dark  river. 
On  the  day  of  the  funeral,  the  body  was  carried  out,  ac- 
companied by  the  relatives  and  friends  as  mourners,  with 
hired  women  making  lamentations,  and  a  chorus  of  flute- 
players.  The  remains  were  either  burned  or  buried ;  and  in 
th«  latter  case  graves,  vaults,  or  tombs  were  used  for  the  final 
disposition  of  the  body.  For  the  burning  of  the  body,  piles  of 
wood  called  puree  (pyres)  were  used,  and  oils  and  perfumes 
were  thrown  into  the  flames.  When  t^he  pyre  had  burned 
down,  the  remains  were  extinguished  with  wine,  and  the 
bones  were  collected,  washed  with  wine  and  oil,  and  placed  in 
urns.  The  latter  were  sometimes  made  of  gold.  The  bodies 
not  burned  were  buried  in  coffins  usually  made  of  baked  clay 
or  earthenware.  Vases  and  various  other  articles  were  depos- 
ited in  the  grave  with  the  deceased.  At  certain  times,  sacrifice 
was  performed  at  the  tomb,  and  flowers  were  brought  to  deco- 
rate the  grave. 

*  Thus  in  Homer's  Iliad,  the  phantom  of  Patroclus  appears  to  his  friend  Achilles 
in  a  vision,  and  entreats  burial: 

*'  Let  ray  pale  coi-se  the  rites  of  burial  know. 
And  give  me  entrance  to  the  reahns  below: 
Till  then  the  spirit  finds  no  resting-place. 
But  here  and  there  the  unbodied  specters  chase 
The  vagrant  dead  around  the  dark  abode. 
Forbid  to  cross  the  irremeable  flood.  "—Piope'a  Homer. 
In  the  regions  of  Hades,  there  were  four  great  rivers,  three  of  which  had  to  be 
crossed  by  all  the  spirits  of  the  dead,— Ach'eron  (sorrow),  Cocy'tus  (lamentation),  and 
Styx  (intense  darkness),  the  sacred  stream  which  flowed  nine  times  round  these 
realms.    On  the  opposite  bank  of  Styx,  was  the  tribunal  of  Minos,  tlie  supreme  judge^ 
before  whom  all  had  to  appear,  and  who,  after  listening  to  a  confession  of  their 
earthly  deeds,  pronoimeed  sentence  upon  them.    The  happy  spirit.s  pa.'wed  into  Ely- 
sium, a  blissful  region  filled  with  everything  to  charm  the  senses  and  ph'ase  tlie 
Imagination:  the  wicked  were  condemned  to  abide  hi  the  gloomy  realms  of  despair. 


Remew  Outline. 


175 


Review  Outline. 


Chronology. 


First  Period, 
from  the  earliest 
limes  to  776  b.c. 


Troy  burned, 

1184  B.C. 
Cecrops  at  Athens, 

1550  B.C. 
Cadmus  in  Boeotia, 

1493  B.C. 

Pelops,     1300  B.C. 

Migrations  of  the 

tribes,  1200  b.c. 


Dorian  migration, 
1134  B.C. 

Second  Period, 
from  776  B.C.  to 
500  B.C. 
About  776  B.C. 
Messenian  wars, 
743-733  B.C. 
685-668  B.C. 

634  B.C. 

594  B.C. 

560-510  B.C. 

510  B.C. 


The  history  of  Greece  during  the  first  period  is 
legendary  or  traditional.  It  refers  to  the  Pelasgi 
and  other  early  races,  the  remains  of  whose 
architecture  still  exist.  It  abounds  in  stories  of 
mythical  heroes,  such  as  Hercules,  Theseus,  etc. ; 
and  hence  is  called  the  Heroic  Age.  There  are 
many  events,  such  as  the  Argonautic  Expedition 
and  the  Trojan  War,  which  the  poets  used  as  the 
basis  of  their  poems.  Foreign  colonies  were 
planted  in  different  parts  of  Greece  during  this 
early  period — of  the  Egyptians,  under  Cecrops,  at 
Athens  ;  of  the  Phcenicians,  under  Cadmus,  in 
Boeotia;  of  the  Phrygians,  under  Pelops,  in  the 
Peloponnesus. 

To  this  succeeded  the  great  migiatory  movement, 
which  resulted  in  the  settlement  of  the  Dorians 
in  the  Peloponnesus,  the  lonians  in  Attica,  and 
the  establishment  of  the  ^olian,  Ionian,  and 
Dorian  colonies  in  Asia  Minor.  During  the  later 
Dorian  migration  Codrus,  the  last  king  of  Athens, 
sacrificed  his  life  for  his  country. 

At  the  second  period  the  authentic  history  of  Greece 
begins— at  the  date  of  the  first  Olympiad  (776  b.c). 
The  principal  events  of  this  period  were: 

The  legislation  of  Lycurgus  at  Sparta. 

The  first  and  second  Messenian  wars,  between 
Sparta  and  Messeuia. 

After  centuries  of  anarchy,  Draco  attempted  to 
construct  a  code  of  laws  for  Athens. 

The  laws  of  Solon— the  institution  of  Archons. 

The  usurpation  of  Pisistratus  and  his  sons  Hippias 
and  Hipparchus. 

The  administration  of  Cleisthenes,  and  the  institu- 
tion of  the  Ostracism. 


176 


Ancient  History. 


650-500  B.C. 

625-5«5  B.C. 

Third  Period, 

500-449  B.C. 

485  B.C. 

Persian  War, 

492-449  B.C. 
492  B.C. 


490  B.C. 
490-480  B.C. 


483  B.C. 


480  B.C. 
479  B.C. 

471  B.C. 


471  B.C, 
468  B.C. 


461  B.C. 
Affe  of  Pericles, 

461^29  B.C. 

449  B.C. 

Fourth  Period, 

449-358  B.C. 

447  B.C. 

431-404  B.C. 


Age  of  Despots  in  Greece. 

Periander,  tyrant  of  Corinth. 

Revolt  of  the  Ionian  colonies  against  Persia.  This 
revolt  lasted  six  years,  and  ended  in  the  taking 
of  Miletus,  and  the  subjugation  of  the  colonies. 

The  aid  given  by  Athens  to  the  lonians  drew  down 
the  wrath  of  Darius  upon  all  Greece.  This  led  to 
the  naval  expedition  of  Mardonius,  which  was 
wrecked  at  Mt.  Athos  ;  and  the  expedition  of 
Datis  and  Artaphernes,  which  was  defeated  by 
the  Athenians  in  the  battle  of  Marathon. 

Themistocles  and  Aristides  became  rivals  for  popu- 
lar favcr  at  Athens  during  this  period,  but  Aris- 
tides was  banished  by  the  Ostracism. 

Xerxes,  the  successor  of  Darius,  attacked  Greece 
with  an  immense  fleet  and  army.  The  fleet  was 
defeated  at  Salamis.  The  army  was  checked  at 
Thermopylae,  by  Leonidas;  and  was  defeated  at 
Platea,  by  Pausanias.  The  latter  was  afterward 
found  guilty  of  treason  and  put  to  death.  This  led 
to  the  formation  of  an  Ionian  league,  called  the 
"Confederacy  of  Delos,"  under  the  leadership  of 
Athens,  and  directed  by  Aristides.  It  lasted 
about  70  years. 

Themistocles,  being  implicated  in  the  treason  of  Pau- 
sanias, was  driven  into  exile. 

The  glorious  career  of  Aristides  was  terminated  by 
his  death. 

The  government  of  Athens  was  for  a  few  years 
administered  by  Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiados ; 
but  Pericles,  having  caused  his  banishment, 
assumed  the  control  of  affairs,  which  he  retained 
till  his  deatli  (429  B.C.). 

Termination  of  the  Persian  war,  after  an  Athenian 
victory  at  Cyprus. 

Rebellion  of  Boeotia,  and  defeat  of  the  Athenians  at 
Coroneia. 

The  rivalsbip  between  Athens  and  Sparta  finally 
brought  on  tlie  Pfloponnesian  War — between  the 
Ionian  and   Dorian  states,    led  by  Athens  and 


Remew  Outline. 


177 


429  B.C. 
413  B.C. 
405  B.C. 

404  B.C. 
403  B.C. 

Retreat  of  the  Ten 
Thousand, 

401  B.C. 

399  B.C. 


Battle  of  Coronea, 
394  B.C. 

Peace    of    Antal- 

cidas,      387  B.C. 

Battle  of  Leuctra, 

371  B.C. 

Battle  of  Man  tinea. 

362  B.C. 

Fifth  Period, 

338-301  B.C. 
Social  war, 

358-355  B.C. 
Sacred  war, 

357-346  B.C. 
Battle   of    Chsero- 
nea,        338  B.C. 
Death  of  Philip, 

336  B.C. 

Battle  of  Granicus, 

334  B.C. 

Of  Issus,  333  B.C. 

Of  Arbela,33lB.c. 


Sparta  respectively.   It  lasted  twenty-seven  years, 
the  chief  events  being: 

The  plague  at  Athens,  and  death  of  Pericles. 

The  defeat  of  Nicias  at  Syracuse. 

The  destruction  of  the  Athenian  fleet  under  Conon, 
by  Lysander.  at  JEgospotamos. 

Final  defeat  of  Athens;  capture  of  the  city. 

The  magistrates  called  the  Thirty  Tyrants  were  ex- 
pelled by  Thrasybulus. 

The  expedition  of  Cyrus  the  Younger  and  the 
famous  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  under 
Xenophon,  was  an  episode  of  this  period. 

Socrates  was  put  to  death  at  Athens  on  account  of 
his  religious  opinions. 

Agesilaus,  a  Spartan  king  and  general,  defended 
his  country  against  a  league  formed  by  Athens, 
Thebes,  and  other  states,  their  combined  forces 
being  defeated  at  Coronea  ;  but  the  same  year* 
Athens  regained  her  naval  supremacy  by  the  vic- 
tory of  Conon  over  the  Spartan  fleet,  at  Cnidus. 
A  few  years  after,  the  Spartans  negotiated  a  dis- 
graceful treaty  with  the  Persians  through  their 
emissary  Antalcidas.  In  a  war  between  Thebes 
and  Sparta,  Epaminondas  gained  two  glorious 
victories,  one  at  Leuctrsi.  and  the  other  at  Man- 
tinea,  in  which  he  was  mortally  wounded. 

A  revolt  of  the  Athenian  allies  brought  on  the 
Social  War,  which  was  followed  by  the  Sacred 
War,  in  which  Philip  of  Macedon  was  enabled  to 
interfere  in  the  affaire  of  Greece;  and  subsequent- 
ly defeated  the  forces  of  Thebes  and  Athens  at 
Chseronea. 

After  the  death  of  Philip,  Alexander  ascended  the 
throne  of  Macedonia;  and  having  crushed  all 
opposition  in  Greece,  set  out  to  conquer  Persia. 

He  defeated  the  Persians  at  the  Granicus,  then  in 
the  battle  of  Issus;  and  finally  at  Arbela,  which 
decided  the  war,  and  gave  Persia  to  the  Mace- 
donian conqueror.  He  extended  his  conquests 
further,  to  the  East,  crossing  the  Indus;  but  his 


178 


Ancient  History, 


323  B.C. 

Battle  of  Lamia, 
332  B.C. 


Battle  of  Ipsus, 

301  B.C. 
Sixth  Period, 

301-146  B.C. 

286  B.C. 

Achaean     League, 
under  Aratus, 

243  B.C. 

Victory   of  Philo- 

poemen  over  the 

Spartans  and  the 

Romans,  207  B.C. 

183  B.C. 

197  B.C. 


168  B.C. 

146  B.C. 
Kingdom     of     tJie 
SeUuddoB, 

812-65  B.C. 


Kingdom    of     the 
Ptolemies, 

323-30  B.C. 


doldiers,  worn  out  with  their  toils,  compelled  him 
to  return. 

Alexander  died  at  Babylon,  at  the  age  of  32. 

This  was  followed  by  the  Lamian  war,  caused  by 
the  attempt  of  Athens  to  regain  her  freedom; 
but  it  was  closed  by  the  defeat  of  Leosthenes,  the 
Athenian  geueral,  at  Lamia. 

A  series  of  conflicts  ensued  among  the  "successors 
of  Alexander,"  terminating  for  a  while  in  the 
battle  of  Ipsus,  after  which  Greece  and  Macedonia 
were  assigned  to  Cassander;  Egypt  to  Ptolemy; 
the  greatest  part  of  Asia  Minor  to  Lysimachus; 
and  the  eastern  part,  from  the  Syrian  coast  to  the 
Euphrates,  to  Seleucus,  Subsequently,  Lysi- 
machus conquered  Macedonia,  but  being  after- 
ward defeated  by  Seleucus,  the  latter  obtained 
nearly  the  whole  of  Alexander's  empire,  except 
Egypt,  which  was  under  the  rule  of  Ptolemy. 

The  Grecian  states  formed  several  leagues  to  defend 
themselves  against  the  tyranny  of  the  Macedonian 
kings,  the  chief  of  these  being  the  Achaean  and 
^tolian  leagues.  The  former,  under  Aratus  and 
Philopoemen,  gained  great  glory.  Philopa^men 
was  barbarously  put  to  death  by  the  Messenians. 

Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  was  defeated  by  the  Ro- 
mans, in  the  famous  battle  of  CynoscephaltB ;  and, 
some  years  afterward,  the  latter  gained  a  victory 
over  Perseus,  the  last  king  of  Macedon,  in  the 
battle  of  Pydna.  Macedonia  then  became  a 
Roman  province;  and,  twenty-two  years  later, 
Greece  was  finally  subdued  by  tlie  Romans. 

The  kingdom  of  the  Seleucida*  was  founded  by 
Seleucus  L  {Nicator),  and  la.sted  about  two  and  a 
half  centuries.  Its  capital  was  Antioch.  Its  chief 
monarchs,  after  Seleucus  I.,  were  Antiochus  I. 
(Soter)  and  Antiochus  IIL  (the  Great).  There 
were,  in  the  whole  dynasty,  twenty  kings. 

The  kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies  founded  by  Ptolemy 
Lagi,  one  of  Alexander's  generals,  lasted  under 
the  same  line  of  iponarchs  for  nearly  three  cen- 


Review  Outline, 


179 


Death  of   Cleopa- 
tra, 30  B.C. 


283-133  B.C. 

400-74  B.C. 

400-102  B.C. 

363-63  B.C. 

815  B.C.-17  A.D. 

190b.c.-114a.d. 
355-160  B.C. 


255  B.c- 


A.D. 


turies.  Alexandria  was  enlarged  and  enriched, 
and  became  the  greatest  emporium  in  the  world. 
Science,  art,  and  literature  flourished  under  the 
Ptolemies.  The  Ptolemaic  kingdom  of  Egypt 
became  a  Roman  province  after  Cleopatra,  the 
last  queen,  with  Antony,  had  been  defeated  by 
the  Romans,  under  Octavius,  at  Actium. 

The  minor  kingdoms  formed  out  of  the  Macedonian 
Empire  were  the  following: 

Pergamus,  founded  by  an  officer  of  Lysimachus; 
became  a  Roman  province. 

Bithynia,  bequeathed  to  the  Romans. 

Paphlagonia,  conquered  by  Mithridates. 

Pontus,  independent  till  absorbed  by  the  Romans. 

Cappadocia,  formed  after  revolt  from  Macedonia; 
conquered  by  the  Romans, 

Armenia,  revolted  from  Antiochus  the  Great;  con- 
quered by  the  Romans. 

Bactria,  satrapy  of  Persia;  a  province  of  the  Syrian 
Empire;  then  independent,  till  overwhelmed  by 
the  Parthians. 

Partliia,  formed  by  revolt  from  the  Syrian  Empire; 
conquered  by  the  later  Persians. 


Topical  Kevtew. 


STATESMEN  AND  GENERALS. 

In  what  period  did  they  livef 
What  was  their  character? 
With   what    events    were    they    con- 
nected? 

PAGE 

Lycurgus 93 

Solon 97 

Pisistratus 97 

Clisthenes 98 

Miltiades 100,  101 

Leonidas.     101, 102 

Ttiemij^toQles ,,.,.,..,,,,.403, 104 


PAGE 

Aristides 103,  104,  10.5 

Pausaiiias 103 

Cimon 106,  107 

Pericles 106,  107,  109 

Alcibiades 110 

Lysander Ill 

Epaminondas 115,  116 

Agesilaus 114,  115,  116 

Leosthenes 125 

Phocion 125 

Agis  124,125 

Aratus 131 

PbJlopoem§ii...,.,,.,,,,f.,,,,..,.J3«,  133 


180 


Ancient  History. 


POETS. 

When  did  they  live? 

What  works  did  they  write? 

Character  of  their  vyritingsf 

Homer. 90,155 

Hesiod 155 

Archilochus 155 

Tyrtaeus 155 

Arion 155 

Alcseus 155 

Sappho 155 

Anacreon 155 

Simonides 156 

Pindar 156 

iEschylus 156 

Sophocles 157 

Euripides 157 

Theocritus 160 

Bion 160 

Moschus 160 

ApoUonius  Rhodius 160 

PHILOSOPHERS. 

When  did  they  live? 
Character  of  their  teachings? 

Thalesof  MUetus 156 

Xenophanes 156 

Pythagoras 156 

Socrates  111,112,  157 

Plato 158 

Anaxagoras 158 

Xenocrates 158 

Diogenes 158 

Aristippus 158 

Democritus 158 

Epicurus 158 

Zeno 158 

Aristotle 159 

Euclid 160 

ApoUonius  (Math.) 161 

Ptolemy 161 

HISTORIANS. 

When  did  they  live? 
What  did  they  xoritet 

Herodotus. 157 

Tliucydides 157 

Xenoption..' t 157 


PAOK 

Polybius. 161 

Dionysius  Halicamassus 161 

Diodorus  Siculus. 161 

Plutarch 161 

Josephus 161 

ARTISTS. 

When  did  they  litx? 

For  what  xoorks  were  they  noted? 

Phidias 164,  165 

Callimachus 1 W 

Polycletus 165 

Myron 165 

Praxitiles 166 

Polygnotus 165 

Zeuxis 166 

Parrhasius 166 

Apelles 166 

MISOELLANEOUS. 

When  did  they  live? 
For  what  noted? 

Demosthenes  . : 160 

JEschines 160 

Isocrates 160 

Lysias 160 

Aristophanes 160 

Aristarchus 160 

Galen 161 

Strabo 161 

Lucian 161 

DECISIVE  BATTLES. 

When  were  they  fought? 
What  led  to  them? 
What  resulted  therefrom? 

Marathon 100 

Salamis 100 

PlatSBa 108 

JEgospotAvaoB. Ill 

Cimaxa US 

Chfrronea 119 

Arbela 119 

Lamia 1» 

Cynoscephalae 188 

Pydna 188 

Actlura lil 


CHAPTER  in. 
Roman  Histort. 


SECTION  I. 

Early  Histoey  of  Italy. 

1.  The  people  who  dwelt  in  Italy  at  the  earliest  times  to 
which  our  knowledge  extends  consisted  principally  of  five 
races:  the  Li-gu'ri-ans,  the  Venetians,  the  I-a-pyg'- 
ians,  the  Italians  proper,  and  the  E-trus'cans.    Of 


Early  races. 


these  the  first  and  second  were  weak  and  comparatively  un- 
important, since  they  exerted  but  little  influence  upon  the 
general  history  of  Italy.  The  lapygians,  who  were  probably 
among  the  earliest  settlers,  inhabited  the  extreme  south-east- 
ern part  of  the  peninsula,  called  Mes-sa'pi-a  by  the 
Greeks,  by  the  Romans  Ca-la'bri-a.     They  were. 


lapygians. 


as  their  language  denotes,  nearly  related  to  the  Greeks,  and 
probably  emigrated  from  Greece  into  southern  Italy. 

2.  The  Italians  proper  occupied  nearly  the  whole  of  cen- 
tral Italy.     They  appear  to  have  come  from  the  north,  and  to 

have  pressed  back  the  semi-Greek  settlers  of  the  i ; 

southern  portion  of  the  peninsula.      They  com- 1 
prised  two  branch  stocks — the  Latins  and  the  TJmbro-Sabel'- 
lians,  the  latter  including  the  Um'brians,  Sa'bines,  Sam-ni'tes, 
Sabellians,  Os'cans,  and  other  divisions  or  offshoots.     The 


Geographical  Study. 
WTiat  was  the  situation  of :  iJiTivM?  Etruria?  Umbria?  Calabria?  Campania? 
Territory  of  the  Sabines?  Cisalpine  Gaul?  Rubicon  R.  ?  Metaurus  R.  ?  Tiber  R.? 
Rome?  Ostia?  Tusculum?  Clusium?  Veii?  Brundisium?  Neapolis  (Naples)? 
Cumae?  Syracuse?  Messana?  Agrigentum?  Rhegium?  Croton?  Sybaris?  Taren- 
tum?    Benev^ntum? 


182  Ancient  History. 

Latins  settled  near  the  Tiber,  and,  being  hemmed  in  by  sur- 
rounding races,  were  confined  to  a  plain,  about 
700  square  miles  in  extent,  between  the  Tiber 


Latins. 


and  the  spurs  of  the  Apennines  on  the  north,  and  the  Alban 
hills  on  the  south.  The  Umbrians  entered  Italy  later  than 
the  Latins,  and  settled  first  in  E-tru'ria,  from  which  they 
spread  oyer  the  eastern  part  of  the  peninsula.  [See  map  VI.] 
3.  The  Etruscans,  or  Etrurians,  were  at  first  located  to  the 
north  of  the  Po,  but  afterward  occupied  the  plain  of  that 
river,  where  they  had  a  confederacy  of  twelve 
cities.     Later,  they  entered  Etruria,  pressing  the 


Etruscans. 


Umbrians  to  the  east,  or  subduing  them  ;  and  there  they 
formed  a  second  confederacy,  also  of  twelve  members.  These 
people,  unlike  the  lapygians  and  the  Italians,  were  probably 
of  Turanian  origin.  They  were  a  stout,  muscular  race,  short 
in  stature,  with  large  heads  and  thick  arms,  presenting  a 
marked  contrast  to  the  graceful,  slender  Italians.  They  had 
many  superstitions,  and  were  given  to  divination  and  magic; 
but  they  made  rapid  advancement  in  civilization,  and  became 
the  best  architects  of  all  the  races  in  Italy.*  They  also  showed 
great  energy  in  maritime  enterprise,  as  well  as  skill  in  the 
mechanic  arts.f 

4.  The  Romans  belonged  to  the  Italic  race.     They  nour- 
ished the  tradition  in  after  times  that  they  were  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Trojan  prince  ^-ne'as,  who  escaped 
from  the  conflagration  of  Troy,  and  sailed  with  a 


Romans. 


colony  to  Italy,  landing  on  the  shores  of  Latium  (lah'shc-tim), 
the  seat  of  the  Latin  race  at  that  time.  It  is  this  legend  that 
forms  the  plot  of  Virgil's  beautiful  poem,  the  iE-ne'id.  But 
for  this  there  is  no  more  historical  evidence  than  there  is  for  the 

♦  The  invention  of  the  arch,  in  its  propet  construction,  has  been  attributed  to 
the  Etruscans,  as  also  the  composition  of  an  order  of  architecture  called  the 
Tuscan,  a  species  of  simple  Doric.  The  early  Romans  employed  Etruscan  archi- 
tects in  erecting  their  buildings. 

tThe  Tuscans  or  Etruscans,  the  most  powerful  nation  in  the  Dortb,  cUffeTed  io 
race  completely  from  all  the  other  Inhabitants. 


Early  History  of  Italy,  183 

story  of  the  vestal  Ehe'a  Silvia,  the  daughter  of  a  Latin  king, 
and  her  twins  Kom'u-lus  and  Ke'mus,  whose  father  was  Mars. 
This  legend  states  that  Rhea  was  put  to  death  for 
having  violated  her  vow  of  chastity,  and  that  her 
two  infant  sons  were  cast  out  to  die,  but  that  they 


Romulus  and 
Remus. 


were  suckled  by  a  she-woK,  until  they  were  found  by  a  shep- 
herd, who  carried  them  home  and  educated  them;  and  that, 
on  arriving  at  manhood,  tliey  discovered  their  true  origin, 
restored  their  grandfather  to  the  throne  of  Alba  Longa,  from 
which  he  had  been  dethroned  by  his  brother,  and  afterward 
founded  a  new  city,  which  was  called  Rome,  after  Romulus.* 


Synopsis  of  the  Eaces  of  Italy. 


1.  ABYAN  OR  INDO-ETIEOPEAN. 

I.  Iapygian. 
n.  Italian. 

1.  Latins. 

2.  Umbro-Sabelliaus. 

a.  Umbrians. 

6.  Sabellians  [Samnites,  Oscans,  Sabines, 
Marsi,  Volsci,  etc.]. 

2.  TURANIAN  (?). 

I.  Etruscans. 

*  "  When  Romulus  and  Remus  grew  up,  the  herdsmen  of  the  Palatine  Hill 
chanced  to  have  a  quarrel  with  the  herdsmen  of  Numitor  [the  dethroned  king], 
who  stalled  their  cattle  on  the  hill  Aventinus.  Numitor's  herdsmen  laid  an  am- 
bush, and  Remus  fell  into  it,  and  was  taken  and  carried  off  to  Alba.  But  when  the 
young  man  was  brought  before  Numitor,  he  was  struck  with  his  noble  air  and 
bearing,  and  asked  him  who  he  was.  And  when  Remus  told  him  of  his  birth,  and 
how  he  had  been  saved  from  death,  together  with  his  brother,  Numitor  marveled, 
and  thought  whether  this  might  not  be  his  own  daughter's  [Rhea's]  child.  In  the 
mean  wnile,  Faustulus  [the  adopted  father]  and  Romulus  hastened  to  Alba  to  de- 
liver RemuS^;  and  by  the  help  of  the  young  men  of  the  Palatine  Hill,  who  had  been 
u.sed  to  follow  him  and  his  brother,  Romulus  took  the  city,  and  AmuUus  [the 
usiu-per]  was  killed;  and  Numitor  was  made  king,  and  owned  Romulus  and  Rewvifi 
to  be  born  of  his  own  blood,"— ^dmpWs  History  of  Borne, 


184  Ancient  History, 

SECTION  11. 

The  Romak  Kingdom. 

6.  Setting  aside  the  old  legend  regarding  the  foundation 
of  Rome,  as  unsupported  by  any  historical  evidence,  we  may 
conclude,  from  what  history  tells  us,  that  there  was  a  settle- 
ment made  by  one  of  the  Latin  tribes,  called  the 
Ram'nians,  or  Romans,  on  the  Pal'a-tine  hill,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  about  eighteen  miles 


Foundation  of 
Rome. 


from  its  mouth  (753  B.C.).  This  settlement  appears  to  have 
been  soon  joined  by  two  of  the  other  Latin  cantons,*  and  from 
its  advantageous  situation  it  rapidly  increased  in  influence  and 
numbers.  Subordinate  at  first  to  Alba  Longa  (the  long  white 
city),  the  metropolis  of  the  Latin  confederacy,  it  finally,  after 
a  long  contest,  subdued  and  destroyed  that  ancient  city,  and 
assumed  the  headship  of  Latium. 

6.  The  government  of  Rome,  at  first,  was  like  that  of  all 
the  other  Latin  cantons.     All  the  heads  of  families  partici- 
pated on  an  equal  footing  in  the  rights  of  citi- 
zenship.    By  these  the  king  was  chosen  for  life, 


Government. 


and  he  had  the  privilege  of  selecting  a  council  of  elders  (pa'- 
tres),  called  the  senate.  In  the  public  assemblies  (comitia 
curiata),  convened  by  the  king,  the  citizens  enacted  laws,  and 
gave  their  assent  to  war  or  peace.  \     The  transfer  of  people  to 

*  Among  the  Latins,  "  the  households  were  united,  by  ties  of  blood  or  by  near- 
ness of  locality,  into  clans;  and  the  householders'  dwellings  formed  the  clan 
villages,  which  were  united,  and  all  formed  a  canton.  Each  canton  had  a  common 
center,  where  justice  was  administered  and  the  markets  held.  Around  this  cen- 
tral town,  which  was  always  situated  on  an  elevated  and  easily  defensible  position, 
suburbs  grew  up,  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  early  I.Atin  towns.  The  different 
Latin  cantons  united  into  a  league,  with  Alba  Longa  at  their  head,  known  as  the 
league  of  the  thirty  Latin  cities."— Z/Cig^^on's  History  of  Rome. 

+  The  citizens  were  divided  into  three  tribes,  each  tribe  into  ten  curt'cc,  each 
curia  into  ten  gentes,  and  each  gena  into  ten  households.  According  to  this  scheme, 
there  were  80  curice,  300  gentes,  and  8000  households,  which  thus  formed  the  com- 
munity, or  popultis.  Every  household  was  required  to  furnish  one  foot-soldier,  and 
each  gens  a  horseman;  so  that  the  army  originally  consisted  of  8000  foot-soldiers 
»nd  300  cavalry.   The  senate  consisted  of  three  hundred  members,  one  for  each  gens. 


The  Roman  Kingdom. 


185 


Rome  from  the  conquered  cities  of  Latium  affected  the  popu- 
lation by  introducing  a  new  element,  consisting  of  those  who 
had  no  political  rights  or  privileges.  This  formed 
the  distinction  between  the  patricians,  or  nobles, 
and  the  plebeians,  or  common  people.     It  was  the 


Patricians  and 
plebeians. 


former  that  constituted  the  state;  since  they  exercised  all  the 
political  power,  possessed  the  honors,  and  rendered  service  in 
the  army.  There  were  also  clients  and  slaves,  the  former  being 
bound  to  their  patrician  patrons ;  the  latter,  held  in  absolute 
bondage,  and  bought  and  sold  at  pleasure. 

7.  The  history  of  Rome  as  a  kingdom  is  traditionary,  for 
most  of  the  records  of  its  early  history  were  destroyed  when  the 
Gauls,  several  centuries  later,  burned 
the  city.  Seven  kings,  it  is  said,  ruled 
in  succession,  including  Romulus,  the 
reputed  founder,  who  or- 
ganized  the   government 


Kings. 


of  the  city;  but  even  their  names  seem 
to  be  uncertain.  Nu'ma  Pom-pil'i-us, 
the  second  king,  was  a  Sabine,  and, 
according  to  the  traditions,  was  the 
Vicinity  of  Rome.  founder  of  the  religious  institutions 

of  the  Romans.     He  reformed  the  calendar,  and 
erected  a  temple  to  Janus,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
forum.    The  gates  of  this  temple  were  closed  only  in  times 
of  peace. 

8.  Tul'lus  Hos-til'i-us,  the  third  king,  was  noted  for  the 


Numa. 


wars  which  he  waged  against  the  neighboring  cities. 
was  who  broke  the  power  of  the  Latins,  and  de- 
stroyed Alba.     An'cus  Martins  (mar'she-us),  the 
fourth  king,  the  grandson  of  Numa,  gained  ad- 


He  it 


Tulius 
Hostilius. 


ditional  victories  over  the  Latins  and  extended  his  conquests 
into  Etruria.  He  built  the  port  of  Ostia,  fortified  the  Jani- 
culan  hill,  and  constructed  the  first  bridge  across  the  Tiber. 
H^  ^Iso  gettjed  sQver^l  thousand  qI  the  conquered  Latius  on 


186 


AncieTvt  History, 


the  Ayentine  hill  at  Rome,  thus  laying  the  foundation  of  the 
plebeian  order.  An  Etruscan  dynasty  succeeded,  the  first  of 
which,  Tarquinius  Priscus  (Tarquin  the  Elder), 
the  fifth  king  of  Rome,  was  noted  for  the  public 
buildings  and  other  works  which  he  caused  to 
be  constructed.     Among  these  were  the  great  sewer  {clo-a'ca 


Tarquin  the 
Elder. 


ServiusTullius. 


maxima) y  the  great  circus  (Circus  Maximus),  and  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Capitoli'nus.  The  latter,  however,  he  did  not  live 
to  finish.     He  also  defeated  the  Sabines  and  the  Etruscans. 

9.  The  second  of  this  dynasty,  and  the  sixth  king  of 
Rome,  was  Ser'vi-us  Tul'li-us,  a  bold  and  adroit  usurper.     He 

made  important  changes  in  the  government,  es- 
tablishing a  new  assembly  (comitia  centuria'ta), 
in  which  all  free  Romans  had  a  voice.     In  this  the  people 

were  divided  into 
centuries,  each  cen- 
t  u  r  y  having  one 
vote;  but  the  num- 
ber of  centuries 
constituting  a 
class  depended  on 
the  amount  of 
property  possessed. 
This  arrangement, 
while  admitting  all, 
at  least  seemingly,  to  a  share  in  the  government,  gave  the  pre- 
ponderance of  power  to  the  wealthy  classes.  Servius  also 
built  a  wall  inclosing  the  entire  city,  including  all  the  ''seven 
hills,"  over  which  the  city  had  gradually  spread.  This  inclo- 
sure  was  about  seven  miles  in  circuit,  and  sufficed  for  many 
centuries. 

10.  Tar-quin'i-us  Su-per'bus  (Tarquin  the  Proud),  the 
seventh  king,  ruled  with  great  arrogance,  particularly  toward 
the  patricians ;  and  finally,  in  consequence  of  an  infamous 
crime  committed  by  his  son  Se^ctus,  an  insurrection  broke 


Cloaca  Maxima. 
(In  its  present  condition,  1881.) 


The  Roman  Bepuhlie.  187 

out,  and  lie  and  his  family  were  driven  out  of  the  city.     This 
terminated  the  kingdom  (509  B.C.).     Thus,  tra- 
ditionally, the  period  of  the  kingdom  was  244 
years,  the  average  duration  of  each  reign  being 


Tarquin  the 
Proud. 


about  35  years.  This  has  been  pointed  out  as  a  most  improb- 
able circumstance,  and  as  sufficient,  of  itself,  to  show  the 
unreliable  character  of  the  early  history.* 

Teaditional  Cheonology  of  the  KiNGa 

B.C.  Length  of  Reign. 

Romulus 753-716  37  years. 

(Interregnum  of  one  year.) 

Numa  Pompilius 715-676  39     " 

(Interregnum  of  two  years.) 

Tullus  Hostilius 674-642  32     " 

Ancus  Martins.  642-618  24     " 

L.  Tarquinius  Priscus 618-578  40     " 

Servius  Tullius 578-534  44     " 

Tarquinius  Superbus 534-509  25     " 


SECTION  III. 

The  Roman  Republic. 

I  Peeiod  of  Inteenal  Steuggles. 

11.  The  history  of  the  Roman  Republic,  succeeding  the 
regal  period,  for  more  than  a  century  and  a  half  is  occupied 
chiefly  with  an  account  of  the  struggles  between  the  Patri- 

*  "  The  early  history  of  Rome  is  indeed  far  more  poetical  than  anything  else  in 
Latin  literature.  The  loves  of  the  Vestal  and  the  God  of  War,  the  cradle  laid 
among  the  reeds  of  the  Tiber,  the  fig-tree,  the  she-wolf,  the  shepherd's  cabin,  the 
recognition,  the  fratricide,  the  rape  of  the  Sabines,  the  death  of  Tarpeia,  the  fall  of 
Hostius  Hostilius,  the  struggle  of  Metius  Curtius  through  the  marsh,  the  women 
rushing  with  torn  raiment  and  disheveled  hair  between  their  fathers  and  their 
husbands,  the  nightly  meetings  of  Numa  and  the  Nymph  by  the  well  in  the  sacred 
grove,  the  fight  of  the  three  Romans  and  the  three  Albans,  the  purchase  of  the 
Sibylline  books,  the  crime  of  Tullia,  the  simulated  madness  of  Brutus,  the  ambigu- 


188  Ancient  History. 


cian  and  Plebeian  orders,  and  of  the  growth  of  the  Roman  con- 
stitution and  laws.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  two 
magistrates,  called  consuls,  were  annually  elected, 
to  whom  was  intrusted  the  chief  executive  author- 


Consuls. 


ity.  The  duties  and  powers  of  the  consuls  were  similar  to 
those  of  the  kings,  and  for  nearly  150  years  they  were  chosen 
exclusively  from  the  patricians.  As  civil  officers  their  power 
was  almost  absolute,  each  ruling  by  turns;  and  they  were  the 
legally  appointed  generals  of  the  army  in  time  of  war.  Junius 
Brutus  and  Col-la-ti'nus  were  the  first  to  hold  the  office  of 
consuls.  The  former,  often  called  the  Elder  Brutus,  was  a  re- 
markable character.  He  was  a  nephew  of  Tar- 
quin;  but  seeing  his  relatives  put  to  death  by  order 


Junius  Brutus. 


of  that  jealous  tyrant,  he  feigned  to  be  half-witted,  so  that  he 
might  seem  to  be  of  no  consequence.  After  the  crime  of 
Sextus,  he  threw  off  the  mask,  and  by  his  bold  and  earnest 
eloquence  incited  the  people  to  expel  the  hateful  king.* 

OU8  reply  of  the  Delphian  oracle  to  the  Tarquins,  the  wTongs  of  Lucretia,  the 
heroic  actions  of  Horatius  Codes,  of  ScaevoJa,  and  of  Cloelia,  the  battle  of  Regillus 
won  by  the  aid  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  the  fall  of  Cremera,  the  touching  story  of 
Coriolanus,  the  still  more  touching  story  of  Virginia,  the  wild  legend  about  the 
draining  of  the  Alban  lake,  the  combat  between  Valerius  Corvus  and  the  gigantic 
Gaul,  are  among  the  many  instances  which  will  at  once  suggest  themselves  to 
every  reader."— Jfacawtoi/. 

*  The  following  incident  of  the  legendary  history  of  the  period  illustrates  the 
stem  virtue  of  this  remarkable  jnan:  "  Then  King  Tarquinius  sent  to  Rome  to  ask 
for  all  the  goods  that  had  belonged  to  him;  and  the  Senate,  after  a  while,  decreed 
that  the  goods  should  be  given  back.  But  those  whom  he  had  sent  to  Rome  to  ask 
for  his  goods,  had  meetings  with  many  young  men  of  noble  birth,  and  a  plot  waa 
laid  to  bring  back  King  Tarquinius.  But  a  slave  happened  to  overhear  them  talk- 
ing together,  and  when  he  knew  that  the  letters  were  to  be  given  to  the  messengers 
of  Tarquinius,  he  went  and  told  all  that  he  had  heard  to  Brutus  a«d  to  Publius 
Valerius.  Then  they  came  and  seized  the  young  men  and  their  letters,  and  so  the 
plot  was  broken  up.  Then  Brutus  bade  the  lictors  to  bind  his  own  two  sons,  Titus 
and  Tiberius,  together  with  the  others,  and  to  scourge  them  with  nxls  according  to 
the  law.  And  after  they  had  been  scourged,  the  lictors  .struck  off  their  heads  with 
their  axes,  before  the  eyes  of  their  father;  and  Brutus  neither  stirred  from  his 
seat,  nor  turned  away  his  eyes  from  the  sight;  yet  men  saw,  as  they  looked  on 
him,  that  his  heart  was  grieving  inwardly  over  his  children.  Then  they  marveled 
at  him,  because  he  had  loved  justice  more  than  his  own  bloml,  and  had  not  spared 
his  own  children,  when  they  had  been  false  to  their  country  and  ha<l  offended 
against  the  law."— .4moW»  History  of  Rome. 


The  Roman  Bepuhlic.  189 

12.  For  more  than  twelve  years  after  the  abolition  of  the 
monarchy,  the  Eomans  were  engaged  in  war  with  the  adhe- 
rents and  friends  of  the  Tarquins.  Several  of  the 
neighboring  cities  raised  armies  to  compel  the 
Eomans  to  reinstate  the  king,  but  they  were  at 


Wars  with  the 
Tarquins. 


last  all  defeated,  although  at  times  they  seemed  to  be  on  the 
point  of  accomplishing  their  object.  The  most  powerful  of 
these  was  the  Etruscan  monarch  Lars  Por'sen-na,  who  for 
a  few  years  almost  held  the  Eomans  in  subjection ;  but 
he  finally  made  peace  with  them.  The  famous  battle  of 
Ee-gil'lus,  in  Tus'cu-lum,  terminated  the  struggle,  and  the 
Tarquins  finally  gave  up  all  hope  of  being  restored.  It  was 
during  this  period  that  the  first  dictator  *  was  appointed.  To 
this  period  belong  some  of  the  most  interesting  stories  of  the 
legendary  history;  such  as  that  of  Ho-ra'tius  (she-us),  who 
kept  the  bridge  against  the  whole  Tuscan  army; 
of  Mu'cius   Scaevola  {se'vo-lah)  and  Castor  and 


Legends. 


Pollux  at  Lake  Eegillus.     A  few  of  these  are  here  given. 
Legends  of  the  Peeiod  of  the  Tarquins. 

Bmtus  and  the  Oracle.  On  one  occasion  King  Tarqum  was  terribly 
frightened  by  a  singular  omen  :  a  serpent  glided  from  beneath  the 
altar,  at  the  time  of  sacrifice,  and  devoured  the  entrails  of  the  victim. 
In  his  alarm,  the  king  resolved  to  send  his  two  sons  and  his  half-witted 
nephew,  Junius  Brutus,  to  Delphi  to  ask  of  the  oracle  an  explanation  of 
this  dreadful  portent.  "When  the  two  princes  had  presented  their  costly 
offerings,  they  laughed  at  the  simple  Junius,  who  offered  only  his  staff; 
but  they  did  not  know  that  the  seeming  simpleton  had  hollowed  out  the 
staff  and  filled  it  with  gold.  When  the  oracle,  in  response  to  the  inquiry 
who  should  reign  in  Rome  after  Tarqum,  had  said,  "He  of  you  who 
shall  first  kiss  his  mother,"  the  two  princes  agreed  to  draw  lots  for  the 
privilege;  but  their  companion,  understanding  the  oracle  better,  fell  as 
if  by  accident  on  leaving  the  temple,  and  kissed  his  mother  earth. 

Death  of  Brutus.  In  a  battle  with  the  Etruscans,  A'runs,  one  of  the 
sons  of  Tarquin,  seeing  Brutus  at  the  head  of  the  Roman  cavalry,  spurred 

*  A  dictator  was  an  officer  vested  for  a  limited  time  with  an  absolute  and  irre- 
Tponsible  authority.    He  was  only  appointed  in  times  of  great  public  peril. 


190  Ancient  History. 


his  horse  so  furiously  upon  him  that  both  fell  mortally  wounded  from 
the  effect  of  the  charge.  The  Roman  women  mourned  for  Brutus  an 
entire  year,  for  they  honored  him  as  the  avenger  of  the  matron  Lu-cre'- 
tia,  the  victim  of  the  crime  of  Sextus  Tarquinius. 

Horatins  Codes.  When  Porsenua,  Lars  (lord)  of  Clusium,  in  Etruria, 
had  reached  with  his  army  the  Ja-nic'u-luni,  just  across  the  Tiber  from 
Rome,  it  only  remained  for  him  to  cross  the  Sublician  (sub-lish'e-an) 
bridge  and  capture  the  city.  But  the  brave  Horatius,  with  almost  super- 
human dariug,  kept  the  Tuscan  army  at  bay,  while  his  comrades  broke 
down  the  bridge  behind  him;  then,  with  a  fervent  prayer  to  "Father 
Tiber"  for  safety,  he  plunged  into  the  stream,  and,  amid  a  shower  of 
arrows,  swam  unharmed  to  the  opposite  side.  This  legend  was  a  favor- 
ite one  among  the  Romans.  It  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Macaulay's 
Lays  of  Ancunt  Borne. 

"  When  the  goodman  mends  his  armor, 

And  trims  his  helmet  plume; 
When  the  good  wife's  shuttle  merrily 

Goes  flashing  through  the  loom ; 
With  weeping  and  with  laughter 

Still  is  the  story  told. 
How  well  Horatius  kept  the  bridge 

In  the  brave  days  of  old." 

Mncius  ScsBvola.  While  the  Etruscans  were  besieging  Rome,  a  young 
noble,  named  Mucins,  entered  the  camp  of  the  enemy  with  the  determi- 
nation to  kill  the  king.  But  he  happened  to  slay  the  royal  treasurer, 
mistaking  him  for  the  king,  and  was  immediately  seized  and  led  to  the 
tent  of  Porsenna,  who  threatened  him  with  death.  Then  Muclus,  to 
show  his  contempt  for  pain  and  death,  thrust  his  right  hand  into  the 
flames  of  a  burning  altar,  and  held  it  there  until  it  was  burnt  to  ashes. 
Astonished  at  such  fortitude,  the  king  dismissed  him  without  further 
harm;  but  he,  as  if  in  gratitude,  informed  the  monarch  that  there  were 
in  Rome  three  hundred  young  men,  as  brave  as  himself,  who  hail 
solemnly  vowed  to  take  his  life.  The  consequence  was,  that  Porsenna, 
in  great  alarm,  made  peace  with  the  Romans.  This  young  man  was 
ever  after  held  in  great  honor,  an(J  received  the  name  Scievola,  the  Left- 
handed. 

Battle  of  Lake  Eegillus.  As  a  last  effort  to  regain  his  tlirone,  Tarquin 
applied  for  aid  to  his  son-in-law,  Octavius  Ma-miVi-us,  of  Tusculum, 
and  the  Latins  espoused  his  cause.  In  the  long  and  bloody  battle  at 
Lake  Regillus,  at  one  time  it  seemed  as  if  the  Roman  army  was  about 
to  give  way,  when  Aulus  Pos-tu'nu  us.  offering  a  prayer  to  the  twin 


The  Roman  JRepublic,  191 

deities,  Castor  and  Pollux,  vowed  to  build  a  temple  in  their  honor  if 
they  would  come  to  the  aid  of  the  Romans.     But  a  short  time  elapsed, 

"  When  he  was  aware  of  a  princely  pair, 

That  rode  at  his  right  hand. 
So  like  they  were,  no  mortal 

Might  one  from  the  other  know; 
White  as  snow  their  armor  was, 

Their  steeds  were  white  as  snow." 

Another  charge  was  made,  under  this  more  than  mortal  leadership, 
and  the  Latins  fled.  That  same  evening  two  young  men  rode  into  Rome 
on  white  steeds,  and  announced  the  victory.  They  were  seen  to  wash 
their  horses  at  the  spring  Ju-tur'na,  in  the  Forum,  and  then  they  vanished. 

"  And  all  the  people  trembled, 

And  pale  grew  every  cheek; 
And  Sergius  the  High  Pontiff 

Alone  found  voice  to  speak: 
'  The  Gods  who  live  forever 

Have  fought  for  Rome  to-day  1 
These  be  the  great  Twin  Brethren 

To  whom  the  Dorians  pray.' " 

13.  Although  the  monarchy  had  been  abolished,  the  people 
of  Rome  by  no  means  enjoyed  the  blessings  of  a  free  govern- 
ment. All  political  power  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  patricians,  and  the  plebeians  were  kept  in  a 
condition  of  great  social  degradation.    Obliged  to 


Condition  o\ 
the  plebeians. 


borrow  money  of  their  rich  neighbors,  they  were  charged 
enormous  rates  of  interest,  and  when  unable  to  pay,  were 
delivered  by  the  cruel  laws  to  the  mercy  of  their  creditors, 
who  deprived  them  of  their  lands,  and  reduced  them  to  the 
condition  of  serfs  or  slaves.*  Nevertheless,  they  were  com- 
pelled to  perform  military  duty  whenever  called  upon  by  the 

*  "  When  a  Roman  plebeian  found  himself  involved  in  a  debt  which  he  could  not 
pay,  his  best  resource  was  to  sell  himself  to  his  creditor,  on  the  condition  that 
unless  the  debt  were  previously  discharged,  the  creditor,  at  the  expiration  of  a 
stated  term,  should  enter  into  possession  of  his  purchase.  This  was  called,  in  the 
language  of  the  Roman  law,  the  entering  into  a  nexum,  and  the  person  who  had 
thus  conditionally  sold  himself  was  said  to  be  ''neanis;''  that  is,  bound.  When  the 
day  came,  the  creditor  claimed  possession,  and  the  magistrates  awarded  it;  and 
the  debtor,  thus  given  over  to  his  purchaser,  passed,  with  all  that  belonged  to  him, 
into  his  power;  and  as  the  sons  were  considered  their  father's  property,  they  also, 
unless  previously  emancipated,  were  included  in  the  sale,  and  went  into  slavery 
together  with  their  father. "~^moWs  History  of  Rome. 


192  Ancient  History. 


government.     This  state  of  things  disheartened   the  plebs 

(common  people),  and  produced  in  their  minds  a  most  bitter 

feeling  of  hatred  toward  the  patricians. 

14.  At  length  their  condition  became  so  wretched  that 

they  refused  to  take  the  field  against  the  public  enemy;  but, 
leaving  the  city  to  the  patricians,  departed  in  a 
body  to  the   Sacred  Mount,   about  three  miles 


Secession. 


distant,  where  they  resolved  to  found  a  new  city.  This  com- 
pelled the  nobles  to  make  some  concessions.  They  released 
the  debtors  from  their  obligations,  setting  free  all  who  had 
been  made  slaves,  and  assented  to  the  appointment  of  two 
magistrates,  called  TrWunes,  who  were  to  be 
chosen  from  the  ranks  of  the  plebeians,  to  hold 


Tribunes. 


office  one  year,  and  to  have  the  power  of  annulling  any  law  of 
the  Senate  by  pronouncing  the  word  Veto  {I  forhid  it).  After 
this  arrangement  had  been  effected,  the  people  returned  to 
the  city  (494  B.C.). 

15.  This  concession  on  the  part  of  the  nobles,  though 
important,  was  not  so  great  as  it  appears,  since  the  tribunes 
were  elected  by  the  assembly  of  the  centuries 
{Comitia  Centuriata),  in  which,  according  to  the 
constitution  of  Servius    Tullius,   the   patricians 


Powers  of 
tribunes. 


could  always,  by  means  of  their  wealth,  command  a  majority 
of  votes.  The  tribunes  were  not  invested  with  any  of  the 
ordinary  duties  of  magistrates,  their  office  being  simply  to 
protect  the  rights  of  the  plebeians  by  their  check  upon  the 
legislation  of  the  Senate,  that  body  being  purely  an  aristo- 
cratic assemblage,  and  by  preventing  the  execution  of  any 
law  or  measure  of  the  consul  which  they  deemed  injurious  to 
the  interests  of  their  order.  Their  persons  were  declared 
sacred  and  inviolable.  The  tribunes  were  afterward  increased 
to  five,  and  finally,  in  later  times,  to  ten.  By  the  I-cil'i-an 
law,  passed  the  next  year  (493  B.C.),  any  person  who  inter- 
rupted a  tribune  while  addressing  the  people  might  be  pun- 
ished with  death. 


The  Roman  Republic.  193 

16.  Another  source  of  trouble  was  the  injustice  of  the 
nobles  in  seizing  upon  the  public  or  conquered  lands,  and 
keeping  them  for  their  exclusive  use;  whereas, 
by  the  constitution  of  Servius  Tullius,  they  were 


Agrarian  laws. 


to  be  divided  partly  among  the  poorer  people.  This  kind 
of  aggression  continued  to  exist  for  centuries,  and  gave  rise 
to  the  proposal  of  many  exciting  measures,  called  "  agrarian 
laws,"  the  object  of  which  was  to  enforce  a  proper  division  of 
the  public  lands.  This  was  the  more  necessary,  since,  when 
held  in  large  quantities  by  the  wealthy,  the  lands  were  culti- 
vated by  slaves,  and  the  small  farmers  and  freemen  were 
deprived  of  the  means  of  existelice. 

17.  To  correct  this  injustice  and  abuse,  the  consul  Spu'rius 
Cassius  {kash'e-ics),  a  patrician  of  the  highest  standing,  pro- 
posed the  first  Agrarian  Law,  providing  for  an 
equitable   division  of   the  newly  acquired   lands 


SpurJus  Cassius. 


(486  B.C.).  The  patricians  were  greatly  incensed  against  the 
measure,  but  they  could  not  prevent  its  enactment.  The 
next  year,  however,  an  accusation  was  brought  against  Cas- 
sius, at  their  instigation,  charging  him  with  aiming  at  kingly 
power ;  and  he  was  condemned  and  put  to  death.  The 
agrarian  law  was  not  enforced ;  for  the  influence  of  the 
patricians  was  greatly  strengthened  by  the  execu- 
tion of  Cassius,  and  the  Fabian  family  {gens)  suc- 


Fabtan  family. 


ceeded  in  obtaining  the  consulship  for  nearly  ten  years. 
Having  taken  upon  themselves  to  carry  on  the  war  against 
Veil  {ve'yi),  they  left  Rome,  but  were  finally  enticed  into  an 
ambuscade  and  slain  (477  B.  c. ). 

18.  The  contest  between  the  orders  for  the  execution  of 
the  agrarian  law  was  still  fiercely  waged;  and  it  became 
obvious  to  the  people  that  they  must  have  bold 
and  independent  men   as   tribunes    to   contend 


Publilian  law. 


against  the  unscrupulous  and  violent  patricians.  Hence,  the 
tribune  Vol'e-ro  Pub-liri-us  proposed  a  law  that  the  tribunes 
should  be  elected  by  the  plebeians  themselves  at  the  Assembly 


194  Ancient  History. 


of  the  Tribes,  instead  of,  as  previously,  by  the  Assembly  of  the 
Centuries.  This  measure,  after  great  opposition,  was  carried 
(471  B.C.),  and  was  a  gi'eat  gain  to  the  lower  order.  Indeed, 
the  Publilian  law  of  Volero  broke  the  power  of  the  nobles, 
and  virtually  made  Rome  a  democratic  state. 

19.  While  these  struggles  had  been  going  on  in  the  city 
between  the  two  orders,  there  were  almost  constant  wars  with 
the  neighboring  people,  among  whom  the  ^'qui-ans  and 
Volscians  (vol'she-ans)  were  the  most  troublesome.  To  this 
period  belongs  the  story  of  Co-ri-o-la'nus,  a  patrician  general, 
who  acquired  his  surname  by  the  capture  of  Co-ri'- 
o-li,  an  important  city  of  the  Volscians.  Having 


Coriolanus. 


great  influence  at  Rome  in  consequence  of  the  victories  which 
he  had  gained,  he  insisted,  during  a  time  of  famine,  that  no 
corn  should  be  given  to  the  people  unless  they  would  relin- 
quish their  privileges.  But  the  tribunes  procured  his  banish- 
ment; and  going  over  to  the  Volscians,  he  marched  with  an 
army  against  Rome  and  threatened  its  capture.  The  Senate 
made  several  attempts  to  dissuade  him  from  his  revengeful 
purpose,  but  in  vain.  At  last,  when  his  mother,  wife,  and 
children  were  sent  to  his  camp  to  intercede  for  the  city,  he 
relented,  and  retired  with  his  army.  Sliortly  afterward,  it  is 
said,  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  Volscians  (488  B.C.). 

20.  To  a  somewhat  later  period  belongs  the  interesting 
legend  of  Cin-cin-na'tus,  who,  although  a  patrician,  lived  on 
a  small  farm  which  he  cultivated  with  his  own 
hands.     Twice  was  he  called  from  the  plow   to 


Cincinnatus. 


serve  his  country,  once  as  consul  and  again  as  dictator;  and 
while  holding  the  latter  office,  he  gained  a  great  victory  over 
the  -^quians;  and  then,  having  freed  Rome  from  danger, 
immediately  resigned  his  great  office,  and  returned  to  his 
humble  agricultural  labors,  followed  by  the  applause  and 
blessings  of  all  his  countrymen  (458  B.C.).  Nearly  thirty 
years  afterward,  when  at  the  age  of  eighty,  he  was  again  called 
from  his  retirement  to  take  the  office  of  dictator. 


The  Roman  Republic.  195 

21.  During  this  period,  while  Rome  was  imperiled  by  fierce 
enemies  without,  the  contest  still  raged  within  between  the 
rival  orders.  Concession  after  concession  was  wrung  from 
the  nobles,  but  the  people  still  pressed  forward 
clamorous  for  their  rights,  and  for  just  and  equal 


Decemvirs. 


laws;  for  there  was  no  written  code  to  which  they  could 
appeal.  The  patricians  again  gave  way,  and  allowed  a  com- 
mission of  three  to  be  sent  to  Athens  and  Southern  Italy  in 
order  to  study,  and  report  on,  the  Grecian  systems  of  legisla- 
tion. On  their  return,  ten  persons  (Decem'virs)  were  appointed 
to  prepare  a  code  of  laws  (451  B.C.).  They  were  also  invested 
with  a  very  large  authority,  superseding  the  other  magistrates, 
and  ruling  by  turns,  each  for  one  day.  The  cele- 
brated code  of  the  Twelve  Tables  was  the  result 


Twelve  Tables. 


of  their  labors.  Thus  was  laid  the  foundation  of  Roman  juris- 
prudence. These  laws  were  set  up  in  a  prominent  place,  so 
that  all  the  people  might  read  them;  and  afterward  were  com- 
mitted to  memory  by  the  boys  in  the  schools. 

22.  The  task  assigned  to  the  Decemvirs  had  been  so  well 
performed,  and  they  iiad  ruled  with  such  justice  and  modera- 
tion, that  the  office  was  continued  for  another 
year,  in  order  that  they  might  complete  the  work. 
But  Ap'pi-us  Clau'di-us,  one  of   their  number. 


Appius 
Claudius. 


was  a  bold,  ambitious,  wicked  man,  and  he  succeeded  in 
having  elected  with  him  those  who  were  wedded  to  his  inter- 
ests. The  mask  was  soon  thrown  off;  and  the  people  found 
their  lives  and  property  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  a  relentless 
despot.  Lucius  Si-cin'ni-us  Den-ta'tus,  a  brave  soldier  and 
former  tribune,  spoke  loudly  against  this  usurpation,  and  was 
waylaid  and  murdered.     A  dreadful  outrage  *  perpetrated  by 

*  This  wajs  the  attempt  which  Appius  made  to  ohtaln  possession  of  Virginia,  a 
beautiful  maiden,  the  daughter  of  a  soldier  named  Virginius.  To  accomplish 
his  object  Appius  induced  one  of  his  clients  to  swear  that  she  was  the  daughter  of 
one  of  his  slaves;  and  she  was  seized  and  brought  before  the  Decem\ir's  tribunal, 
where  the  client  made  his  claim,  which  Appius  at  once  decided  m  his  favor. 
Virginius,  whp  lw4  bftsteaed  to  the  spot,  seeing  no  way  left  to  save  his  daughter 


196  Ancient  History, 


Appius  Claudius  at  lust  caused  a  revolt  of  the  army;  and  the 
tyrants  were  compelled  to  abdicate.  The  former  government 
was  then  restored  (449  B.C.).  Appius  Claudius  put  an  end  to 
his  life  while  in  prison. 

23.  The  right  of  intermarriage  between  the  patricians  and 
plebeians  being  forbidden,  a  law  was  introduced  by  one  of  the 
tribunes  (445  B.C.)  making  such  marriages  legal. 
This,  after  violent  opposition,  was  passed,  and  was 
immediately  followed  by  a  proposal  to  open  the 


Military 
tribunes. 


consulship  to  the  plebeians.  To  put  an  end  to  the  strife  and 
excitement  which  this  produced,  the  duties  of  consuls  were 
intrusted  to  officers  called  military  tribunes,  to  be  elected  by 
the  Assembly  of  the  Centuries,  both  patricians  and  plebeians 
being  eligible  to  the  office.  The  Senate,  however,  could  order 
the  election  of  consuls,  instead  of  the  tribunes,  for  any  year. 
These  officers  continued  to  be  elected  with  various  intermis- 
sions until  3G6  B.C.,  when,  by  the  Li-cin'imi  Law,  plebeians 
were  admitted  to  the  consulship.  About  this  time,  also,  two 
Magistrates,  called  Censors,  were  appointed  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  the  census  (445  B.C.).* 

24.  The  Romans  having  besieged  Veii,  a  large  and  power- 
ful city  of  E-tru'ri-a,  for  several  years,  were  on  the  point  of 
suffering  a  disastrous  defeat,  when  Fu'ri-us  Ca- 
mil'lus,  being  appointed  dictator,  caused  a  tunnel 
to  be  dug,  by  means  of  which  the  soldiers  were 


Furius 
Camillus. 


admitted  into  the  citadel,  and  the  city  was  taken  and  destroyed 
(39G  B.C.).  Veii  being  a  larger  and  more  magnificent  city  than 
Rome  itself,  and  more  favorably  situated,  very  many  of  the 

from  dishonor,  plunjired  a  knife  into  her  bosom,  and  rushing  from  tlie  city,  told  his 
tale  of  woe  to  the  army.  This  aroused  the  indignation  of  the  soldiers,  and  they 
revolted,  encamping  on  the  Aventine  at  first;  but  being  afterward  joined  by  the 
other  army,  they  toolc  up  a  position  on  the  Bacred  Mount.  The  story  of  Virginia 
forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Macaulay's  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome. 

*  The  powers  and  duties  were  afterward  greatlv  extended :  for  they  exercised  a 
general  control  over  the  finances  of  the  state,  the  management  of  the  public  land 
and  the  farming  of  the  taxes,  as  well  as  a  general  supervision  over  the  public  and 
private  life  of  every  citizen. 


Tlie  Roman  Bepuhlic, 


197 


Romans  were  inclined  to  abandon  their  own  city  and  migrate 
thither.  From  this,  however,  they  were  finally  dissuaded  by 
the  patricians.  Camillus,  being  accused  of  appropriating  the 
spoils  of  the  conquered  city  to  his  own  use,  was  driven  into 
exile  (391  B.C.).  The  conquest  of  Veii  made  an  important 
addition  to  the  Roman  territory.  Four  new  tribes  were 
formed;  and  the  wealth  acquired  from  the  spoils  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  industry  and  trade. 

25.  At  this  period,  the  Gauls,  a  barbarous  but  yery  bold 
and  warlike  people  of 
the  Celtic  race,  had 
possessed  themselves 
of  nearly  all  western 
Europe,  and  occupied 
also  the  north  of  Italy. 
Proceeding  farther 
south,  they  attacked 
Clu'si-um,  an  impor- 
tant city  of  Etruria,  the 
inhabitants  of  which 
sent  to  Rome  for  assist- 
ance. (391  B.C.)  Em- 
bassadors were  accord- 
ingly sent  to  Clusium 

(klu' She-Um)    to   de-  Thk  Celtic  arms. 

mand  of  the  Gauls  the  reason  of  their  hostile  invasion,  and  bid 
them  quit  a  territory  to  which  they  had  no  claim. 
Bren'nus,  their  leader,  answered  that  the  **  title 
of  brave  men  was  their  swords;"  whereupon  a 


Invasion  by  fte 
Gauls. 


battle  ensued,  in  which  the  Roman  deputies,  unmindful  of 
their  neutral  character,  took  part  against  the  Gauls.  This 
so  enraged  Brennus  that  he  immediately  left  Clusium,  and 
with  an  army  of  nearly  75,000  men  marched  toward  Rome. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Al'li-a,  a  few  miles  from  the  city,  he  met 
ftnd  defeated  the  Roman  army;  and  then  marching  to  tho 


198  Ancient  History, 

city  itself,  entered  it  without  opposition,  all  the  inhabitants 
having  fled,  except  eighty  aged  senators,  who  awaited  the 
enemy  in  the  Forum,  in  their  robes  of  state  and  seated  in 
their  ivory  chairs.  These  venerable  men  were  quickly  mas- 
sacred, and  the  city  pillaged  and  burnt  (390  B.C.).* 

26.  The  citadel,  however,  being  built  on  a  steep  and  lofty 
cliff,  held  out  for  seven  months;  and  the  Gauls  besieging  it 
were  reduced  in  numbers  by  a  pestilence  which  broke  out 
among  them.  It  is  said  that  at  one  time  they  were  on  the 
point  of  taking  the  citadel;  for  having  discovered  a  narrow 
path  up  the  cliff,  they  had  nearly  reached  the  summit  during 
the  darkness  of  night,  all  the  guards  being  asleep;  but  at  that 
instant  the  sacred  geese  kept  in  the  temple  of  Juno  com- 
menced a  loud  cackling,  which  awoke  the  garrison;  and  the 
Roman  commander,  Mar'cus  Man'li-us,  springing  up,  rushed 
to  the  edge  of  the  rock  and  hurled  the  Gauls  headlong  down. 

27.  In  the  mean  while,  Camillus  had  been  called  from 
banishment  and  made  dictator.  He  arrived,  as  the  story 
goes,  with  an  army  just  as  the  Romans  were  about  to  deliver 
to  the  Gauls  1000  pounds  of  gold  which  they  had  agreed  to 
pay  as  a  ransom.  Exclaiming  that  "Rome  should  be  ran- 
somed only  with  steel,"  he  ordered  the  gold  to  bo  carried 
away,  and  immediately  attacking  the  Gauls,  defeated  them 

*  Many  of  these  details  are  mythical,  but  there  is  probably  a  basis  of  truth.  The 
following  is  Arnold's  description  of  the  savape  massacre  of  the  Roman  senators: 
"Then,  as  men  devoted  to  death,  they  arrayed  themselves  in  their  most  solemn 
dress;  they  who  had  held  curule  olBces,  in  their  robes  of  white  with  the  broad  scarlet 
bqrder;  they  who  had  won  triumphs,  in  their  robes  of  triumph,  overlaid  with 
embroidery  of  many  colors  and  with  palm-branches  of  gold,  and  took  their  seats, 
each  on  his  ivory  chair  of  magistracy,  in  the  gatewaj"-  of  his  house.  When  the 
Qauls  saw  these  aged  men  in  this  array  of  majesty,  sitting  motionless  amidst  the 
confusion  of  the  sack  of  the  city,  they  at  first  looked  upon  them  as  more  than 
human,  and  one  of  the  soldiers  drew  near  to  M.  Papirius,  and  began  to  stroke 
reverently  his  ivory-white  beard.  Papirius.  who  was  a  minister  of  the  gwls,  could 
not  endure  the  touch  of  profane  barbarian  hands,  and  struck  th(>  Gaul  over  the 
head  with  his  Ivory  stjepter.  Instantly  the  spi'U  of  revennu-e  was  broken,  and  rage 
and  the  thirst  of  blood  succeeded  to  it.  The  Gaul  cut  down  tlie  old  Papirius  with 
his  sword;  his  comnwies  were  kindled  at  the  sight,  and  all  the  old  men.  according 
(0  their  YOWi  were  offered  up  as  victims  to  the  powers  of  death."— if t«tory  of  Rome* 


Tlie  Roman  Hepublic.  199 

with  great  slaughter.  Other,  and  probably  more  truthful, 
accounts  state  that  the  gold  was  paid,  and  that  the  Gauls  then 
peaceably  retired;  and  it  is  even  said  that,  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  afterward,  some  of  this  very  gold  was  recovered 
from  the  Gauls  of  that  later  period.  It  is,  however,  certain 
that  the  city  was  left  in  ruins;  and  the  public  records  having 
been  destroyed,  no  materials  for  an  authentic  histoiy  of  the 
events  preceding  this  period  could  afterward  be  obtained. 

28.  After  the  departure  of  the  invaders,  the  city  was  in  a 
sad  condition,  and  the  people  were  almost  in  despair.  They 
had  lost  their  houses,  their  cattle,  and  their  crops,  and  yet 
were  obliged  to  pay  taxes  in  order  to  repair  the  city  walls,  and 
to  carry  on  the  wars  which  the  neighboring  states 
wap;ed  against  them.     They  were  also  very  much 


Marcus  Manlius. 


oppressed  by  the  merciless  laws  against  debtors.  In  this 
crisis,  Marcus  Manlius,  the  brave  defender  of  the  citadel,  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  efforts  and  sacrifices  to  relieve  the 
people's  wants.  Having  by  this  means  acquired  very  great 
popularity,  he  excited  the  suspicions  of  the  patricians,  and 
was  accused  of  attempting  to  make  himself  king;  of  which 
offense  being  unjustly  pronounced  guilty,  he  was  thrown 
down  the  Tarpeian  {tar-pe'an)  Eock,  the  very  place  from 
which  he  had  repelled  his  country's  enemies  (383  B.C.).* 

29.  For  a  considerable  time  the  destitution  and  suffering 
of  the  people  continued,  while  the  wealthy  classes  selfishly 
held  on  to  their  unjust  powers  and  privileges. 
At  length  a  scheme  of  legislation  was  presented 


Licinian  laws 


by  C.  Li-cin'i-us  Sto'lo  and  L.  Sextius,  two  plebeians  of  high 
rank  and  great  ability  (376  B.C.).  This  measure,  known  as 
the  Licinian  Laws,  comprehended  three  provisions:  (1)  That 

*  "  M.  Manlius,  less  pure  and  disinterested  than  his  prototype,  Spurius  Cassius, 
made  the  plebeian  viTongs  the  stalking  horse  of  his  own  ambition.  Partly  tempted, 
partly  goaded  into  crime,  he  is  entitled  to  our  pity,  even  though  we  condemn  him. 
His  intentions  were  probably  at  first  honest,  and  the  means  that  he  designed  to 
use  legal ;  but  the  opposition  which  he  encountered  drove  him  to  desperate 
measures,  and  he  became  in  the  end  a  dangerous  conspirator."— iJatoMnson. 


200  Anderd  History. 

the  interest  already  })aid  on  borrowed  money  should  be  de- 
ducted from  the  principal,  and  the  balance  made  jKiyable  in 
three  yearly  installments;  (2)  That  no  person  should  hold 
more  than  500  jugera  (about  380  acres)  of  the  public  lands; 
and  (3)  That  thereafter  consuls  should  be  elected  in  the  place 
of  mihtary  tribunes,  and  that  one  of  the  two  consuls  should 
belong  to  the  plebeian  order. 

30.  The  Liciniau  laws  were  adopted,  but  not  without  a 
severe  struggle  that  lasted  several  years,  during  which  the 
aged  Oamillus  was  again  made  dictator.     Lucius 
Sextius,  one  of  the  proposers  of   the  laws,  was 
elected  the  first  plebeian  consul;  and,  at  the  close 


Oamillus 
dictator. 


of  the  contest,  Oamillus  dedicated  a  temple  to  Concord.  The 
patricians,  however,  from  time  to  time,  endeavored  to  over- 
ride or  evade  these  laws,  but  were  invariably  defeated,  being 
compelled  in  the  end  to  make  still  further  concessions.  At 
the  close  of  these  long  struggles,  a  perfect  equality 
was  estabhshed  in  the  political  powers  of  the 
orders;  for  the  plebeians  were  admitted  to  all  the 


Triumph  of  the 
plebeians. 


offices,  including  the  dictatorship,  censorship,  and  even  the 
sacred  college  of  pontiffs  and  augurs.  Domestic  tranquillity 
being  thus  established,  Rome  was  ready  to  commence  her 
wonderful  career  of  conquest  (340  B.C.). 

n.  Period  of  Italian  Conqxtests. 

31.  During  the  period  to  which  we  have  arrived,  lasting 
about  three  fourths  of  a  century  (340-2G4  B.C.),  great  wars 
were  waged  in  Italy,  the  result  of  which  was  that 
Rome  became  mistress  of  the  whole  peninsula. 
These  wars  consist  chiefly  of  the  four  Samnite 


Conquest  of 
Italy. 


wars,  the  great  Latin  war,  the  war  with  Pyr'rhus,  and  a  war 
with  the  Gauls.  These  will  all  be  treated  of  briefly,  avoiding 
details  in  the  account  of  the  military  movements,  since  for 
these,  if  needed,  larger  works  can  be  consulted.  The  first  to 
be  referred  to  is  the  war  with  the  Samnitea. 


Tlie  Roman  Hepublic.  201 

32.  The  Samnites,  a  warlike  people  inhabiting  central 
Italy^  having  made  war  upon  the  Campa'nians,  the  latter 
called  in  the  aid  of  the  Komans  (343  b.  c.  ),  who 
entering  Campania  defeated  the  Samnites  with 
immense  slaughter,  and  compelled  them  to  make 


First  Samnite 
war. 


peace,  after  the  war  had  lasted  about  two  years.     A  war  with 
the  Latin  cities  followed,  in  which  the  Romans 
were  also  victorious,  and  Latium  was  annexed  to 


Latin  war. 


^e  Roman  territory  (339  B.C.).  In  the  second  war  with  the 
Samnites,  the  Romans  sustained  a  terrible  defeat  in  a  narrow 
valley  called  the  Cau'dlne  Forks,  and  were  com- 
pelled by  the  Samnite  general  to  pass  under  the 
yoke*  in  acknowledgment  of  their  subjugation 


Other  Samnite 
wars. 


(321  B.C.).  The  war  was,  however,  continued  until  305  B.C., 
when  the  Samnites,  having  been  repeatedly  defeated,  were 
compelled  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Rome.  Seven 
years  afterward,  they  renewed  the  war,  being  aided  by  the 
Umbrians,  Etruscans,  and  Gauls;  but  the  allied 
army  suffered  a  great  defeat  near  Sen-ti'num,  a 
town  in  Um'bria  (295  B.C.).    This  famous  victory 


War  with  the 
Gauls. 


gave  the  Romans  the  dominion  of  nearly  all  Italy,  f  Close 
upon  this  event,  followed  a  war.  with  the  Etrurians  and 
Gauls,  whose  combined  forces  were  also  vanquished  with  great 
slaughter. 

33.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Greek  colony  of  Ta-ren'tum 
[see  map,  page  87]  having  given  offense  to  the 
Romans,  the  latter  declared  war  upon  them,  upon 
which  the  Tarentines  solicited  the  aid  of  Pyrrhus, 


War  with 
Pyrrhus. 


king  of  E-pi'rus,  the  greatest  general  of  his  age.     Complying 
with  this  request,  he  landed  in  Italy  and  gained   a  great 

*  The  yoke  was  formed  by  setting  two  spears  upright,  and  placing  another  across 
the  top  of  them. 

t  '*  The  third  Samnite  war  is  the  contest  of  confederated  Italy  against  the 
terrible  enemy  whose  greatness  was  now  seen  to  threaten  every  power  in  the 
peninsula.  Its  ttmiing  point,  which  well  deserves  its  place  among  the  ten  or 
twelve  '  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World,'  was  the  battle  of  Sentiniun."^i^at<;?iri§Qn. 


202  Ancient  History. 


victory  over  the  Romans,  commanded  by  the  Consnl  Lae-vi'- 
nns  (280  B.C.).  But  it  was  a  dear-bought  triumph,  for  he 
lost  many  of  his  best  troops  and  some  of  his  ablest  oflacers, 
and  was  probably  indebted  for  it  more  to  the  confusion  occa^ 
sioned  by  the  elephants  which  his  army  contained,  and  i% 
which  the  Romans  were  not  accustomed,  than  to  the  superior 
valor  or  skill  of  his  soldiers.  When,  on  visiting  the  battle- 
field the  next  day,  he  gazed  on  the  Roman  dead,  all  of  whom 
appeared  to  have  fallen  in  their  ranks,  and  with  their  faces 
turned  toward  the  enemy,  he  exclaimed:  ''If  I  had  such 
soldiers  as  these,  how  easily  could  I  conquer  the  world!" 

34.t  Many  of  the  Italian  nations  now  joined  Pyrrhus,  and 
he  advanced  to  a  point  within  eighteen  miles  from  Rome,  to 
which  he  sent  an  emissary,  offering  peace;  but  the  Roman 
senate  refused  to  treat  for  peace  until  he  should  withdraw  his 
forces  from  Italy.  Another  battle  was  fought  the  next  year, 
in  which  the  Romans  were  again  defeated,  but  with  great  loss 
to  Pyn-hus.  Leaving  Italy jHie  then  proceeded  to  Sicily  with 
the  design  of  expelling  the  Carthaginians  from  that  island, 
but  in  this  he  was  not  successful;  and  after  an  absence  of  two 
years  he  returned  to  Tarentum.  At  Ben-e-ven'- 
tum,  a  town  in  Samnium,  about  28  miles  from 
Cap'u-a,  he  was  met  by  the  Romans  under  the 


Defaat  of 
Pyrrhus. 


Consul  Cu'ri-us  Den-ta'tus,  and  suffered  a  most  disastrous 
defeat  (275  B.C.),  after  which  lie  retired  from  Italy,  with  the 
almost  total  loss  of  his  army.* 

35.  After  the  departure  of  Pyrrhus,  the  Tarentines  applied 
for  aid  to  the  Carthaginians,  who  sent  a  fleet  for  their  relief; 
but  the  Romans  obtained  possession  of  Tarentum.  The  Sam- 
nites,  Luca'nians,  and  other  tribes  soon  afterward  submitted, 
thus  leaving  Rome  mistress  of  all  Italy  (204  B.C.).  Over  this 
extensive  domain  she  organized  a  most  effective  government. 

♦On  his  return  to  Greece,  he  was  proclaimed  klnj?  of  Macedonia.  Making  war 
upon  the  Spartans,  he  nearly  took  their  city ;  but,  in  an  attack  upon  Argos,  he  was 
killed  by  a  tile  thrown  by  a  woman  frpm  the  roof  of  a  house. 


The  Roman  Mepublic. 


203 


Some  portions,  wliicli  were  called  prcefedures — that  is,  dis- 
tricts governed  by  praefects,  she  ruled  by  means  of  magis- 
trates sent  from  herself.  From  others,  the  municipal  toivns, 
she  only  exacted  military  service,  leaving  to  them  the  control 
of  their  own  local  affairs;  while  in  very  many  she  planted 
colonies  of  Eoman  citizens,  whom  she  supplied  with  lands 
from  the  conquered  territory,  and  j^laced  over  the  subjugated 
inhabitants.  Her  rule  was,  however,  mild  and  generally  just, 
and  was  but  little  disturbed  by  commotion  or  revolt. 

36.  In  connection  with  the  colonial  system  of  Rome  at 
this  time,  the  military  roadst  were  an  important  auxiliary. 

^^^^^_-_^-.-_-^  After  the  conquest  of  Campania,  Ap- 

r?'^T''^^^^=^=  ^"=^    -^"  i)ins  Claudius  (Caecus) 
^;^_l    „  constructed    a   paved 


Military  roads. 


road  to  Capua,  called  after  him  the 
Apj)ian  Way  (312  B.C.}.  Other  roads 
were  afterward  constructed,  which 
intersected  every  part  of  Italy,  and 
served  to  bind  all  the  outposts  to 
^,.  Eome  as  the  great  center  of  the 
whole.     The  wonderful 

T        ,  ill-  Aqueducts. 

aqueducts,      stretching  I 
over   hills  and  valleys,  or  forming 
''    subterranean   channels,  were  com- 

menced  about  this  time.     The  re- 

PosUipon^rNapl^rr  "'  mains  of  these  structures,  so  exten- 
sive and  durable,  now  present  one  of  the  most  imposing 
spectacles  that  the  eye  of  the  traveler  rests  upon  among  the 
wonders  of  the  *'  Eternal  City"  and  its  surroundings. 

m.  Period  of  Foreign  Conquests  (264-133  B.C.). 

37.  The  period  to  which  we  have  now  arrived,  in  the 
history  of  Rome,  is  especially  marked  by  the  splendor  of  her 
military  career,  and  the  rapidity  and  extent  of  her  foreign 
conquests.     Owing  to  the  gi-eat  increase  of  her  wealth  from 


The  Via  Appia. 
(Passing  through  the  grotto  of 
es.) 


204  Ancient  History. 


the  conquered  states  in  Italy,  and  the  large  and  numerous 
colonies  which  she  was  continually  sending  forth,  and  having 
now  an  established  constitution  and  system  of  laws,  she  was 
relieved  from  those  internal  troubles  by  which  the  develop- 
ment of  her  power  as  a  nation  was  checked.  Hence,  at  this 
period,  the  external  relations  of  Rome  became  the  all-engross- 
ing theme;  for  the  brazen  gates  of  the  temple  of  Janus  had 
never  been  closed  but  once  during  this  long  series  of  years  (in 
235  B.C.). 

^   38.  Across  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  African  shore,  was 
the  great  rival  republic,  Carthage  (see  map,  p.  205);  and  it 
was  with  her  that  Rome  was  now  to  measure  her 
strength  in  three  tremendous  contests,  known  in 


Punic  wars. 


history  as  the  Punic  Wars.  Carthage  was  of  Phoenician  origin, 
having  been  settled  by  the  Tyrians  about  six  centuries  before 
this  period.  She  had,  at  this  time,  become  one 
of  the  greatest  maritime  powers  in  the  world. 


Carthage. 


Her  ships  covered  the  Mediterranean,  distributing  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  East  to  the  various  ports  on  its  shores.  Three 
hundred  cities  in  Africa  paid  her  tribute;  and  she  had  made 
extensive  conquests  in  Spain,  Sardinia,  and  Sicily. 

39.  Syracuse,  however,  in  Sicily,  still  retained  its  inde- 
pendence, after  repeated  wars  with  the  Carthaginians.     Tliis 
city  was  a  colony  of  the  Corinthians,  established 
in  the  eighth  century  B.C.;  and,  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, became  tlie  most   populous   and  powerful 


History 
of  Syracuse. 


state  in  the  island,  under  a  virtuous  and  patriotic  sovereign, 
named  Ge'lon.  During  its  struggle  with  Atliens,  in  which 
Nicias  was  so  disastrously  defeated,  it  was  under  a  free  gov- 
ernment, but  subsequently  lost  its  liberties  (405  B.C.),  being 
ruled  for  38  years  by  the  famous  Di-o-nys'i-us,  who  carried 
on  a  successful  war  with  the  Carthaginians.  Ti-mo'le-on,  a 
Corinthian  of  great  virtue  a?id  talents,  restored  it  to  freedom 
(344  B.C.);  but  under  A-gath'o-cles,  the  despotism  was  again 
established  (317  B.C.).     At  the  time  at  wliich  we  have  arrived. 


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206 


Ancient  History. 


it  was  under  the  rule  of  a  monarch  named  Hi'e-ro,  during 
whose  reign  flourished  the  famous  mathematician  Archimedes 
(ar-Jce-me'deez). 

FIRST  PUNIO  WAE. 

40.  The  first  Punic  war  commenced  in  264  B.C.,  and  lasted 
23  years.      It  was  brought  on  in  the  following    manner. 
Agathocles,  who  waged  long  wars  with  Carthage, 
had  hired  a  body  of  troops    from   Campania; 
and  these,  after  the  death  of  that  despot,  seized 


The 
Mamertines. 


Messana  and  slaughtered  the  inhabitants,  after  which  they 
assumed  the  name  of  Mam'er-tines,  sons  of  Mars,  or  wai'hke 


WAR-SHn»  OF  HiKRO. 

men.  These  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse,  marched  against  and 
defeated.  Whereupon  they  invoked  the  aid  of  the  Romans; 
and,  notwithstanding  Hiero  had  but  a  few  years  before  been 
their  friendly  ally,  and  had  given  them  valuable  aid,  the 
Romans  decreed  that  assistance  should  be  sent  to  the  Mamer- 
tines. But  in  the  mean  time,  Hiero  had  formed  an  alliance 
with  Carthage;  and  thus,  throuirb  a  set  of  mercenary  mur- 
derers and  robbers,  these  two  great  republics  were  plunged 


Tlie  Roman  Hepuhlie.  ^07 

into  a  series  of  wars  which  lasted  more  than  a  hundred  years. 
The  real  cause  of  the  war  was,  however,  the  rivalship  of  these 
states. 

41.  The  Eomans,  having  gained  some  important  victories, 
were  soon  joined  by  many  of  the  cities  oi  Sicily,  including 
Syracuse,  for  Hiero  soon  deserted  the  Cartha- 
ginians, and  became  an  ally  of  Eome.  They  then 
took  Ag-ri-gen'tum,  defeating  an  immense  army 


Success  of  the 
Romans. 


which  the  Carthaginians  had  sent  to  its  assistance  (262  B.C.). 
Seeing  then  the  necessity  of  coping  with  their  enemy  on  the 
sea,  they  built  a  fleet,  and,  under  the  Consul  Du-il'li-us, 
gained  a  great  naval  victory.  Encouraged  by  this,  they 
sent  an  armament  under  Eeg'u-lus  to  attack  Car- 
thage itself;  but  this  expedition,  although  at  first 


Regulus. 


successful,  was  defeated  with  great  loss  through  the  assist- 
ance of  Xan-thip'pus,  a  Spartan  general,  who  had  recently 
entered  the  service  of  Carthage.  He  advised  the  Carthaginians 
to  select  the  level,  open  country  for  their  battle-field,  where 
their  elephants  and  cavalry  could  be  fully  brought  into  action. 
The  gi'eater  part  of  the  Eomans  were  slain  or  made  prisoners, 
Eegulus  himself  being  among  the  latter  (255  B.C.). 

42.  But  the  Eomans  were  not  to  be  discouraged  by  this 
great  disaster,  and  they  soon  gained  several  important  vic- 
tories, among  which  the  defeat  of  Ha-mil'car  in 
Sicily  by  the  Consul  Me-tel'lus  (251  B.C.)  was  the 
most  serious  to  the  Carthaginians,  and  induced 


Hamilcar's 
defeat. 


them  to  make  overtures  for  peace.  They,  accordingly,  as 
is  related,  took  Eegulus  from  prison  and  sent  him  to  Eome, 
exacting  from  him  a  promise  that,  unless  he  should  obtain 
for  them  favorable  terms  of  peace,  he  would  return  to  Car- 
thage (250  B.C.).  But  Eegulus  listened  to  the  dictates  of 
patnotism,  instead  of  consulting  his  own  per- 
sonal safety,  and  advised  his  countrymen  to  con- 
tinue the  war,  assuring  them  that  Carthage  was 


Fate  of 
Regulus. 


nearly  exhausted,     .^n  spite  of  the  entreaties  of  his  family  and 


208 


Ancient  History. 


friends,  he  kept  his  word,  and  returned  to  Carthage,  where, 
it  is  said,  he  was  put  to  death  with  the  most  dreadful  tor- 
tures. After  the  war  had  continued  some  years  longer,  the 
Carthaginians  were  compelled  again  to  sue  foi* 
peace,  which  was  granted  on  condition  that  they 
should  evacuate  Sicily,  acknowledging  the  inde- 


Close  of  the 
war. 


pendence  of  Syracuse,  restore  the  Koman  prisoners,  and  paj 
all  the  expenses  of  the  war  (241  B.C.).  Sicily,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Syi'acuse,  then  became  a  Eoman  proyince. 

43.  One  important  result  of  this  war  was  to  make  Kome  a 
great  naval  power;  for,  though  at  the  beginning  the  Romans  had 
little  maritime  experience,  in  the  course  of  it  they 
became  fully  a  match  for  the  Carthaginians  in 
this  kind  of  warfare.     Carthaore  was  still  further 


Results  of  the 
war. 


weakened  by  the  revolt  of  her  mercenary  army  and  African 
allies.  But  she  was  finally  rescued  from  this  trouble  by  the 
energy  and  genius  of  Hamilcar,  her  great  general.  Rome, 
however,  took  advantage  of  the  revolt  to  seize  upon  Sardinia, 
which  she  formed  into  a  Roman  province.  In 
the  organization  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia  com- 
menced the  provincial  system,  each  province 
paying  taxes  to  the  Roman  people.  Rome  also  showed  her 
maritime  skill  and  power  in  subduing  the  Il-lyr'i-an  pirates, 
then  the  terror  of  the  surrounding  seas.  She 
also  defeated  the  Gauls  in  northern  Italy,  and 
made  a  complete  conquest  of  the  country  between 


Provincial 
system. 


Further 
successes. 


the  Apennines  and  the  Alps,  afterward  called  Cisalpine  Gaul. 

44.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Carthaginians,  driven  out  of 

Sicily  and   Sardinia,  obtained   full   compensation   for  their 

loss  by  their  increase  of  power  in  southern  Spain, 

under  the   management  of    their  great  leader, 

Hamilcar.     They  occupied  the  rich  towns,  and 

reduced  and  trained  to  arms  the  warlike  Celts  and  Iberians. 
They,  moreover,  discovered  and  commenced  to  work  the  rich 
Bilver  mines,  near  which    they  founded  a  city  called  Nfiw 


Carthaginians 
in  Spain. 


Tfie  Roman  Hepuhlic.  209 

Carthage,  designed  to  be  the  capital  of  this  new  empire. 
Eome,  ever  watchful  and  jealous,  made  an  alliance  with 
Sa-gun'tum,  and  extorted  a  promise  from  the  Carthaginians 
that  they  would  not  pass  the  Ebro. 

45.  But  Han'ni-bal,  the  son  of  Hamilcar,  had  when  a 
youth  been  made  by  his  father  to  swear  upon  the  altar  eternal 
enmity  to  the  Romans;  and,  as  soon  as  he  assumed 
the  command  (221  B.C.),  he  determined  to  carry 


his  hostile  plans  into  execution  by  invading  Italy.  He  first 
marched  his  forces  to  Saguntum,  a  city  south  of  the  I-be'rus, 
which,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  Roman  senate,  he 
captured,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months  (219  B.C.).  This  was 
the  commencement  of  the  Second  Punic  War,* 

SECOI^^D  PUKIC  WAR. 

46.  Hannibal,  having  passed  the  winter  at  New  Carthage, 
in  the  spring  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  with  the  intention  of 
invading  Italy;  for  he  anticipated  that  the  war- 
like tribes  of  the  newly  conquered  territory  of 
Cisalpine  Gaul  would  declare  in  his  favor,  and 


Invasion  of 
Italy. 


expected  that  the  Italian  states  would  desert  the  Roman  con- 
federacy. With  wonderful  daring  and  dispatch  he  crossed 
the  Alps,  and  at  the  river  Ti-ci'nus  met  and  defeated  the 
Romans  under  their  consul  Scip'i-o  (218  B.C.). 
A  few  days  afterward,  he  iiiflicted  a  severe  defeat 
upon  the  other  consul,  Sem-pro'ni-us,  near  the 


Defeat  of  the 
Romans. 


river  Tre'bi-a,  a  short  distance  from  the  scene  of  the  first 
conflict.  Another  great  battle  was  fought  the  next  year,  near 
the  lake  Tras-i-me'nus,  where  the  Romans  were  again  defeated, 

*  After  the  fall  of  Saguntum,  the  Roman  senate  sent  an  embassy  to  Carthage  to 
demand  satisfaction  for  this  violence  done  to  the  allies  of  Rome :  and,  in  present- 
ing the  subject,  the  chief  of  the  embassy,  gathering  up  the  folds  of  his  toga, 
exclaimed:  "  Here  I  carry  peace  and  war.  Say,  ye  men  of  Carthage,  which  shall 
it  be?"  "Give  us  what  you  will,"  was  the  reply.  "Then  give  we  war,"  said  the 
embassador,  spreading  out  his  toga.  "We  accept  it,  and  will  maintain  it  with  the 
spirit  in  which  it  is  accepted,"  rejoined  the  Carthaginians.  Thus,  according  to 
Livy,  was  this  dreadful  war  declared. 


210  Ancient  History. 


their  army  being  almost  destroyed  (217  B.C.).  So  alarmed 
did  the  Romans  become,  in  consequence,  that  they  immedi- 
ately appointed  a  dictator,  Fa'bi-us  Max'i-mus  being  selected 
for  the  office.  But  Hannibal  did  not  march  to  Rome,  as  was 
expected,  because  he  waited  for  the  Italians  to  join  his  stand- 
ard; but  their  fidelity  to  Rome  remained  unshaken,  and  not  a 
town  opened  its  gates  to  the  invader. 

47.  The  cautious  Fabius,  unwilling  to  risk  another  engage- 
ment with  Hannibal's  army,  now  flushed  with  victory,  adopted 
the  tactics  of  harassing  the  invaders  as  much  as 
possible,  hovering  around  them,  like  "  a  cloud  on 


Fabius. 


the  mountains,"  thus  wearing  out  their  resources  by  delay. 
The  Romans  were  thus  enabled  to  recover  somewhat  from 
their  disasters;  but  the  next  year  (216  B.C.),  Hannibal,  having 
advanced  into  southern  Italy,  was  opposed  by  a  large  army 
under  the  consuls  ^-mil'i-us  and  Var'ro;  and  at  Can'nae  a 
terrific  battle  took  place,  which  for  the  fourth 
time  resulted  in  a  complete  victory  for  the  Car- 
thaginians (216  B.C.).     It  is  said  that  more  than 


Battle  of 
Cannae. 


60,000  Romans  fell  on  the  field,  and  that  Hannibal  sent  to 
Carthage  over  a  bushel  of  gold  rings,  taken  from  the  fingers 
of  the  senators  and  knights  who  were  found  among  the  slain. 
Several  of  the  tribes  in  the  south  of  Italy  revolted  from  the 
Romans;  but  the  Greek  cities  and  nearly  all  the  Italian  sub- 
jects remained  faithful.  Hannibal,  instead  of  marching  on 
the  city,  which  it  is  thought  he  might  have  captured,  went 
into  winter  quarters  at  Capua,  and  waited  for  reinforcements. 
48.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Romans  had  sent  Publius  Cor- 
ne'lius  Scipio  into  Spain  to  make  an  attack  upon  the  Cartha- 
ginians there,  in  order  that  no  additional  forces 
might  be  sent  to  Hannibal.     In  a  few  years  Scipio 


Scipio  in  Spain. 


Bucceeded  in  destroying  the  Carthaginian  power  in  that 
country,  and  reduced  Spain  to  the  condition  of  a  Roman 
province  (216-206  B.C.).  Hannibal  gained  no  decisive  vic- 
tory after  that  at  Canngo.     His  army,  reduced  in  numbers. 


TTie  Roman  Bepublic. 


211 


and  impaired  in  strength  and  discipline  by  the  pleasures  and 
vices  of  Capua,  was  scarcely  adequate  to  protect  his  Italian 
allies  against  the  Komans,  now  under  the  com- 
mand of  Fabius  and  Mar-cel'lus,  the  former  of 
whom,  from  his  cautious  policy,  was  called  the 


Fabius  and 
Marcellus. 


I   The  territory  of  Syracuse 

•VT-ATl    -R    a.    264 


TEAR    B.  C.   264 


Shield  of  Rome,  and  the  latter,  on  account  of  his  vigor  and 

address,  the  Sword  of  Rome. 
Mai'cellus  did  important  ser- 
vice in  Sicily. 

49.  Hiero,  king  of  Syra- 
cuse, having  died,  the  people 
of  that  city  estab- 
lished a  popular 
government,  and 


ACUSAE 


Taking  of 
Syracuse. 


declared  against  the  interests 
of  Rome.  Marcellus  there- 
fore proceeded  against  the 
place,  which  he  took  after  a 
siege  of  two  years  (212  B.C.). 
This  siege  is  memorable  for 
the  part  taken  in  the  defense 
of  the  city  by  Archimedes, 
skill  in  the  invention  of 
In  the  general  massacre 


who  exhausted  his  science  and 
machines  to  assail  the  besiegers, 
that  followed  the  entrance  of  the  Romans,  the  aged  philoso- 
pher was  slain;*  the  city  was  pillaged,  and  many  of  its  mag- 
nificent works  of  art  were  carried  to  Rome. 


*  Archimedes  was  in  his  study,  absorbed  in  his  scientific  researches,  when  the 
Romans  entered ;  nor  did  he  perceive  that  the  city  was  taken  till  a  soldier  entered 
his  room,  and  commanded  him  to  follow  him  into  the  presence  of  Marcellus.  Ar- 
chimedes requested  him  to  wait  till  he  had  finished  his  problem,  upon  which  the 
soldier  drew  his  sword  and  killed  him.  Marcellus,  much  grieved,  ordered  his  body 
to  be  honorably  buried,  and  a  tomb  erected  to  his  memory.  His  genius  for  mathe- 
matics and  his  devotion  tc  his  favorite  study  were  very  remarkable  He  was  often 
so  engaged  in  this  study  that  he  neglected  his  meat  and  drink.  The  incident  of  the 
crown  is  very  interesting.  It  seems  that  a  jeweler  had  made  a  ci  own  for  Hiero ;  but 
the  king,  suspecting  that  it  bad  been  fraudulently  alloyed  with  silver,  set  Archimedes 


212  Ancient  History. 


50.  Hannibal,  despairing  of  succor  from  Carthage,  now 
eagerly  awaited  the  arrival  of  a  force  under  his  brother 
Has'dru-bal  from  Spain,  which  hud  been  expected 
for  some  time.     At  length  Hasdrubal  succeeded 
in  crossing  the  Alps,  and  was  proceeding  on  his 


Defeat  of 
Hasdrubal. 


route  to  join  Hannibal  in  Umbria,  when  he  was  intercepted  by 
a  Roman  army,  at  the  Metaurus  River;  and  was  defeated  and 
slain  (207  B.C.).  Hannibal  received  notice  of  this  disaster  by 
the  sight  of  his  brother's  gory  head,  which  the  consuls  caused 
to  be  thrown  into  his  camp.  At  the  sight  of  this  dreadful 
omen,  Hannibal  exclaimed:  **'  I  foresee  the  doom  of  Carthage!" 
The  Romans,  under  the  influence  of  Scipio,  the  conqueror  of 
Spain,  resolved  now  to  "  carry  the  war  into  Africa,"  and 
Scipio  was  appointed  to  the  command.  Meanwhile,  Hannibal 
withdrew  to  the  wild  and  mountainous  districts  of  Bruttium 
{hru'she-um),  still  nursing  the  hope  that  he  might  receive 
reinforcements  from  Carthage. 

61.  Scipio  landed  in  Africa  in  204  B.C.     Having  defeated 
the  Numid'ians  in  a  great  battle,  and  vanquished  the  Car- 
thaginians with  immense  slaughter,  at  U'ti-ca, 
Scipio  marched  almost  to  the  gates  of  Carthage; 


Scipio  in  Africa. 


when  the  Carthaginian  senate,  driven  to  desjiair,  recalled 
Hannibal  to  the  defense  of  his  own  country.  The  call  was  at 
once  obeyed,  and  landing  in  Africa,  Hannibal  drew  up  his 
forces  on  the  plain  of  Za'ma,  a  town  in  Numidia.*  Seeing 
that  his  army  was  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  Romans,  he 
obtained  an  interview  with  Scipio,  and  proposed  a  treaty  of 

to  examine  Into  the  aflfair.  Archimedes  thought  iipon  the  subject  a  long  time  In 
vain.  But  one  day  In  the  bath,  perceiving  that  his  body  displaced  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  water,  it  occurred  to  him  that  there  was  a  deflnit»i  relation  between  the 
quantity  of  water  displaced  and  the  weight  of  the  bo«ly.  and  thus  the  principle  of 
specific  gravity  flashed  across  his  mind.  The  problem  was  solved ;  and,  transported 
with  joy,  he  ran  out  Into  the  street,  crying  out  Eureka  !  Eureka!  "  I  have  found  Itl 
I  have  found  It!" 

*  Zama,  sometimes  called  Zama  Regla,  lay  some  distance  to  the  soutli-west  of 
Carthage,  and  north-west  of  Hadnimetum.  It  was  a  place  of  considerable  size  and 
strongly  fortified.    [See  map,  page  210.1 


The  Roman  Bepublic.  213 

peace;  but  Scipio,  true  to  Eoman  policy,  declined  the  pro- 
posal. The  battle  therefore  took  place,  and  Hannibal  was 
defeated  with  great  loss  (202  B.C.). 

52.  The  battle  of  Zama  ended  the  second  Punic  war;  for 
although  the  Carthaginians  were  not  utterly  exhausted,  yet, 
by  the  prudent  counsel  of  Hannibal,  who  saw  that 
it  would  be  useless  to  protract  the  struggle,  they 
consented  to  accept  the  terms  of  peace  dictated 


Close  of  the 
war. 


by  Scipio,  and  approved  by  the  Roman  Senate.  These  were 
very  severe:  Carthage  was  to  evacuate  Spain,  to  give  up  all 
her  prisoners,  surrender  her  fleets,  make  annual  payment  of 
200  talents  for  fifty  years,  in  order  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
the  war,  and  agree  to  undertake  no  future  war  without  the 
consent  of  Rome.  The  treaty  having  been  concluded,  Scipio 
returned  home,  and  was  honored  with  a  more  splendid  tri' 
umpli  than  any  Roman  general  had  previously  received.  He 
was  called  thereafter  Scipio  Af-ri-ca'nus. 

53.  Hannibal,  for  a  time,  was  treated  with  great  respect 
by  the  Carthaginians,  and  being  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
government,  endeavored  to  restore  the  nation  to 
its  former  prosperity  and  splendor.     But  the  in- 
trigues of  the  ancient  nobility  prevailed  against 


Fate  of 
Hannibal. 


him,  and  he  was  compelled  to  flee  in  order  to  save  his  life 
(196  B.C.).  Taking  refuge  in  Syria,  at  the  court  of  Antiochus 
{an-W o-hus)  the  Great,  he  assisted  that  monarch  in  a  war 
against  the  Romans;  but  the  latter  prevailing,  demanded  that 
Hannibal  should  be  given  up  to  them;  whereupon  he  fled  to 
Bithynia,  and  then,  being  still  pursued  by  the  Roman  emissa- 
ries, he  was  at  last  obliged  to  put  an  end  to  his  life  to  avoid 
falling  into  their  hands  (183  B.C.).* 

*  "  After  the  loss  of  his  last  hope  by  the  destruction  of  the  Syrian  host  at  Magne- 
sia, he  wandered  from  land  to  land  till  he  found  a  resting-place  at  the  court  of  Pru- 
sias  of  Bithynia.  The  Senate  could  not  breathe  while  their  great  enemy  lived;  and 
Flamininus  was  sent  to  demand  from  Prusias  the  person  of  his  illiLstrious  guest.  The 
king  dared  not  say  nay,  and  gave  Hannibal  to  understand  that  he  must  be  siuren- 
dered  to  Flamininus;  but  the  great  Carthaginian,  to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of 


214  Ancient  History. 


Conquest  of  Macedonia  and  Gbeece. 

54.  At  the  close  of  the  Second  Punic  War,  the  Romans 
commenced  an  attack  on  Macedonia;  for  Philip,  the  king  of 
that  country,  had  not  only  given  aid  to  tlie  Cartha- 
ginians, but  was  engaged  at  this  time  in  schemes 
to  conquer  Egypt,  Pergamus,  and  Rhodes,  which 


Macedonian 
war. 


Rome  chose  to  take  under  her  protection,  claiming  them  as 
her  allies.  Hence,  she  entered  upon  what  is  called  the  Mace- 
donian War.  The  Roman  general,  Flam-i-ni'nus,  on  taking 
the  command,  united  all  Greece  against  Philip,  by  issuing  a 
declaration  of  Grecian  independence;  and  the  next  year  he 
totally  defeated  Philip  in  the  great  battle  of  Cyn-os-ceph'a-la3 
(197  B.C.).  This  decisive  victory  made  Rome  the  arbitress  of 
the  world. 

65.  The  war    against  Antiochus,  of  Syria,  soon   followed 
(192  B.C.);  for  this  great  monarch  dared  to  undertake  the 
conquest  of  certain  countries — Asia  Mi  nor,  Thrace, 
etc. — without  the  consent  of  the  Roman  senate. 
Moreover,  he  afforded  an  asylum  to   Hannibal, 


War  against 
Antiochus. 


sent  a  haughty  defiance  to  the  Romans,  and,  on  the  invitation 
of  the  ^tolians,  landed  in  Greece.  But  liis  Greek  allies  were 
routed  at  Thermopylae  (191  B.cl),  his  fleet  wiis  scattered; 
and  he  himself,  the  next  year,  suffered  an  overwhelming 
defeat  at  Magnesia,  in  Asia  Minor,  from  the  Roman  army, 
really  directed  by  the  great  Scipio,  though  his  brother  Lucius 
had  the  command.  The  latter  was  afterward  styled  Anati- 
ctiSf  in  honor  of  this  great  victory.  These  two  illustrious 
men  subsequently  excited  the  envy  of  certain  persons  at 
Rome,  and  were  accused  of  embezzling  some  of  the  treasures 

his  implacable  foes,  swallowed  a  dose  of  poison,  which,  according  to  the  common 
story,  he  carried  with  him  constantly,  in  the  hollow  of  a  ring.  He  was  sixty-three 
years  of  age.  Life  had  long  ceased  to  be  valuable  to  him,  because  opposition  to 
Rome  had  become  hopeless.  He  died,  as  he  had  lived,  faithful  to  the  service  of  that 
avenging  deity  to  whom  he  had  been  bound  in  his  boyhood  by  Ills  fatlier,  HamU- 
car.  "—Z,tdtie«'«  History  of  Rome. 


The  Roman  Bepublic.  215 

captured  in  Syria.     To  this  base  and  ungrateful  accusation, 
Publius  Scipio,  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal,  dis- 
dained to  plead;  but  quitting  Eome  in  disgust. 


Exile  of  Scipi*. 


took  up  his  abode  in  Campania,  where  he  died  a  few  years 
afterward  (183  B.C.).* 

56.  After  the  death  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  Perseus 
(per'suse),  his  successor,  a  young  and  brave  prince,  made  an 
effort  to  free  Macedonia  and  Greece  from  the 
Roman  yoke;    but,  after  a  war  of  three  years. 


Battle  of  Pydna. 


he  was  utterly  subdued  at  the  battle  of  Pyd'na  (168  B.C.). 
He  was  carried  captive  to  Rome,  where  he  and  his  children 
graced  the  triumph  of  ^mil'ius  Paulus,  his  conqueror.  Thus 
was  Macedonia  added  to  the  Roman  dominions,  155  years 
after  the  death  of  Alexander.  It  has  been  observed  that  the 
victory  of  Pydna  really  established  the  dominion  of  Rome 
over  the  whole  civilized  world;  for  this  was  the  last  battle  in 
which  the  forces  of  a  civilized  state  contended  on 
anything  like  equal  terms  with  those  of  Rome.  A 
few  years  afterward  the  conquest  of  G-reece  was 


Taking  of 
Corinth. 


completed  by  the  taking  of  Corinth,  which  was  burnt  to  the 
ground  (146  B.C.). 


THIRD   PUKIC   WAR. 


67.  In  the  mean  time  the  Third  Punic  War  broke  out, 
caused  by  the  inveterate  hatred  of  the  Romans  toward  the 
Carthaginians;  for  the  latter  had  been  so  thor- 
oughly subdued  and  humbled  that  no  further 


Cause. 


danger  could  be  apprehended  on  their  account.     There  was, 
however,  a  strong  party  at  Rome  bent   on  their  complete 

*  No  more  striking  instance  of  the  proverbial  ingratitude  of  republics  can  be 
found.  Scipio  directed  that  his  remains  should  not  be  conveyed  to  Rome;  but  the 
day  of  his  death  was  a  day  of  general  sorrow  in  the  city,  and  many  who  refused  to 
do  justice  to  this  great  man  while  he  lived  shed  tears  when  he  passed  away.  A 
monument  was  afterward  erected  at  the  place  of  his  death.  Scipio  had  ordered  to 
be  inscribed  on  his  tomb :  "  Ungrateful  country,  you  do  not  possess  even  my  bones !" 
Lucius  (Asiaticus)  was  also  persecuted  for  a  time;  but  the  reaction  set  in  before 
his  death,  and  due  honor  was  paid  him  for  his  eminent  services, 


216 


Ancient  History. 


destruction,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Porcius  Cato,  the 
Censor,  who  for  years  was  accustomed  to  end 
every  speech  which  he  made  with  the  words,  De- 


Cato. 


len'da  est  Cartha'go,  Carthage  must  be  destroyed. 

68.  A  pretext  for  commencing  hostilities  was  found  in  the 
efforts  made  by  Carthage  to  repel  the  aggi-essions  of  Mas-i- 
nis'sa,  king  of  Numidia,  whom  the  Eomans 
claimed  as  their  ally.  It  was  in  vain  that  the 
doomed  people  endeavored  to  appease  the  hostil- 
ity of  their  enemies.  They  complied  with  every  demand, 
banishing  all  who  had  given  offense  to  the  Romans,  and  even 


Defense  of 
Carthage. 


\^^  XJ  M  I  D  I 

~    *  aud  the  old 

PROVINCE 


surrendering  their  arms  and  military  stores.  But  when  finally 
told  that  they  must  leave  Carthage,  and  permit  it  to  be 
destroyed,  they  took  courage  from  despair,  shut  the  gates  of 
the  city,  and  put  to  death  every  Roman  within  its  walls. 
The  most  vigorous  exertions  were  then  made  to  supply  the 
weapons  which  the  treachery  of  Rome  had  wrested  from 
them.  Men  of  every  rank  toiled  day  and  night  in  the  forges, 
and  the  women  even  cut  off  their  hair  to  furnish  bow-strings 
for  the  archers. 


Tlie  Roman  Bepublic,  217 

69.  For  three  years,  under  their  general,  Hasdrubal,  did 
they  keep  the  Romans  at  bay  ;  but  at  length  were  obliged 
to  yield  to  the  skill  and  perseverance  of  Scipio, 
afterward  called  Africanus  the  Younger,  under 
whose  command  the  Romans  scaled  the  walls  of 


Taking 
of  Carthage. 


the  city,  and  cut  their  way  to  the  citadel.  After  six  days  of 
continuous  slaughter,  the  miserable  inhabitants  were  subdued; 
and  the  city  having  been  set  on  fire,  very  many  perished  in 
the  flames.  By  a  subsequent  order  of  the  Roman  Senate, 
every  house  that  was  left  standing  was  thrown  down,  and  the 
city  completely  destroyed,  and  a  curse  pronounced  against 
any  one  who  should  attempt  to  rebuild  it  (146  B.C.).  Thus 
perished  this  magnificent  city  of  700,000  people,  after  it  had 
existed  seven  centuries.  The  Carthaginian  territory  was  then 
formed  into  a  province  under  the  name  of  Africa,  and  the 
seat  of  government  fixed  at  Utica.  * 

60.  Although  the  Carthaginians  had  been  expelled  from 
Spain,  the  inhabitants  were  not  subdued;  and  they  valiantly 
defended  their  liberties  for  a  long  series  of  years 
against  the  Romans.    Among  the  most  courageous 


War  in  Spain. 


and  warlike  tribes  were  the  Cel-ti-be'ri-ans  and  Lu-si-ta'- 
nians.  f  The  latter  found,  in  their  noble  and  patriotic  chief 
Vir-i-a'tus,  a  leader  worthy  of  their  bravery,  and  able  to  cope 
with  the  best  generals  of  Rome.  During  six  years  he  defied 
every  effort  for  his  defeat  and  capture;  and  the  Lusitanians 
were  not  subdued  until  the  Romans  by  treachery  procured 
his  assassination;  to  such  a  depth  of  dishonor  had  the  Roman 
government  sunk  at  that  time  (139  B.C.). 


*  The  destruction  of  this  great  city  was  one  of  the  most  ruthless  acts  recorded  in 
history,  like  the  destruction  of  Veii,  in  393  B.C. ;  of  Corinth,  which  perished  the  same 
year  with  Carthage;  and  Jerusalem,  in  70  a.d.  Under  the  Emperor  Augustus,  Car- 
thage was  rebuilt,  and  became,  in  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era,  one  of 
the  finest  cities  of  the  Roman  Empire.  It  was  aga-n  destroyed  by  the  Arabs  in  the 
seventh  century  (698  a.d.),  and  now  only  a  few  ruins  remain  to  mark  its  site. 

t  lAisitania  corresponded  very  nearly  with  modern  Portugal;  Celtiberia,  with 
Aragon,  in  the  noith-eastern  part  of  Spain. 


The  Uoman  Uejpuotic,  SI  9 

61.  The  Numantine  war  continued  several  years  longer 
in  the  yicinitj  of  Numantia,  a  city  in  the  northern  part  of 
Spain;  and  it  was  not  until  Scipio  ^milianus  *  took  the  com- 
mand that  it  was  brought  to  a  successful  conclusion.  Numan- 
tia  suffered,  for  eighteen  months,  one  of  the  most  dreadful 
sieges  recorded  in  history,  the  people,  in  the  extremity  of 
famine,  devouring  the  bodies  of  the  dead.  At  last  they  were 
compelled  to  surrender;  but  some  set  fire  to  their  houses, 
killed  their  wives  and  children,  and  perished  in  the  flames. 
Only  a  miserable  remnant  of  the  inhabitants  survived;  and 
of  these  Scipio  selected  fifty  to  grace  his  triumphal  pro- 
cession; the  rest  he  sold  into  slavery,  and  ordered  the  city  to 
be  entirely  destroyed  (133  B.C.). 

62.  These  events  closed  the  epoch  which  we  have  called 
the  period  of  foreign  conquest;  for  though  Eome  continued 
to  carry  on  wars  and  to  annex  new  territories, 
it  was  during  that  period  that  she  succeeded  in 
making  herself  the  sole  great  power  in  the   then 


Review 
of  the  period. 


civilized  world.  At  the  beginning  of  that  epoch,  her  do- 
minions were  confined  to  Italy;  but  at  its  close  her  sway 
stretched  over  the  whole  of  southern  Europe,  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Euxine,  including  all  the  great  islands  near 
its  shores,  while  her  power  was  felt  in  Egypt  and  the  king- 
doms east  of  the  Mediterranean.  Her  rapidly  acquired 
provinces  had  led  to  an  additional  feature  in  her  polity — the 
provincial  or  proconsular  system,  each  province  being  governed 
by  a  magistrate  of  great  power  and  dignity,  both  civil  and 
military,  either  a  proconsul,  a  prsBtor,  or  a  propraetor,  accord- 
ing to  its  importance  or  extent. 

63.  The  effect  of  this  rapid  tide  of  conquest  was  to  pour 
a  flood  of  wealth  into  the  city,  leading  to  many  great  public 
improvements.     New  buildings  were  erected,  including  two 

*  This  was  Scipio  Africanus  the  Younger.  The  title  of  Numantinus  was  given  to 
him  after  the  war,  makizig  his  full  name  Publius  ComeUus  Scipio  ^gEmiJiauus  Afri- 
canus Niuuantinus. 


220  Ancient  History. 


new  aqueducts;  the  streets  were  paved;  the  city  was  thor- 
oughly drained  by  capacious  sewers;  and  addi- 
tional military  roads  were  constructed  in  different 
parts  of  Italy.     It  was  about  this  time  that  the 


Effects  of  the 
conquests. 


consul  P.  Scipio  Na-si'ca  caused  a  clep'sy-dra*  or  water- 
clock,  to  be  set  up  for  public  use.  After  the  conquest  of 
Greece,  the  city  was  filled  with  Greek  scholars,  writers, 
teachers,  and  musicians,  many  of  whom  were  slaves;  and  the 
study  of  Greek  literature  came  into  vogue  with  Greek 
manners,  customs,  and  fashions.  Latin  literature,  also,  made 
a  commencement  at  this  epoch,  during  which  flourished  the 
dramatists  Nsevius,  Ennius,  Plautus,  and  Terence.  Some  of 
their  writings  are  still  extant. 

64.  With  wealth  came  luxury  and  a  total  departure  from 
the  simple  manners  which  had  characterized  the  Romans  of 
the  early  days.  A  large  part  of  the  people  became 
licentious  and  effeminate;  and  the  love  of  pleasure 
and  dispUiy,  instead  of  patriotism  and  virtue,  be- 


Change  in 
manners. 


came  the  ruling  motive.  Corruption  prevailed  among  the 
public  officers  and  magistrates;  and,  to  crown  all,  slavery 
assumed  enormous  proportions.  It  is  said  that  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Italy  at  this  time,  about  twelve  millions — more  than 
two  thirds — were  slaves. f  Such  was  the  state  of  things  that 
led  to  the  interminable  dissensions  and  terrible  civil  wars 
which  characterize  the  next  period  of  this  history. 

♦  The  clepsydra,  in  its  simplest  form,  consisted  of  a  transparent  vase,  filled  with 
water,  which  was  permitted  to  escape  by  a  very  small  orifice,  its  height  as  shown 
by  a  graduated  scale  indicating  the  hour.  This  instrument  was  invented,  or  greatly 
improved,  by  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria,  about  235  n.c. 

+  "  A  few  examples  will  show  the  prodigious  number  of  slaves  that  must  have 
been  thrown  into  the  market  after  the  Second  Punic  W^ar.  To  punish  the  Brut- 
tians  for  the  fidelity  with  which  they  atlhered  to  the  cause  of  Hannibal,  the  whole 
nation  were  made  slaves;  ir^OOO  Epirotes  were  sold  by  .^^^milius  Paulus;  50,000  cap- 
tives were  sent  home  from  Carthage.  These  numbers  are  accidentally  preserved; 
and  if,  according  to  this  scale,  wo  calculate?  the  hosts  of  unhapi)y  men  sold  In 
slavery  during  the  Syrian,  Macedonian,  Ulyrian,  f/recian,  and  S])anish  wars,  wo 
sliall  be  prepared  to  hear  that  slaves  fit  only  for  unskilled  labor  were  plentiful  and 
cheap  ^'—UddeWs  Hittory  of  Rome. 


The  Roman  Hepublic,  221 


rv.    Peei6d  of  Internal  Dissensions  and  Civil  Wak 
(133-29  B.C.). 

65.  The  Gracchi.  The  great  conquests  which  had  been 
made  served  rather  to  enrich  the  nobles  than  to  benefit  the 
middle  and  poorer  classes  of  the  citizens;  and, 
besides,  had  corrupted  the  government  by  giving 
undue  power  to  the  Senate.     The  agrarian  laws 


Revival  of  the 
Licinian  laws. 


which  in  earlier  times  had  been  passed  to  protect  the  people 
against  the  greed  of  the  aristocracy,  were  generally  unob- 
served; so  that  the  land  throughout  Italy  was  in  the  pos- 
session of  a  few  noble  families;  while  the  swarms  of  slaves 
left  no  occupation  to  the  citizens  except  that  of  war.  At  this 
time  a  champion  of  the  people  arose,  in  the  person  of  a  young 
noble  named  Ti-be'ri-us  Grac'chus,  who  being  elected  tribune, 
and  noticing  with  grief  and  indignation  the  oppressions  of 
the  rich  and  the  sufferings  of  the  poor,  determined  to  make 
an  effort  to  redress  these  wrongs  by  reviving  the  Licinian 
laws  [see  page  199]  (133  B.C.).* 

66.  Following  the  provisions  of  these  laws,  Gracchus  pro- 
posed that  the  persons  who  held  public  lands  to  which  they 
had  no  right  should  vacate  them,  on  receiving  pay- 
ment for  the  buildings  which  they  had  erected  upon 
them,  and  that  the  lands  should  then  be  divided 


Measures 
proposed  by 
Gracchus. 


according  to  law.     He  also  proposed  that  the  treasures  left  to 


*  The  speeches  of  Gracchus  to  the  people  were  very  eflfective,  for  he  was  a  great 
orator.  On  one  occasion  he  said:  "The  wild  beasts  in  your  land  have  their  dens, 
but  the  soldiers  of  Italy  have  only  water  and  air.  Without  houses  or  property,  they, 
with  their  wives  and  children,  are  vagabonds.  Your  commanders  deceive  you 
when  they  bid  you  fight  for  your  hearths  and  your  gods:  you  have  no  hearths;  you 
have  no  household  gods.  It  is  for  the  insolence  and  luxury  of  others  that  you  shed 
your  blood.  You  are  called  the  lords  of  the  world,  and  you  do  not  possess  a  square 
foot  of  soil." 

Tiberius  and  Caius  Gracchus  were  the  sons  of  that  celebrated  matron  Cornelia 
who,  though  of  illustrious  family  and  possessing  extensive  accomplishments,  was 
only  proud  of  her  distinction  as  the  "Mother  of  the  Gracchi."  She  it  was  who 
pointed  to  her  sons,  on  a  certain  occasion,  and  remarked,  "  These  are  my  jewels  J" 


222 


Ancient  History. 


Rome  by  Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus,  should  be  laid  out  in 
the  purchase  of  farming  implements  and  cattle  Jor  the  poor 
occupants  of  these  lands.  These  propositions  raised  a  great 
storm  of  indignation  among  the  senators  and  other  members 
of  the  aristocracy;  and,  while  an  election  for  tribunes  was 
going  on,  in  order  to  prevent  the  re-election  of   Gracchus 


Temple  op  Concord. 

they  rushed  into  the  assembly,  under  the  lead  of  Scipio  Nasica; 
and  in  the  tumult  Gracchus  was  slain.  Three  hundred  of  his 
friends  perished  with  him,  and  their  bodies  were  thrown  into 
the  Tiber.  This  was  tlie  first  blood  slied  in  civil  strife  at 
llome  since  the  time  of  the  kings  (133  B.C.). 

67:    The  agrarian  law,  however,  stood,  and   was  partly 
carried  into  execution.     This  led  to  other  troubles;  and,  ten 


The  Roman  Hepublic.  223 

years  afterward,  Cai'us  Gracchus,  the  brother  of  Tiberius, 
especially  famed  for  his  oratory,  made  another 
attempt  to  vindicate  the  rights  of  the  lower  orders 


Caius  Gracchus. 


against  the  encroachments  of  the  aristocracy  and  the  senate. 
He  proposed  that  the  portion  of  grain  which  accrued  to  the 
state  from  the  provinces  should  be  distributed  among  the 
people  at  a  low  rate,  and  brought  forward  several  other  meas- 
ures in  the  popular  intei'est.  But  he,  too,  fell  a  victim  to  the 
violence  of  his  opponents;  for,  civil  war  having  been  declared 
by  the  senate,  Gracchus  and  3000  of  his  adherents  were  slain, 
by  the  orders  of  the  consul  (121  B.C.).  After  this  massacre, 
there  was  a  large  confiscation  of  property,  by  means  of  which 
a  temple  was  erected  to  Concord.  [See  page  22);^.]  The 
Gracchi  were  branded  by  the  aristocracy  as  seditious  dema- 
gogues, but  the  people  honored  their  memory.* 

68.  Jugurthine  War.  The  shocking  corruption  of  the 
aristocratic  order,  including  the  senate,  was  shown  in  the  war 
against  Ju-gur'tha,  who,  having  murdered  his 
two  cousins,  sons  of  Mi-cip'sa,  a  faithful  ally  of 


Jugurtha. 


Rome,  had  usurped  the  throne  of  Numidia.  These  crimes  he 
had  been  enabled  to  commit,  after  repeated  complaints  and 
entreaties  made  by  the  unfortunate  princes,  by  bribing  the 
members  of  the  Roman  senate;  and  he  openly  boasted  of  the 
power  of  his  gold.  At  last,  when  the  people  would  endure 
his  outrageous  wickedness  no  longer,  war  was  declared  against 
him  (111  B.C.).;  but  even  then  he  succeeded  in  bribing  the 
generals  sent  against  him,  and  thus  prevented  defeat. 


*  "The  law  of  Gracchus  cut  the  patricians  with  a  double  edge.  Their  fortunes 
consisted  inland  and  slaves;  it  questioned  their  titles  to  the  public  territories,  and 
it  tended  to  force  emancipation  by  making  their  slaves  a  burden.  A  real  crisis  had 
come,  such  as  hardly  occurs  to  a  nation  in  the  progress  of  many  centuries.  Men 
are  in  the  habit  of  proscribing  Juhus  Caesar  as  the  destroyer  of  the  Commonwealth. 
The  civil  wars,  the  revolutions  of  Caesar,  the  miserable  vicissitudes  of  the  Roman 
emperors,  the  avarice  of  the  nobles  and  the  rabble,  the  crimes  of  the  forum  and 
the  palace,  all  ha-ve  their  germ  in  the  ill  success  of  the  reform  of  Gracchus."— .SaTV- 
croft. 


224:  Ancient  History/. 


69.  After  the  corrupt  conduct  of  these  generals  had  been  dis- 
covered, the  management  of  the  war  was  intrusted  to  Me-tel''- 
lus,  a  man  of  great  energy  and  military  skill.  Jugurtha  was 
soon  defeated,  and  compelled  to  flee  for  protection 
to  the  neighboring  kingdom,  Mau-ri-ta'ni-a.  At 
this  point,  one  of  the  greatest  characters  in  Ro- 


Defeat 
of  Jugurtha. 


man  history  steps  upon  the  stage — the  famous  Gains  Ma'ri-us,* 
who  had  thus  far  acted  as  the  lieutenant  of  Metellus  in  this 
war.  Now,  notwithstanding  his  illiteracy  and 
mean  birth,  he  was  suddenly  raised  by  the  people 


Marius. 


to  the  consulship,  and  placed  in  command  of  the  army  against 
Jugurtha.  He  soon  brought  the  war  to  a  close,  having  de- 
feated and  captured  the  wily  and  cruel  Numidian  (106  B.C.), 
whom  he  brought  a  captive  to  Rome.  After  being  led,  with 
his  children,  in  triumph  by  Marius  through  the  streets,  Ju- 
gurtha was  thrust  into  a  dungeon,  in  the  Mam'er-tine  prison, 
and  left  to  die  of  cold  and  hunger  (104  B.c.).t 

70.  Invasion  of  the  Cimbrians  and  Teutons.  In  the  mean 
time,  hordes  of  barbarians,  from  Germany,  called  the  Cim'bri- 
ans  and  Teutons,  invaded  Gaul,  and  threatened  Italy.  Aftei 
four  Roman  armies  had  been  successively  defeated  by  them,  the 
command  was  given  to  Marius,  who  attacked  the 
Teutons  near  the  Rhone  River,  and  gained  so  de- 
cided a  victory  over  them,  that  they  were  almost 
annihilated  (103  B.C.).     The  next  year,  having  been  appointed 

•  Caius  Marius,  the  son  of  a  poor  day-laborer,  was  bom  near  Arplnum,  among 
the  Latin  hills,  about  157  b.c.  He  served  at  Uie  siege  of  Numantia  under  Sc-ipio, 
who  greatly  admired  his  military  talents.  Indeed,  on  one  occasion,  being  asked 
where  the  Romans  would  be  able  to  tlnd  a  general  to  take  liis  place  when  he  was 
gone,  he  replied,  placing  his  hand  upon  the  shoulder  of  Marius,  "  Here,  perhaps." 

t  Marius  set  out  for  Italy,  and,  with  his  legions  and  their  captives,  entered  Rome 
in  triumph— a  spectacle  of  which  Jugurtha.  in  chains,  and  his  unfortunate  children, 
were  the  principal  figures.  When  the  procession  was  over,  the  captive  king  was 
led  to  a  dungeon,  under  onlers  for  his  immediate  execution.  As  he  was  al)out  to 
be  stripped  of  his  ornaments  and  robes,  the  executioner,  in  liaste  to  pluck  the  pen- 
dants from  his  ears,  tore  away  the  Hesh,  and  thrust  him  naked  Into  a  dungeon 
below  ground.  He  descended  into  this  place  with  a  smile,  saying, '  What  a  cold 
bftth  is  here ! '  He  pined  about  six  days,  and  expired. '''—J'^fftison's  Koman  liepublic. 


Defeat  of  the 
Cimbrians. 


The  Roman  BepubUc.  225 

consul  for  tlie  fifth  time,  he  marched  against  the  Cimbrians, 
whom  he  also  defeated  with  immense  slaughter,  in  Cis-al'pine 
Gaul.  By_  these  two  great  victories,  the  tide  of  barbarian 
inundation  was  turned  back  for  centuries,  and  Marius  was 
deservedly  hailed  as  the  Savior  of  his  Country.  * 

71.  A  dreadful  war  broke  out  soon  afterward  (90  B.C.) 
between  Rome  and  the  Italian  states,  called  the  Social  War. 
This  was  caused  by  the  demand  of  the  states  for 
the  rights  of  citizenship,  Avhich  the  senate  refused. 


Social  war. 


After  nearly  two  years  of  war,  and  the  destruction  of  about 
300,000  Italians,  the  franchise  was  granted  to  all  such  as  con- 
sented to  lay  down  their  arms;  and  tranquillity  was  restored. 
72.  Mithridatic  War.  Among  the  eastern  monarchs  of 
this  time,  Mith-ri-da'tes,  king  of  Pontus,  the  sixth  of  that 
name,  had  risen  to  great  power  by  his  wonderful 
genius  and  force  of  character.     His  extraordinary 


Mithridates. 


physical  size,  strength,  and  accomplishments  were  matched 
by  his  mental  endowments  and  culture;  for  he  was  versed  in 
all  the  learning  of  the  East  as  well  as  of  the  Greeks;  and,  it  is 
said,  could  converse  in  all  the  different  languages  spoken  in 
his  extensive  dominions.  \  Already  he  had  made  many  con- 
quests in  Asia  Minor,  which  had  in  some  degree  brought  him 
in  collision  with  the  Romans,  when  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
extending  his  empire  toward  the  west,  and  announced  himself 
as  the  liberator  of  the  Hellenic  people  from  the  yoke  of  Rome. 

*  "  The  human  avalanche  which  for  thirteen  years  had  alarmed  the  nations  from 
the  Danube  to  the  Ebro,  from  the  Seine  to  the  Po,  rested  beneath  the  sod,  or  toiled 
under  the  yoke  of  slavery.  The  forlorn  hope  of  the  German  migration  had  per- 
formed its  duty;  the  homeless  people  of  the  Cimbri  and  their  comrades  were  no 
more." — Mommsen. 

t  "What  really  distinguishes  Mithridates  amidst  the  multitude  of  similar  sultans 
is  his  boundless  activity.  He  disappeared  one  fine  morning  from  his  palace,  and 
remained  unheard  of  for  months;  so  that  he  was  given  over  for  lost.  When  he 
returned,  he  had  wandered  incognito  thi-ough  all  Western  Asia,  and  reconnoitered 
everywhere  the  country  and  the  people.  In  like  manner  he  was  not  only  generally 
fluent  in  speech,  but  he  administered  justice  to  each  of  the  twenty-two  nations 
over  which  he  ruled  in  its  own  language  without  needing  an  interpreter— a  trait 
significant  of  the  versatile  ruler  of  the  many-tongued  East."— Jfommsen. 


226  Ancient  History, 

At  Ephesus  he  issued  an  order  that  all  the  Italians  residing 
in  Asia  Minor  should  be  put  to  death;  and,  as  it  is  stated, 
80,000  were  accordingly  massacred  in  a  single  night  (88  B.C.). 
73.  Sul'la,  afterward  so  celebrated  for  his  contests  with 
Marius,  was  sent  into  Greece  to  manage  the  war  against  him; 
and,  after  defeating  him  in  several  battles,  com- 
pelled him  to  submit  to  humiliating  conditions  of 


Sulla. 


peace  (84  B.C.).  The  war  was  afterward  renewed  by  Mithri- 
dates  (74  B.C.),  with  a  large  and  well-disciplined  army,  and  a 
powerful  fleet;  but  he  suffered  a  terrible  defeat  from  LucuUus, 
his  army  being  almost  annihilated.  After  another  defeat 
he  took  refuge  in  Armenia,  with  his  son-in-law 
Ti-gra'nes,  then  one  of  the  most  powerful  mon- 
archs  in  the  East,  who  not  only  received  him,  but 


Roman 
victories. 


raised  an  immense  army  for  his  defense  against  the  Romans. 
This  vast  host  was  defeated  at  Ti-gran-o-cer'ta  [see  Map  V.] 
by  Lucullus,  with  a  force  of  only  13,000  men  (69  B.C.);  while, 
it  is  said,  the  army  of  Tigranes  exceeded  200,000  men,  of 
whom  more  than  50,000  were  cavalry.  The  next  spring  (68 
B.C.),  Lucullus  gained  another  victory  over  the  enemy  in 
Armenia,  and  probably  would  have  captured  the  capital,  but 
owing  to  the  mutiny  of  his  soldiers  he  was  compelled  to 
retreat,  leaving  the  war  unfinished, 

74.  Soon  afterward,  Mithridates  collected  a  large  force, 
and,  while  the  mutiny  in  the  army  checked  the  operations 
of    Lucullus,    defeated    the  Romans.     Pompey, 
afterward  called  the  Great,  then  took  tlie  com- 


Pompey. 


mand  ;  and  in  a  short  time  subdued  both  Tigranes  and 
Mithridates.  The  latter,  driven  from  his  throne  and  country, 
in  order  to  escape  death  at  the  hands  of  his  own 
son,  who  had  revolted  against  him,  put  an  end  to 
his  life  (63  B.C.).     The  Romans  felt  jis  much  joy 


Death  of 
Mithridates. 


at  the  news  of  his  death  as  if  they  had  gained  a  great  victory 


The  Roman  Bepublic.  227 


FIRST   CIVIL  WAR. 

75.  The  period  of  this  war  is  especially  noted  for  the 
beginning  of  those  great  contests  for  the  supreme  power 
which  the  ambitious  leaders  waged  between  each 
other,  and  which  finally  brought  the  Eoman 
republic  to  destruction.     When  the  Mithridatic 


Marius  and 
Sulla. 


war  broke  out,  Marius  expected  to  be  selected  by  the  senate 
to  conduct  it,  and  was  greatly  oSended  because  the  command 
was  given  to  Sulla;  for  the  latter,  who  had  acted  as  his  lieu- 
tenant in  the  war  against  Jugurtha,  had  grown  so  much  into 
favor  as  to  become  his  rival.  Marius,  therefore,  by  means  of 
an  intrigue,  obtained  the  passage  of  a  decree  in  the  comitia 
of  the  tribes  transfemng  the  command  to  himself.  Sulla 
refused  to  submit,  but  at  the  head  of  his  legions  marched  to 
Rome,  which  he  entered  and  occupied;  and  Marius  was  com- 
pelled to  flee  to  save  his  life.  Thus,  for  the  first  time  in  the 
history  of  the  city,  a  Roman  army  encamped  within  its  walls; 
and  an  examjile  was  set  of  using  the  military  power  against 
the  civil,  which  was  afterward  so  often  followed  (88  B.C.). 

76.  The  aged  Marius,  who  had  been  six  times  elected  consul, 
and;  as  we  have  seen,  had  been  hailed  as  the  savior  of  his  country, 
thus  became  a  wretched  fugitive,  with  a  price  set 
upon  his  head.     At  one  place  he  was  thrown  into 


Exile  of  Marius. 


a  dungeon,  and  a  Cimbrian  slave  was  sent  to  put  him  to 
death;  but,  it  is  said,  that,  as  the  assassin  approached,  the 
eyes  of  the  old  hero  flashed  fire,  and  he  exclaimed:  '^ Durst 
thou  slay  Caius  Marius  ?"  And  the  sword  fell  from  the 
affrighted  barbarian's  hand,  and  he  fled,  muttering,  "No,  I 
cannot  kill  Caius  Marius."  The  magistrates  then  released 
him,  and  he  crossed  to  Africa,  landing  at  the  site  of  Car- 
thage. There  he  received  a  message  from  the  proetor,  com- 
manding him  to  leave.  "Go  tell  the  praetor,"  he  replied, 
with  a  sigh,  "  that  you  have  seen  Caius  Marius,  a  miserable 
fugitive,  sitting  amidst  the  ruins  of  Carthage." 


228  Ancient  History. 


77.  But  the  soothsayers,  in  his  youth,  it  was  said,  had 
foretold  that  he  would  be  seven  times  declared  consul;  and 
this  prophecy  was  to  be  remarkably,  fulfilled.*  After  Sulla 
had  departed  from  Rome  to  prosecute  the  war  against  Mithri- 
dates,  one  of  the  consuls,  Cinna,  who  belonged  to  the  Marian 
or  popular  party,  obtaining  control  of  a  considerable  force  in 
southern  Italy,  marched  to  Rome.  On  hearing  this,  Marius 
immediately  returned  to  Italy,  and,  with  such  forces  as  he 
could  collect,  united  with  Cinna.  The  city  was 
occupied  by  the  soldiery,  and  a  dreadful  massacre 
ensued,  lasting  five  days.     Many  of  the  most  dis- 


Massacre  by 
Marius. 


tinguished  citizens  were  put  to  death,  Marius  reveling  in  the 
slaughter.  The  next  year  he  and  Cinna  were  declared  con- 
suls without  an  election;  but,  tormented  by  a  guilty  con- 
science and  exhausted  by  intemperance,  he  survived  this  last 
triumph  only  thirteen  days,  dying  in  his  seventy-first  year 
(86  B.C.). 

78.  The  Marian  party  still  continued  to  rule,  till  Sulla, 
returning  from  Asia,  entered  Italy  with  a  large  army  (83  B.C.); 
but  the  leaders  of  the  Marian  party  had  made  great  prepara- 
tions to  oppose  him.  A  dreadful  war  of  two  years  ensued, 
during  which  the  Samnites  took  up  arms  against  Sulla.  He 
was,  however,  triumphant  over  all  his  enemies, 
and  after  gaining  several  great  victories,  entered 
Rome  its  undisputed  master.     His  first  act  was  to 


Masscre  by 

Sulla. 


massacre  6000  Samnite  prisoners ;  and  then  commenced  a 
fearful  slaughter  of  all  whom  he  deemed  his  enemies.  Every 
day  he  issued  a  new  list  of  those  wlio  might  be  j)ut  to  death 
by  any  one;  and,  it  is  said,  the  porch  of  liis  house  was  kept 
full  of  heads.  After  tliis  dreadful  ])roscription,  in  which  it  is 
estimated  8000  citizens  perished,  he  declared  himself  Perpetual 

•  "  He  told  his  companions  that,  when  he  was  very  young,  and  lived  in  the  coun- 
try, an  eagle's  nest  fell  Into  his  lap,  with  seven  young  ones  in  it.  His  parents,  sur- 
prised at  the  sight,  applied  to  the  diviners,  who  answered  that  their  son  would  be 
the  most  illu.striou8  of  men,  an<l  that  he  would  seveu  times  attain  the  higliest  office 
and  authority  in  the  country."-  i'/ufarc/i. 


The  Roman  Bepiiblic,  229 

Dictator.  Having  effected  some  reforms  in  the  government, 
he  resigned,  to  the  surprise  of  all,  the  office  of  dictator,  which 
he  had  filled  about  two  years,  and  retired  to  private  life 
(79  B.C.).  A  short  time  afterward,  he  died  of  a  loathsome 
disease,  occasioned  by  intemperance  and  debauchery.  His 
memory  was  honored  with  a  gorgeous  funeral,  and 
upon  a  monument  erected  to  him  was  inscribed  the 


Death  of  Sulla. 


epitaph,  composed  by  himself:  '^I  am  Sulla  the  Fortunate, 
who  in  the  course  of  my  life  have  surpassed  both  friends  and 
enemies — the  former  by  the  good,  the  latter  by  the  evil  I  have 
done  them." 

79.  In  this  war  Marius  had  been  opposed  by  the  patricians, 
while  the  Senate  and  its  partisans  had  been  on  the  side  of 
Sulla.  The  party  of  Marius  was  thus  sustained  by  the  people, 
but  that  of  Sulla  by  the  aristocracy.  The  death  of  these  two 
great  chiefs  did  not  end  the  strife.  Ser-to'ri-us, 
one   of  the  most  distinguished   of   the    Marian 


Sertorius. 


leaders,  had  taken  refuge  in  Spain,  and  there  established-  a 
power  which  for  more  than  ten  years  defied  all  the  efforts  of 
the  Senate.  Pom'pey  was  sent  against  him;  but  it  was  only 
after  the  assassination  of  Sertorius  that  the  insurgents  could 
be  subdued  (72  B.C.). 

80.  Servile  War.  In  the  mean  time,  Rome  was  con- 
fronted with  a  terrific  danger.  This  was  a  slave  insurrection. 
Spar'ta-cus,  a  Thracian,  made  captive  in  war,  and 
afterward  kept  in  a  training-school  for  gladiators, 


Spartacus. 


at  Capua,  broke  away  from  his  place  of  bondage  with  a 
number  of  his  fellow-prisoners,  and  fleeing  to  Mount  Vesuvius, 
was  joined  by  a  vast  number  of  slaves  and  outlaws  of  every 
description.  Having  collected  a  force  of  over  100,000  men, 
he  moved  northward,  defeated  the  regular  army  in  several 
engagements,  and  threatened  Rome  itself.  At  last  he  was 
met  by  a  large  force  under  Cras'sus,  and  his  army  cut  to 
pieces,  he  himself  being  among  the  slain  (71  B.C.).  This  was 
the  second  great  slave  revolt,  one  having,  about  sixty  years 


230  Ancient  History, 


before,  broken  out  in  Sicily,  and  been  re  1  need  only  after 
frightful  massacres  and  ravages.  Tliese  insurrections  were 
the  natural  result  of  the  dreadful  slave-system  pursued  in  the 
Roman  conquests. 

81.  At  this  time,  Pompey  and  Crassus  were  the  two  lead- 
ing men  at  Rome.     The  former,  by  his  conduct  during  the 
civil  war,  his  good  fortune  in  Spain,  and  the 
timely  assistance  he  had  rendered  against  Spar- 


Pompey. 


tacus,  had  contrived  to  acquire  very  great  popularity.*  Sulla 
had  given  to  him,  while  yet  a  young  man,  the  title  of  Magnus 
— the  Great.  Crassus  exerted  a  powerful  influence  by  means 
of  his  immense  wealth,  which  he  had  craftily  acquired  by 
buying  up  the  estates  of  the  proscribed  during  the  dictator- 
ship of  Sulla.  Pompey  being  sent  against  the  pirates  of  the 
Mediterranean,  acted  with  so  much  energy  and  address  that 
in  three  months  he  entirely  cleared  the  seas  of  those  robbers 
(67  B.C.) — a  most  important  achievement,  for  the  commerce 
of  the  Mediterranean  had  been  wholly  at  their  mercy,  so  that 
Italy  could  no  longer  export  her  products  nor  even  obtain 
corn  from  her  provinces,  f 

82.  In  the  mean  time,   Lucullus  had  been  winning  vic- 
tories over  Mithridates  and  his  son-in-law  Tigi-anes,  king  of 

*  After  the  victory  of  CrasHUS  over  the  forces  of  Spartaciin,  a  considerable  body 
of  the  insurgents  e8cai)ing  into  Cisalpine  Gaul  were  met  by  Pompey  returning  with 
his  victorious  troops  from  Spain,  and  were  cut  to  pieces.  Pompey  on  this  occasion 
wrote  to  the  Senate,  stating  "that  Crassus  had  defeated  the  enemy  in  battle,  but 
that  he  had  cut  up  the  war  by  the  roots."  Subsequently  Pompey  and  Crassus 
"  instituted  throughout  Apulia  and  Lucania  a  man-hunt  such  as  there  had  never 
been  before,  to  crush  out  the  last  sparks  of  the  mighty  conflagration.  Along  the 
road  from  Capua  to  Rome  the  six  thousand  crosses  bearing  captured  slaves  testi- 
fied to  the  re-establishment  of  onler  and  to  the  renewed  victory  of  acknowledged 
right  over  its  living  property  that  had  rebelled.'" 

t  The  power  of  these  freebooters  extended  from  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  to  the 
shores  of  Cillcia.  They  formed  a  great  piratical  state,  and  had  been  recognized  as 
a  political  power,  for  Mithridates  had  formed  an  alliance  with  them.  Kverywhere 
they  had  rock  castles  where  they  concealed  their  wives,  their  children,  and  their 
plunder,  which  they  called  military  spoils.  They  made  it  their  boast  that  they 
were  at  war  with  the  world;  and  while  they  expected  crucifixion  in  every  Roman 
seaport,  they  hesitated  not  to  inflict  the  same  merciless  punishment  on  their  coj>- 
tives,  when  the  latter  could  not  purchase  their  release. 


Tlie  Boman  ItepubUc.  231 

Armenia,  but  was  stopped  in  his  career  of  success  by  a  mutiny 
of  his  troops.  Pompey  was,  therefore,  sent  into  Asia,  with 
the  powers  of  a  despot,  to  bring  the  war  to  a  close.  This  he 
accomplished  in  less  than  three  years,  subduing 
both  the  revolted  kings,  and  reducing  Pontus  to 
a  Roman  province  (63  B.C.).     He  also  reduced 


Conquests  by 
Pompey, 


Syria,  and  took  Jerusalem,  dethroning  the  reigning  king  of 
Judea,  and  making  the  kingdom  tributary  to  Rome.  Having 
regulated  all  the  provinces  of  the  east,  with  the  authority  of 
an  absolute  potentate,  he  returned  triumphantly  to  Italy 
(61  B.C.).     [See  p.  69.] 

83.  Conspiracy  of  Catiline.  While  Pompey  was  in  Asia, 
the  famous  conspiracy  of  Cat'i-line  occurred.  The  late  civil 
wars  had  left  many  needy  and  reckless  characters 
who  had  profited  by  the  lawless  violence  of  that 
time,  and  who  longed  for  its  repetition  in  order  that 


C  haractor  of 
Catiline. 


Plot. 


they  might  gain  power  and  riches.  This  dangerous  class  found 
a  leader  in  Lucius  Catiline,  an  audacious  and  unprincipled  man, 
possessing  gi'eat  physical  strength  as  v/ell  as  mental  vigor  and 
culture,  for  he  was  by  birth  a  patrician.  Having  held  various 
offices  in  which  he  became  notorious  by  his  reckless  extortion 
and  other  crimes,  he  aspired  to  the  consulate;  and 
being  disappointed,  formed  a  plot  to  murder  the 
consuls  and  seize  the  government.  Failing  in  this,  while 
Cicero,  the  orator,*  was  consul,  he  renewed  the  scheme; 
designing  not  only  to  murder  the  consul  but  to  burn  and 
pillage  the  city. 

84.  Fortunately  this  dreadful  plot  became  known  to  Cicero, 
who  denounced  Catiline  and  his  associates  with  such  scath- 
ing eloquence  in  the  Senate,  that  he  was  compelled  to  flee 

*  Cicero,  noted  for  his  eloquence  and  learning,  was  among:  the  most  Dlustrious 
men  of  this  time.  He  was  bom  at  Arpinum,  106  B.C.,  of  a  plebeian  family,  and 
enjoyed  the  instruction  of  the  most  eminent  lawyers  and  orators  of  the  day.  He 
also  studied  Greek  philosophy  under  the  best  teachers  in  Rome,  and  afterward  in 
Athens  itself.  Previous  to  attaining  the  consulship,  he  had  filled  nearly  every 
inferior  oflfice,  and  had  greatly  distinguished  himself  as  an  orator. 


232  Ancient  History. 


from  Rome.  His  confederates,  who  had  been  left  in  the  city 
to  consummate  the  wicked  scheme,  were  betrayed  by  some 
Gauls  whom  tliey  had  endeavored  to  gain  over  to  their  service, 
and  being  immediately  apprehended  were  put  to 
death,  through  the  courage  and  promptitude  of 
Cicero.     Catiline,   at  the   head  of  a  numerous 


Defeat  of  the 
conspirators. 


force,  which  he  had  succeeded  in  collecting,  attempted  to  reach 

Gaul,  but  being  overtaken  in  Etruria,  was  defeated  and  slain 

(62  B.C.). 

85.  A  few  months  after  this,  Pompey  returned  from  the 

Mithridatic  war  laden  with  the  spoils  of  the  East.  His 
triumph  of  two  days  was  the  most  splendid  tliut 
Rome  had  ever  seen;  for  he  had  conquered  iifteen 
nations,  and  more  than   three   hundred  princes 


Triumph  of 
Pompey. 


walked  before  his  triumphal  car.  Yet  the  Senate,  under  the 
lead  of  Cato,  refused  to  ratify  his  acts;  and,  irritated  by  this, 
he  joined  the  popular  party.  The  most  prominent  leader  of 
that  party  at  this  time  was  Julius  0{\3sar,*  then 
just  rising  into  notice  and  power.    This  man,  who 


Julius  Caesar. 


afterward  became  the  greatest  character  in  Roman  history, 
had  already  gained  distinction  in  Spain;  and  in  Rome  had 
won  over  the  people  by  his  lavish  and  princely  munificence. 
Seven  years  before,  when  holding  the  office  of  an  inferior 
magistrate,  he  had  dared  to  restore  the  trophies  of  Marius, 

*  Caius  Julius  Caesar  was  born  in  100  B.C.,  and  was  a  descendant  of  an  old 
patrician  family.  His  aunt  married  Marius;  and,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he 
married  the  daughter  of  Cinna,  tlie  distingtiished  Marian  partisan.  During  the 
time  of  Sulla's  proscription,  Caesar's  name  was  put  on  tlie  list  of  those  to  be  slain ; 
but  some  of  the  nobles  interceded  in  his  favor.  "1  grant  your  I'^quest,"' said  the 
dictator;  "  but  you  will  And  many  a  Marius  in  that  young  man."  Once,  while  on 
his  way  to  Rhodes,  the  pirates  captured  him,  and  demanded  twenty  talents  for 
his  ransom.  "  1  will  pay  you  fifty,"  he  replied,  "but  as  soon  as  I  am  free  I  will 
have  you  all  crucified."  When  released,  he  collected  a  force,  pursued  the  rob- 
bers, and  kept  his  word.  Thus  lutd  he  already  shown  the  irresistible  energy  of  his 
character.  In  the  eulogy  which  Lc  pronouiiccd  on  his  aunt  Julia,  he  said:  "My 
aunt  derived  her  descent  by  lier  mother  from  a  race  of  kings,  and  by  her  father 
from  the  immortal  goils.  In  our  family  is  the  sacred  majesty  of  kings,  who  are 
masters  of  the  world,  and  the  divine  majesty  of  gtals,  who  are  the  masters  oi 
kings."    This  was  In  7a  b.c. 


Tlie  itoman  Bepuhllc.  233 


thus  delighting  the  old  veterans,  who  stood  gazing  upon  the 
statue  of  their  beloved  leader  with  tears  in  their  eyes. 

First  TEniMviRATE. 

86.  With  the  greatest  adroitness,  Caesar  reconciled  the 
differences  existing  between  Pompey  and  the  wealthy  Orassus, 
and  succeeded  in  forming  with  them  an  alliance 
by  the  terms  of  which  the  three  were  to  support 
each  other's  plans  and  interests   (60  B.C.).     To 


Caesar, 

Pompey,  and 

Crassus. 


cement  the  union  of  Pompey  more  strongly  with  himself,  he 
gave  to  him  his  only  daughter  Julia  in  marriage.  This  secret 
cabal  is  known  in  history  as  the  First  Triumvirate  [association 
of  three  men].  By  the  support  of  his  two  powerful  con- 
federates, Caesar  obtained  the  consulship;  and  at  its  close  the 
Senate  passed  a  decree  by  which  he  was  assigned  the  proconsul- 
ship  of  Gaul,  with  the  command  of  an  army  to  subdue  the 
barbarians,  some  of  whom  had  commenced  hostile  movements, 
threatening  the  Roman  province. 

87.  Caesar's  campaigns  in  Gaul  lasted  about  eight  years; 
and,  in  that  period,  he  not  only  succeeded  in  subjugating  all 
the  warlike  races  of  that  country,  but,  crossing 
the  Rhine,  gained  great  victories  over  the  bold 
and  hardy  Germans.    He  also  passed  into  Britain, 


Conquest  of 
Gaul. 


and  defeated  the  fierce  and  warlike  inhabitants,  who  strove 
with  the  greatest  intrepidity  to  repel  the  invaders  from  their 
island  (55  B.C.).  By  50  B.C.,  his  province  was  completely 
subdued;  and  it  is  computed  that  in  these  eight  years  of  war, 
nearly  a  million  of  Gauls  and  Germans  were  sacrificed,  Caesar 
never  showing  the  least  mercy  to  the  barbarians,  while  toward 
his  fellow-citizens  he  invariably  manifested  remarkable  mild- 
ness and  humanity.  He  captured  more  than  800  cities,  and 
defeated  300  tribes. 

88.  In   the  mean   time,  Crassns  had  obtained  the  pro- 
consular government  of  Syria,  and  had  undertaken  an  ex- 


234  Ancient  History. 


pedition  against  the  Par'thians,  an  eastern  race  who,  first 
appearing  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  had  at  this  time  conquered 
the  vast  region  extending  from  the  Euplirates  to 
the  Indus.  In  this  expedition  Crassus  was  de- 
feated and  slain  (53   B.C.).*     This  disaster  ex- 


Defeat  of 

Crassus. 


posed  the  Roman  provinces  in  the  east  to  the  attacks  of  the 
Parthians;  but  Cassius  {kasli'e-us),  the  lieutenant  of  Crassus, 
prosecuted  the  war  two  years  longer,  and  gaining  a  decided 
victory  over  the  Parthians,  checked  their  further  advance 
westward. 

The  Geeat  Civil  War. 

89.  Pompey,  although  made  proconsul  of  Spain,  remained 
in  Eome,  of  which,  after  the  death  of  the  violent  and  unprin- 
cipled demagogue   Clodius,  he  became  the  un- 
limited   master.     One  of    the   members   of  the 
triumvirate  having  been  removed  by  death,  and 


Pompey's 
measures. 


Pompey  having  become  intensely  jealous  of  Caesar,  the  trium- 
virate was  practically  dissolved.  Pompey,  deteimining  to 
supplant  Caesar  and  obtain  the  dictatorship,  went  over  to  the 
party  of  the  Senate  which  he  had  hitherto  opposed,  and  ob- 
tained in  succession  two  decrees:  first,  that  Caesar  should 
forthwith  disband  his  army;  and  second,  as  he  had  not  obeyed, 
that  he  should  be  proclaimed  an  outlaw,  while  Pompey  himself 

1  all  the  while  retained  his  army  in  Spain,  as  well 

Crossmg  of  the     ^g  Q^her  forccs  in  Italy,  in  order  to  enforce  his 

Rubicon.  ^  ' 

I  ambitious  designs.     Caesar,  seeing  that  lie  could 

only  oppose  violence  by  violence,  at  once  broke  up  his  camp, 
and  crossing  the  river  Ru'bi-con,  tlie  boundary  of  his  prov- 
ince, entered  Italy,  with  a  small  army,  afterward  reinforced 

♦  Crassus,  after  his  defeat,  was  treacherously  Inducetl  to  meet  the  Parthian 
chieftain  to  arrange  terms  of  capitulation;  and  wns  hnrbarously  assassinated. 
Tlie  victor  sent  the  head  and  hand  of  Crassus  U)  tlie  Parthian  kiuR,  wlio,  It  Is 
related,  caused  molten  gold  to  be  poured  into  its  mouth,  in  mockery  of  the 
Roman's  avarice.  The  wealth  of  Crassus  was  enormous,  amounting  at  his  death 
to  about  $10,000,000. 


The  Roman  Bepublic, 


236 


Thus  was  commenced  the  Second 


by  detachments  from  Gaul. 

Civil  War. 

90.  Ponipey,  with  what  forces  he  had,  and  accompanied 

by  many  of  the  senators  and  others,  fled  to  Brundi'sium,  from 

which  port,   having    collected   a 
large  fleet,  he  sailed 
toEpirus.  Ceesarsoon 
overran    Italy ;    and 


Defeat  and 
death  of 
Pompey. 


then  proceeded  to  Spain,  where, 
with  consummate  ability,  he  speed- 
ily compelled  Pompey's  generals 
to  surrender,  and  annexed  most 
of  their  forces  to  his  own.  Ee- 
turning,  he  then  crossed  to  Epirus 
to  give  battle  to  Pompey.  No 
general  engagement,  however, 
took  place  till  the  next  year;  when, 
on  the  plains  of  Phar-sa'li-a,*  the 
Pompey  the  Great.  battle  was  joined,  and  Caesar,  al- 

though with  forces  far  inferior  in  number,  gained  a  decisive 
victory  (48  B.C.).  This  battle,  according  to  Caesar's  own 
statement,  cost  him  only  two  hundred  soldiers;  while  on 
Pompey's  side  there  fell  about'  fifteen  thousand.  Pompey 
fled  to  Egypt,  but  was  treacherously  assassinated,  by  order 
of  the  Egyptian  court,  as  he  was  about  to  step  ashore.  \ 


*  The  battle  was  fought  near  the  city  of  Pharsalus,  in  that  part  of  Thessaly 
called  Pharsalia.  Hence  it  is  sometimes  called  the  battJ?  of  Pharsalus.  Pompey's 
army  was  confident  of  victory,  and  ^eat  preparations  had  been  made  for  cele- 
brating it.  Csesar  says  in  his  Commentaries  on  the  Civil  War:  "On  enter- 
ing Pompey's  camp,  we  found  tables  ready  covered,  side-boards  loaded  with  plate, 
and  tents  adorned  with  branches  of  myrtle;  that  of  L.  Lentnlus,  with  some  others, 
was  shaded  with  v\  ^  Everything  gave  proofs  of  the  highest  luxury,  and  an  assured 
expectation  of  victory;  whence  it  was  easy  to  see  that  they  little  dreamed  of  the 
issue  of  that  day,  since,  intent  only  on  voluptuous  refinements,  they  pretended, 
with  troops  immersed  in  luxury,  to  oppose  Caesar's  army,  accustomed  to  fatigue, 
and  inured  to  the  want  of  neces.saries." 

t  "  Thus  fell  the  illustrious  chief  whom  alone  of  all  their  champions  the  Romans 
bad  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of  the  Great,  a  title  which  seemed  peculiarly 


236  Ancient  History, 


91.  CaBsar,  with  his  characteristic  promptitude,  pursued 
Pompey  to  Egypt,  and  on  arriving  there  was  presented  with 
the  head  and  ring  of  his  great  rival.    He  accepted 
the  ring,  but  turned  aside  with  tears  from  the 
mournful  and  ghastly  spectacle  of  the  gory  head. 


Caesar  in 
Egypt 


and  ordered  Pompey's  remains  to  be  burned  with  due  honor. 
He  then  entered  Alexandria.  The  succession  to  the  throne 
of  Egypt  was,  at  that  time,  in  dispute  between  the  young 
King  Ptolemy  and  his  sister,  the  celebrated  Cle-o-pa'tra. 
Caesar,  influenced  by  the  fascinations  of  the  latter, 
decided  in  her  favor,   and   thus    incurred    the 


Cleopatra. 


hostility  of  Ptolemy's  adherents,  who  raised  a  fearful  insur- 
rection against  him.  This,  however,  in  a  few  months  Caesar 
reduced,  and  confirmed  Cleopatra  on  the  throne.  During 
this  war  at  Alexandria,  Caesar  set  fire  to  the  Egyptian  fleet, 
and  the  flames  having  extended  to  the  public  library,  that  im- 
mense collection  of  more  than  100,000  volumes,  containing 
copies  of  all  thie  most  valuable  works  of  ancient  times,  was  de- 
stroyed (48  B.C.). 

92.  While  Caesar  was  in  Egypt,  rumors  spread  that  he  had 
been  slain,  and  the  wildest  confusion  prevailed  for  a  time 
throughout  the  empire,  but  especially  in  Italy,  where  his  pres- 
ence was  greatly  needed.  But  from  Egypt  he  pro- 
ceeded against  Pharna'ces,  son  of  the  great  Mit}\ri- 
dates,  who  had  risen  in  rebellion  and  seized  upon 


Other 
victories. 


Armenia  and  Colchis.  Caesar  speedily  defeated  him  at  ZieQa, 
in  Pontus,  and  announced  his  victory  to  tlie  Roman  Senate  in 
three  words —  Veniy  vidi,  vici  (I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered).  In 
two  months  all  Asia  was  restored  to  tranquillity,  and  Caesar 
then  returned  to  Rome,  to  assume  the  office  of  dictator. 
Proceeding  next  to  Africa,  he  gained  a  great  victory  at  Thaj)'- 

appropriate  to  one  whose  rapid  conquests  In  Asia  cotild  only  be  paralleled  by  thoae 
of  the  Macedonian  Alpxander.  His  fate  continued  to  point  a  moral  to  the  latest 
period  of  the  Empire,  nnd  its  oonwimtnation  deserved  to  l)e  regarded  as  the  most 
tra^c  incident  in  Roman  history."— Aferivate'«  History  of  the  Romans. 


The  Iloman  Bepublic,  237 

sus  over  the  forces  of  Scipio,  who,  assisted  by  Ju'ba,  king  of 
Mauritania,  still  adhered  to  the  party  of  the  aristocracy  and 
the  Senate.  Cato,  called  the  Stoic,  on  account  of  his  stern 
virtue,  seeing  that  all  was  lost,  and  that  the  Roman  republic 
was  now  at  an  end,  committed  suicide  at  Utica  (46  B.C.).* 

93.  Caesar,  having  formed  Numidia  into  a  Roman  province, 
returned  to  Rome,  where  he  celebrated  with  extraordinary 
magnificence  four  triumphs — over  Gaul,  Egypt, 
Pontus,  and  Africa.  The  Romans  had  never  before 
seen  so  magnificent  a  procession.     A  great  Gallic 


Caesar's 
triumph. 


chief,  the  son  of  Juba,  of  Mauritania,  and  Arsinoe,  Cleopatra's 
sister,  walked  before  his  car.  Caesar  lavished  immense  sums  of 
money  on  the  people,  and  also  gave  feasts  and  splendid  shows,  f 
A  general  amnesty  was  then  declared,  and  the  soldiers  were  re- 
warded with  liberal  donations.  But  before  he  could  settle  affairs 
at  Rome,  he  was  called  to  Spain,  where  the  two  sons  of  Pompey 
had  raised  an  army  against  him.  These  he  defeated  in  the 
severe  battle  of  Munda,  which  closed  the  war.  Having  thus 
become  master  of  Rome,  he  determined  to  lay  aside  the  sword 
and  cultivate  the  arts  of  peace.  He  instituted  many  im- 
portant reforms  in  the  laws  and  government,  rectified  the 
calendar,  and  formed  plans  for  many  great  and  useful  works, 
among  which  were  the  building  of  a  new  senate-house,  a 
grand  theater,  and  a  public  library.  He  encouraged  agricul- 
ture, tried  to  revive  the  Licinian  laws,  and  caused  laws  to  be 
enacted  regulating  bankruptcy,  usury,  and  luxury.  J 

*  "The  constitutional  struggle  was  at  an  end;  and  that  it  was  so  was  proclaimed 
by  Marcus  Cato  when  he  fell  on  his  sword  at  Utica." — Mommsen. 

+  These  were  the  great  shows  of  the  amphitheater,  consisting  of  those  cruel 
gladiatorial  exhibitions,  mixed  with  the  combats  of  wild  beasts,  in  which  the 
Roman  people  delighted.  On  this  occasion,  the  grand  vela'rium,  or  awning  of  a 
thousand  colors,  made  of  the  richest  silk,  the  product  of  eastern  looms,  protected 
the  spectators  from  the  sun.  Thus  were  the  people  amused  and  quieted  while  they 
were  being  robbed  of  their  liberty ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  they  were  enjoying  the 
spoils  of  enslaved  and  plundered  nations,  the  victims  of  Roman  ambition,  rapine, 
and  avarice. 

t  "  Caesar  was  monarch,  but  he  never  olayed  the  king.  Even  when  absolute 
lord  of  Rome,  be  ret«\ined  the  deportment  of  the  party  leader.    Perfectly  pliant 


238 


Ancient  History. 


94.  While  engaged  in  these  reforms,  a  stop  was  suddenly 
put  to  his  magnificent  career.     Notwithstanding  the  modera- 
tion with  which  he  acted,  his  generosity  to  his 
enemies,  and  the  consideration  and  kindness  with 
which  he  treated  all  parties,  there  was  an  under- 


Death  of 
Caesar. 


current  of  dissatisfaction  and  hostility;  for  he  was,  in  every- 
thing but  the  name,  a  king;  and 
it  was  said  that  he  designed  to 
assume  even  the  royal  title  and 
crown.  A  conspiracy  was,  there- 
fore, formed  against  him  by  a 
large  body  of  the  nobles,  promi- 
nent among  whom  were  Brutus 
and  Cassius,  the  former  his  most 
trusted  friend.  At  a  meeting  of 
the  Senate  held  on  the  15th  of 
March  (the  Ides  of  March),  he 
was  attacked  by  the  conspirators, 
and  fell  pierced  with  twenty-three 
wounds  (44  B.C.).  He  had  de- 
fended himself  for  a  time,  after 
the  assassins  commenced  to  assail  him;  but,  when  he  saw 
Brutus  among  them,  he  exclaimed,  *^  And  thou,  too,  Brutus!" 
and  yielded  to  his  fate,  falling  at  the  base  of  Pompey's  statue.* 
95.  The  conspirators  excused  their  crime  on  the  plea  that 
they  were  freeing  Rome  from  a  dangerous  tyrant; 
but  they  were,  doubtless,  actuated  rather  by  envy 
than  by  patriotism,  with  the  exception  of  Brutus, 
who  sacrificed  friendship  to  the  love  of  his  country.     Besides, 


Julius  C^sar. 
(From  a  Roman  coin.) 


The 
contpiiaton. 


and  smooth,  easy  and  charming  in  conversation,  complaisant  toward  every  one 
it  seemed  as  if  he  wished  to  be  nothlnf?  but  the  first  amonf?  his  peers."— 3/ommacn, 
•  "The  assassins  stabbed  him  through  and  through,  for  they  had  pledged  them- 
selves, one  and  all,  to  bathe  their  daggers  in  his  bloml.  Brutus  himself  received  a 
wound  in  their  eagerness  and  trepidation.  The  victim  reeled  a  few  paces,  propped 
by  the  blows  he  received  on  every  side,  tili  he  fell  dead  at  the  foot  of  Porapey'8 
statue. '  '—MerivcUe. 


The  Roman  Republic.  239 

most  of  the  leaders  in  the  conspiracy  were  guilty  of  base  in- 
gratitude; for  they  had  been  freely  pardoned  their  former 
opposition  to  Cgesar,  and  placed  in  offices  of  power  and  emolu- 
ment. Cassius,  indeed,  had  been  one  of  the  most  active  of 
Pompey's  adherents. 

96.  Caesar  was  probably  the  greatest  man  that  Rome  ever 
produced.  He  was  not  only  an  able  general  and  a  consum- 
mate statesman  and  politician,  but  a  splendid 
orator,  a  fine  scholar,  and  an  elegant  writer.  His 
history  of  the  Gallic  campaigns,  styled  the  '*  Com- 


Character  of 
Caesar. 


mentaries,"  is  a  complete  model  for  that  kind  of  composition. 
His  knowledge  of  human  nature  seems  to  have  been  almost 
perfect,  for  he  swayed  the  minds  of  all  who  came  within  his 
influence,  to  an  extent  rarely  equaled  and  never  surpassed. 
The  activity  of  his  intellect  was  marvelous.  Pliny  says,  *'  He 
could  be  writing  and  reading,  dictating  and  listening  all  at 
the  same  time.  He  was  wont  to  occupy  four  amanuenses  at 
once,  and  had  been  known  to  employ  as  many  as  seven."  He 
is  described  as  **palc  in  complexion,  of  a  tall  and  s])nre  figure, 
with  dark  piercing  eyes  and  an  aquiline  nose,  with  scanty  hair 
and  without  a  beard."  He  may  be  truly  said  to  have  com- 
pleted the  destruction  of  the  liberties  of  his  country;  for  the 
battles  of  Pharsalia,  Thapsus,  and  Munda  established  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  Julius  Caesar  virtually  became  its  first 
emperor,  as  he  is  reckoned  the  first  of  the  *' Twelve  Caesars." 
97.  After  the  murder  of  Caesar,  the  conspirators  fled  to  the 
capitol^  where  they  remained  until  they  entered  into  an  agree- 
ment with  Mark  An'tony,  the  consul,  and  a  par- 
ticular friend  of  Caesar,  that  all  his  laws  should 
remain  in  force,  that  his  will  should  be  carried 


Antony's 
oration. 


into  effect,  and  that  his  body  should  be  honored  with  a  public 
funeral.  Accordingly,  the  body  was  carried  into  the  forum; 
and  Mark  Antony  pronounced  over  it  a  funeral  oration,  in 
the  course  of  which  he  exposed  the  bleeding  wounds  to  the 
people,  and  so  worked  upon  their  sympathies,  that  they  arose 


240 


Ancient  History. 


against  the  consjDirators  and  compelled  them  to  flee  from  the 

city. 

98.  Antony,  having  thus  become  master  jf  Kome,  produced 

Ca3sar's  will,  and  other  papers  which  he  represented  as  contain- 
ing his  acts  and  wishes.  These  he  made  such  use  of 
as  best  served  his  purpose,  to  excite  i)opular  feeling 
in  favor  of  Caesar's  party.     Thus  he  excited  the  op- 


Antony  nnaster 
of  Rome. 


position  of  the  senatorial  party,  led  by  Cicero,  who  was  heard  to 
exclaim:   **The  tyrant  is  dead,  but 
the  tyranny  still  lives."    Another 
actor,  however,  now  appeared  on  the 
stage,  and  one  destined  to  play  a  great 

part.     Tills   was    Caius 

Octavius,  then  a  young 

man,   the   nephew  and 


Octavius  in 
Rome. 


Mark  Antony. 


adopted  pon  of  the  great  Julius,  who 
had  been  a])pointed  heir  in  his  last 
testament.  lie  now  (May)  appeared 
in  Rome,  and  demanded  the  property 
left  to  him  by  his  adopted  father 
(44  B.C.). 

99.  Octavius  did  everything  he 
could  to  win  over  tlie  ])e()ple,  giving 
them  public  sliows,  and  even  borrow- 
ing money  in  order  to  pay  Caesar's 

1  legacies.  He  cultivated  the  esteem  and  conlidence 
of  Cicero,  and  conciliated  the  Senate,  showing 
the  greatest  appearance  of  hostility  to  the  am- 
bitious schemes  of  Antony.  The  latter  was  declared  a  public 
enemy  by  the  Senate,  and  was  boldly  attacked  by  Cicero,  who 
pronounced  against  him  a  series  of  magnificent 
orations,  wliicli  have  been  styled,  in  imitation  of 
those  of  Demosthenes,  the  Philippics,  Cicero  was  sanguine 
that  the  republic  could  be  re-established,  and  he  was  unre- 
mitting in  his  efforts  to  eifect  this  result;  for,  though  fond  of 


Cicero. 


The  Roman  Bepuhlic. 


241 


praise  and  distinction,  he  was  at  heart  a  true  patriot.  Cir- 
cumstances were,  however,  working  against  him,,  and  neutral- 
izing all  his  exertions. 

100.  While  these  things  were  in  progress  in  Rome,  Antony 
was  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  where  he  was  defeased  by  the  two  con- 
suls; but  both  of  them  being  slain,  Octavius  took 
the  command,  while  Antony  formed  a  union  with 
Lep'i-dus,  a  general  of  great  experience  and  influ- 
ence, then  stationed  in  Transalpine  Gaul.  In  the  mean  time, 
the  aristocratic  party  in  the  Senate  withdrew  the 
commavid  from  Octavius,  and  refused  him  the 
consulate;    whereupon    he  approached   the  city 


Antony  and 
Lepidus. 


Octavius 
consul. 


with  his  army,  and  compelled  the   Senate  to  accede  to  his 
wishes. 

Second  Tbiumvikate. 

101.  Soon  afterward  Octavius  entered  into  a  negotiation  with 
Antony  and   Lepidus,  and  arranged  for  an  interview,  the 
result  of  which  was  the 
formation  of  the  Second 
Triumvirate,  the    agree- 


Terms  of  the 
agreement. 


CiCHRO. 


ment  being,  that  the  three  were  to 
keep  possession  of  the  supreme  con- 
trol of  the  government  for  five  years, 
assigning  the  provinces,  and  appoint- 
ing the  magistrates  as  they  pleased 
(43  B.C.).  A  dreadful  proscription 
and  massacre  followed  the  formation 
of  this  league,  each  of  the  triumvirs 
inserting  in  the  list  all 
whom  he  deemed  hostile 


Massacre. 


and  wished  to  be  put  to  death.  Not  fewer  than  three  hundred 
senators  and  two  thousand  knights  were  among  the  pro- 
scribed; and  one  of  the  victims  sacrificed  to  the  hatred  of 
Antony  was  Cicero,  who  was  assassinated  by  the  emissaries  of 
the  triumvir,  as  he  was  endeavoring  to  escape. 


'-^42  Aiicient  History. 


102.  Having  taken  vengeance  upon  their  enemies  in  Italy, 
the  triumvirs  turned  their  attention  to  Brutus  and  Ciissius, 
who,  with  the  design  of  restoring  the  liberties  of 
their  country,  had  succeeded  in  making  them- 
selves masters  of   all   the   eastern   ])art  of    the 


Defeat  of 

Brutus  and 

Cassius. 


empire.  Antony  and  Octavius  crossed  to  Macedonia  and 
engaged  the  republican  forces  at  Philip'pi,  where  Cassius  and 
Brutus  were  successively  defeated,  each  slaying  himself  at  the 
close  of  the  battle  (42  B.C.).*  These  victories  left  the  Trium- 
virate in  absolute  control  of  the  empire.  At  the  expiration 
of  the  five  years,  the  triumvirate  was  renewed;  but  soon  after- 
w^ard  Lepidus  attempted  to  gain  the  power  for  himself,  and 
was  deposed  (36  B.C.). 

103.  Antony  being  visited  by  Cleopatra  in  Asia,  returned 
with  her  to  Egypt,  and  surrendered  himself  to  the  wiles  of  that 
artful  beauty.  \     At  last,  after  neglecting  his  duty  for  years, 

*  "  As  long  as  there  seemed  a  cliance  that  the  godlike  stroke  would  be  justified 
by  success,  Brutus  claimed  the  glory  of  maintaining  a  righteous  cause;  but  when 
all  hope  fled,  he  could  take  leave  of  philosoi)hy  and  life  together,  and  exclaim,  'I 
once  dreamed  that  virtue  is  a  thing;  I  find  her  only  a  name,  and  the  mere  slave  of 
fortune.'  He  had  blamed  Cato  for  flying  from  misery  by  self-murder;  but  he 
learnt  to  justify  tiie  same  desperate  act  when  he  contemplatetl  committing  it  him- 
self,"—Mertrafe.  Plutarch  says  that,  sitting  in  his  tent,  one  evening  In-fore  the 
battle,  he  saw  a  strange  figure  enter,  and  stand  by  his  side.  *'  Who  art  thou  ?"  he 
exclaimed.  **  I  am  thy  evil  genius,"  replied  the  figure;  "  thou  shalt  see  me  again  at 
Philippi." 

t  "When  Antony  first  set  out  on  his  expedition  against  the  Parthians,  he  sent 
orders  to  Cleopatra  to  meet  him  in  Cilicia,  that  she  might  answer  some  accusations 
which  had  been  laid  against  her  of  assisting  Cassius  in  the  war.  Though  she  had 
received  many  pressing  letters  of  invitation  from  Antony  and  his  friends,  she  held 
him  in  such  contempt  that  she  by  no  means  took  the  most  expeditious  method  of 
traveling.  She  sailed  along  the  river  Cydnus  in  a  most  magnificent  galley.  The 
stem  was  covered  with  gold,  the  sails  were  of  purple,  and  the  oars  were  silver. 
These,  in  their  motion,  kept  time  to  the  music  of  flutes,  and  pipes,  and  harps.  The 
queen,  In  the  dress  and  character  of  Venus,  lay  under  a  canopy  embroidered  M'ith 
gold,  of  the  most  exquisite  workmanship;  wliile  boy.s,  like  painted  cuplds,  stood 
fanning  her  on  each  side  of  tlie  sofa.  Her  maids  were  of  the  niost  distinguished 
beauty,  and,  habited  like  the  Nereids  and  the  (Jraces,  assisted  in  the  steerage  and 
conduct  of  the  vessel.  The  fragrance  of  bunilng  incense  was  difTused  along  the 
shores,  which  were  covered  with  nmltitudes  of  people.  Some  followed  the  proces- 
sion; and  such  numbers  went  down  from  the  city  to  see  It,  that  Antony  was  at  last 
left  alone  on  the  tribunal.    A  rumor  ww  apon  pprea4  (bat  V©»us  was  come  to  feart 


The  Roman  Republic.  243 


he  gave  great  offense  to  Octavius  by  divorcing  his  sister  Octa- 
via,  in  order  to  marry  the  Egyptian  queen,  and  dis- 
pleased the  Roman  people  by  his  conduct  in  Egypt. 
This  brought  on  a  war,  which  Octavius  directed 


Antony  and 
Cleopatra. 


the  Senate  to  declare  against  Cleopatra.  The  war  thus  caused 
was  ended  by  the  naval  battle  of  Actium  (aJc'she-um),  Antony 
and  Cleopatra  being  totally  defeated  (31  B.C.). 
Fleeing  to  Egypt,  Antony  stabbed  himself,  and 
Cleopatra  put  an  end  to  her  life  (it  is  said,  by 


Battle  of 
Actium. 


means  of  a  venomous  asp),  in  order  to  prevent  being  com^ 
pelled  to  grace  the  triumph  of  Octavius.*  Her  death  ter- 
minated the  sovereignty  of  the  Ptolemies,  which  had  existed 
about  three  centuries  (323-31  B.C.). 

104.  Egypt   having  been  made  a  Roman  province,  and 
plundered  of  its   immense  treasures  in  order  to  supply  Oc- 
tavius  with    funds   to   reward    iiis   soldiers,   he    i  _     - 
returned   to  Rome,  where  he   was  tlie  ruler  of       master  of  the 
the   Roman   world,    receiving    from    the    Senate 


the  title  of  Augustus  (29  B.C.).  The  date  of  this  event  is 
commonly  chosen  as  the  era  of  the  commencement  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  Subsequently,  the  government  was  merely 
a  military  despotism,  under  wliich  the  Romans  were  hopeless 
of  relief;  they,  therefore,  made  no  effort  to  restore  the  repub- 
lican constitution.  Augustus  celebrated  the  restoration  of 
peace  by  closing  the  gates  of  the  temple  of  Janus,  for  the  third 
time  in  the  history  of  Rome,  f 

with  Bacchus,  for  the  benefit  of  Asia.  Antony  sent  to  invite  her  to  supper;  but  she 
thought  it  his  duty  to  wait  upon  her,  and,  to  show  his  politeness  on  her  arrival,  he 
complied.  "—PZwtorcTi. 

*  "When  the  figure  of  Cleopatra  was  afterward  carried  in  the  triumph  of 
Octavius,  she  was  represented  reclining  on  a  couch  with  the  asp  clinging  to  either 
arm,  and  a  mortal  sleep  stealing  slowly  through  every  limb.  "—JferivaZe. 

t  "  Octavius,  in  a  little  time,  when  he  had  allured  to  his  interest  the  soldiery  by 
a  profusion  of  largesses,  the  people  by  distributions  of  com,  and  the  minds  of  men 
in  general  by  the  sweets  of  peace,  stiowed  more  aspiring  views.  By  degrees,  and 
almost  imperceptibly,  he  drew  into  his  own  hands  the  authority  of  the  Senate,  the 
fimctions  of  the  magistrates,  and  the  administration  of  the  laws.  To  these  en- 
croachments no  opposition  was  made."— TocifMs. 


244 


Ancient  History, 


Eevi;ew  Outline. 


Chronology. 


Roman  Kingdom. 
753  B.C. 


509  B.C. 

Boman  Bepublic. 

609-29  B.C. 

PmST  PERIOD. 

609-340  B.C. 


494  B.C. 


493 

B.C. 

486 

B.C. 

471 

B.C. 

446 

B.C 

867  B.C. 

461 

B.C. 

890 

B.O. 

SECOND  PERIOD. 

340-264 

B.C. 

848-295 

B.C. 

889 

B.C. 

280 

B.O. 

276 

B.C. 

One  of  the  Latin  tribes — the  Ilanuiians,  or  Romans 
— made  a  settlement  on  the  Tiber  River,  which 
by  the  addition  of  other  Latin  cantons  soon  in- 
creased in  influence  and  numbers.  This  became 
the  famous  city  of  Rome.  It  was  at  first  under  a 
kingly  government,  which,  according  to  the  tra- 
ditionary history,  lasted  through  seven  reigns, 
ending  with  that  of  Tarquin. 

The  struggles  between  the  two  orders — the  patri- 
cians and  the  plebeians,  or  the  rich  and  the  poor 
— were  the  most  prominent  events  in  Roman  his- 
tory for  about  a  century  and  a  half.  The  patri- 
cians were  obliged  to  make  many  concessions  to 
the  plebeians,  of  which  the  principal  were  the  fol- 
lowing: The  appointment  of  the  tribunes  of  the 
people,  and  the  conferring  upon  them  of  the  veto 
power;  the  passage  of  the  Icilian  law,  making 
their  persons  sacred;  the  agrarian  law  of  Spurius 
Cassius;  the  Publilian  law  of  Volero,  which  gave 
the  election  of  the  tribunes  to  the  people;  the 
right  of  intermarriage  between  patricians  and 
plebeians;  and  the  Licinian  laws,  which  admitted 
plebeians  to  the  consulship,  restricted  the  holding 
of  the  public  lands,  and  partly  relieved  the  bur- 
dens of  debtors.  The  celebrated  code  of  laws, 
called  the  Twelve  Tables,  wjis  framed  during  this 
period.  Rome  was  taken  and  ])urned  by  the  Gauls. 

During  three-fourths  of  a  century  succeeding  the 
close  of  the  first  period,  the  Romans  were  en- 
gaged in  the  conquest  of  Italy.  They  waged 
four  wars  with  the  Samnites;  sulniued  Latium; 
vanquished  the  combined  forces  of  the  Etrurians 
and  Gauls;  and,  though  at  first  defeated  by  the 
invader  Pyrrhus,  they  finally  gained  a  great  vic- 
tory over  his  forces  at  Bencventum.     Soon  aftei 


Memew  Outline. 


245 


264  B.C. 

THIRD   PERIOD. 
264-133  B.C. 

First  Punic  War. 
264-241  B.C. 


255 

B.C. 

251 

B.C. 

241 

B.C. 

Second  Punic  War. 

218-202 

B.C. 

218 

B.C. 

216B.C. 

212  B.C. 
207  B.C. 
202  B.C. 


183  B.C. 


168  B.C. 
146  B.C. 
146  B.C. 


133  B.C. 

FOTJRTH  PERIOD. 
133-29  B.C. 


133  B.C. 
121  B.C. 

111-106  B.C. 


all  the  tribes  and  nations  of  Italy  submitted  to 
the  Roman  power. 

The  pejiod  of  foreign  conquests  succeeded,  lasting 
about  130  years.  The  Punic  wars,  which  ended 
in  the  conquest  and  destruction  of  Carthage,  ex- 
tended nearly  to  the  end  of  this  period.  The 
principal  events  of  the  First  of  these  wars  were 
the  following: 

The  defeat  of  the  Roman  general  Regulus. 

The  defeat  of  the  Carthaginian  Hamilcar. 

This  war  ended  with  the  submission  of  the  Car- 
thaginians. 

The  chief  events  of  the  Second  Punic  "War  were  the 
following: 

The  Romans  were  defeated  by  Hannibal  at  the 
Ticinus,  the  Trebia,  and  Lake  Trasymenus. 

The  great  battle  of  Cannae,  a  disastrous  defeat  for 
the  Romans. 

The  taking  of  Syracuse  by  Marcellus. 

The  defeat  of  Hasdrubnl,  brother  of  Hannibal. 

The  defeat  of  Hannibal  by  Scipio  at  Zama. 

Carthage  at  the  close  of  the  war  gave  up  Spain, 
agreed  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and.  in 
fact,  became  tributary  to  Rome.  Hannibal  died, 
by  his  own  hand,  in  exile  a  few  )'^cars  afterward. 

The  conquest  of  Macedonia  soon  followed,  the  last 
king,  Perseus,  being  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 

,    in  the  battle  of  Pydna. 

Greece  became  a  Roman  province. 

The  third  Punic  war  ended  in  the  taking  and  total 
destruction  of  Carthage.  The  taking  of  Numan- 
tia  brought  to  a  close  a  long  and  fierce  war  with 
the  native  tribes  in  Spain. 

The  period  of  internal  dissensions  followed  that  of 
foreign  conquests.  It  opened  with  a  renewal  of 
the  agrarian  struggles,  in  the  attempt  to  revive 
the  Licinian  laws  by  Tiberius  Gracchus.  The 
patricians  opposed  the  measure,  and  Gracclms 
was  slain.  His  brother  Caius  shared  the  same 
fate,  a  few  years  afterward. 

The  war  with  Jugurtha  occupied  several  years,  and 


246 


Ancient  History, 


102  B.C. 

8&-68 

B.C. 

88-79 

B.C. 

86 

B.C. 

83 

B.C. 

81 

B.C. 

63 

B.C. 

60  B.C. 


58-50 

B.C 

49 

B.C 

48 

B.C 

46 

B.C 

44  B.C. 
43  B.C. 
42B.C. 


6\  B.C. 


29B.C. 


was  followed  by  the  invasions  of  the  Cimbrians 
and  Teutons,  who  were  repulsed  by  Marius. 

The  Mithridatic  war  was  a  long  contest  carried  on 
in  the  East  against  the  king  of  Pontus,  and  was 
terminated  by  his  death. 

The  first  civil  war  was  brought  on  by  the  dissen- 
sions between  Marius  and  Sulla.  The  former, 
having  gained  possession  of  Rome,  ordered  a 
massacre  of  his  opponents;  but  died  soon  after- 
ward. Sulla,  in  turn  triumphing,  retaliated  with 
slaughter,  and  made  himself  perpetual  dictator. 
Pompey,  after  making  great  conquests  in  the 
East,  returned  in  triumph  to  Rome,  joined  the> 
popular  party  with  Caesar,  just  rising  into  power, 
and  together  with  Crassus, formed  the  First  Tritim- 
urate.  Caesar  returned  from  his  province,  Gaul, 
whence  after  eight  years  of  victorious  warfare 
against  the  natives, crossing  the  Rubicon  into  Italy, 
returned  to  Rome  in  order  to  check  the  intrigues  of 
Pompey  against  him.  A  war  ensued  l)etween  these 
two  ambitious  generals,  which  resulted  in  the  de- 
feat of  Pompey  at  Pharsalia.  The  adherents  of 
Pompey  under  Scipio  were  defeated  at  Thapsus, 
and  the  sons  of  Pompey  were  vanquished  in 
Spain,  after  which  Caesar  found  himself  the  mas- 
ter of  Rome.  But  a  conspiracy  having  been 
formed  against  him  by  Brutus  and  Cassius,  he' 
was  assassinated  in  the  Senate-house.  Octavius, 
his  adopted  son,  formed  the  second  triumvirate 
with  Mark  Antony  and  Lepidus,  and  caused  their 
opponents  in  Rome  to  be  put  to  death.  Octavius 
and  Antony  defeated  Brutus  and  Cassius,  in  the 
battle  of  Philippi.  Antony  then  went  to  the  East 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Cleopatra,  the 
Egyptian  queen,  through  whose  inUuenee  he  di- 
vorced his  wife  Octavia,  sister  of  Ocrtavius.  and  in 
other  respects  displeased  tlu;  Roman  |>eople.  The 
war  that  followed  wjis  decided  by  the  battle  of  Ac- 
tium,  in  which  Antony  and  (Meopatra  were  de- 
feated. Egypt  became  a  Roman  province ;  and  Oc- 
tavius, on  liis  return  toRonie, was  governorwilh  al)- 
s<jlute  authority  under  the  title  oiAugustutt  Cnuar. 


Contemporaneous  Eveitts. 


Cent. 

B.C. 

Rome. 

Grkeck, 

Other  Nations. 

776 
753 
747 
743 
734 
721 
730 

First  Olympiad. 

Founrlation  of  Rome. 

Era  of  Nabonassar. 

First  Messenian  War. 
Syracuse  founded. 

8th. 

Samaria  taken. 

Lydians  in  Asia  Minor. 

685 
672 
640 
625 
624 
618 

Second  MessenianWar. 

Tiillus  Hostilius. 
Aneus  Martius. 

Medes  take  Nineveh, 

7th. 

Draco  at  Athens. 

Tarquin  the  Elder. 

594 

586 

560 
546 
538 
534 

525 

5^0 

509 

Solon  at  Athens. 

Jerusalem    taken    by 

Pisistratus  at  Athens. 

Nebuchadnezzar. 

Cyrus  subdues  CrcBsus. 
Babylon  taken  by  Cyrus 

Pelusium     taken     by 

6th 

Tarquin  the  Proud. 

\ 

\ 

1 
Hippias  expelled  from 
Athens. 

Cambyses, 

Tarqujns  expelled. 

495 

Miletus  taken  by  Darius 

ri-T-    i  485 

Creation  of  Tribunes. 
Coriolanus 

5th.     4-j 

Themistocles  banished 

'  464 

Death  of  Xerxes. 

1  449 

Decemvirate  abolished. 

Death  of  Cimon. 

396 

359 

346 
343 

323 

321 

307 

305 
301 

Romans  take  Veii. 

Battle  of  Coronea. 
Accession  of  Philip  of 

Macedon. 
Sacred  War  ends. 

Lamian  War j 

Demetrius     Phalereus 
expelled  from  Athens 

4th 

Samnite  War  begins. 

Death   of     Alexander 

Battle  of  Caudine  Forks 

the  Great. 

Samnites  subdued. 

Battle  of  Ipsus, 

3d. 

280 
241 

221 

218 
213 
212 
205 

Pyrrhus  invades  Italy.. 
End  of  First  Punic  War. 
] 

Gauls  invade  Greece. 

Aratus.— Agis -j 

Sparta  taken,  by  Antig- 

Seleucus  assassinated. 
Sicily  made  a  Roman 

province. 
Kingdoms  of   Parthia 

and  Bactria  fovmded. 

Second  PunicWar  begins 

onus. 
Aratus  poisoned. 
Philopoemen. 

Syracuse  taken, 
Scipioin  Spain 

183 
168 
146 

DpatVi  of  PhilonfRTTiPTi 

r>oofli  nf  TTonnihial 

Sd, 

Battle  of  Pydna ]  ^J«l*  of^  Jews  under 

Carthage  taken. 

Corinth  taken. 

juaas  maccaoeus. 

Roman  Cimlization,  249 


SECTION  IV. 

EoMAN^  Civilization". 

105.  In  treating  of  this  extensive  subject,  within  the  nar- 
row limits  here  permitted,  it  will  not  be  possible  to  trace  the 
progressive  development  of  Koman  civilization 
during  the  seven  centuries  that  preceded  the  time 
of  Augustus.     At  first,  the  Roman  character  and 


Change  in 
Roman 
manners. 


mode  of  life  were  characterized  by  extreme  austerity  and 
simplicity;  but,  in  the  later  periods,  these  gave  place  to  refine- 
ment and  luxury,  in  imitation  of  Greek  manners,  and  under 
the  influence  of  the  vast  wealth  which  the  spoils  of  conquered 
nations  brought  into  Rome. 

106.  Rome  had  grown  to  be  the  metropolis  of  a  vast 
empire,  which  contained,  when  Augustus  reached  tlte  pin- 
nacle of  his  power,  about  one  hundred  millions  of 
people;  while  the  population  of  the  imj^erial  city 
must  have  numbered,  at  the  time  of  its  greatest 


Growth  of 
Rome. 


splendor,  at  least  two  millions,  representing  not  only  the 
Roman,  but  the  Greek  and  Oriental  civilizations.  Its  mag- 
nificent aqueducts,  baths,  amphitheaters,  temples,  and  other 
edifices  made  it  a  scene  of  wonder  to  the  visitor  from  foreign 
lands,  and  enabled  it  to  cope  in  grandeur  with  the  great  and 
pompous  cities  of  ancient  nations.  This  was  especially  true 
of  it  after  the  rule  of  Augustus,  who  boasted  that  he  ''found 
the  city  brick,  and  left  it  marble."*  A  few  of  the  most 
prominent  objects  of  Rome  will  be  referred  to. 

107.  The  Forum,  or  place  of  public  meetings,  and  the 
great  market  of  the  city,  should  first  be  mentioned.     Here 


*  "Rome  remained,  even  to  the  end  of  the  republic,  a  network  of  crooked, 
narrow  lanes,  along  which  shops  and  houses  of  poor  and  mean  appearance  were 
constructed.  There  were  not  more  than  two  streets  in  Rome  suitable  for  heavy- 
carriages  to  pass  in,  and  in  the  others  the  litters  of  the  wealthy  struggled  to  force 
their  way  through  the  dense  crowd."— ietsr/j,ton'«  History  of  Rome. 


250 


Ancient  History. 


was  the  Senate-House;  the  temple  of  Janus,  built  of  bronze, 
the  gates  of  which  were  closed  only  in  time 
of  peace;  the  temples  of  Vesta,  of  Concord,  of 
Saturn,  and  of  Castor  and  Pollux;   the  hall  of 


The  Roman 
Forum. 


records  {Tabula' Hum)',  the  prison  (career)-,*  the  courts  for 


Temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinis. 

the  administration  of  justice  {hasiVica!)',\  the  statues  of  dis- 
tinguished statesmen  and  warriors,  and  tlie  sx)oils  of  conquered 

•  This  was  the  grreat  prison  of  Rome— the  Mamertine— built  by  Ancus  Martlus, 
on  the  slope  of  the  Capitoline,  and  enlarcred  by  Servius  Txillitis  by  a  subterranean 
dungeon,  12  feet  underground,  walled  and  overarched  with  masonry.  It  was  in  one 
of  the  cold,  damp  cells  of  this  dungeon  that  Jugurtha  closed  his  eventful  but 
wicked  career, 

t  These  were  covered  porticoes  In  which  persons  met  to  transact  businesH,  and 
in  which  the  courts  of  law  held  their  sessions.  After  the  recognition  of  Christianity 
by  the  state,  the  haailira  became  a  mcnlel  for  church  an'hiterture.  The  main  body 
of  the  building,  called  the  nave  (from  its  resemblance  to  the  Interior  of  a  ship, 
navis),  was  for  the  people  assembled  for  business:  tlie  aisles  (a/a^  wings\  separated 
from  the  nave  by  pillars,  afforded  passage  from  the  eniwd;  and  the  end,  semi- 
circular in  form,  was  for  the  prmtor  and  tlu>s«>  who  appeared  b»'f«>r«>  his  tribtnial. 
In  the  church  edifices  these  became,  respe«-t'v<'lv.  «h.'  navf,  aisles,  and  choir.  The 
first  basilica  was  erected  In  1B4  b.c 


Roman  Cimlization. 


251 


nations;  while,  looking  down  upon  all,  from  the  Capitoline 
Hill,  was  the  great  temple  of  Jupiter.*  Various  streets  sur- 
rounded or  intersected  portions  of  this  space,  in  which  were 
shops  for  the  sale  of  goods  {taber'nm), 

108.  Besides  the  main  forum,  there  were  other  public 
squares  of  a  similar  character,  used  for  market-places,  or  places 
of  business.  There  were,  also,  open  spaces  of 
larger  extent,  resembling  parks,  being  set  with 
trees  and  partly  covered  with  grass.     These  were 


Campus 
Martius. 


called  fields   {campi),  chief  among  which  was  the  Campus 


Aqueduct  of  the  Pont  du  Gard,  at  Nimes. 

Martius,  or  Field  of  Mars,  in  which  were  held  the  assemblies 
(comitia)  for  making  laws  and  appointing  magistrates,  and 
where  the  young  men  had  their  martial  exercises,  drilling, 
riding,  etc.  This  was  also  surrounded  by  many 
splendid  edifices.    Near  to  this  square  was  erected 


The  Pantheon. 


by  Agrippa,  son-in-law  of  Augustus,  the  magnificent  temple 


*  The  Capitoline  Hill,  the  smallest  of  the  seven  hills,  was  called  previously  the 
Tarpeian  rock.  It  was  very  steep  and  rugged,  and  formed  a  natural  fortress.  On 
its  top  was  built  the  Capitol,  completed  by  Tarquin  the  Proud.  It  was  bxuTied  dur- 
ing the  Sullan  civil  war,  but  was  afterwaixi  restored. 


252 


Ancient  History. 


called  the  Pantheon  (temple  of  all  the  gods),  which  has  sur- 
vived the  ravages  of  time  and  the  destructive  violence  of  the 
barbarians. 

109.  The  aqueducts  were  among  the  most  magnificent  of 
the  Eoman  works.  Of  these  there  were  seven  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  affording  an  abundant  supply  of  water 
both  for  private  use  and  for  the  immense  public 
baths.     During  the  empire  many  minor  structures  of  this 


Aqueducts. 


JLlijPjKJLBJi  ™  Jl  fW  JLH. 


Racing  Chariots. 

kind  were  erected.  By  these  aqueducts  the  water  was  carried 
from  a  considerable  distance,  over  stone  arches,  some  of  which 
were  more  than  one  hundred  feet  high.  The  remains  of  these 
still  attest  their  original  grandeur;  and  of  the  three  aqueducts 
which  now  supply  modern  Kome  with  water,  two  are  of  an- 
cient construction.* 

110.  Besides  these,  should  be  mentioned  the  buildings  for 
the  games  of  the  circus,  consisting  of  chariot-n»^es,  boxing, 

♦"Wherever  the  Roman  went  he  carried  with  him  his  art  of  building.  The 
aqueduct  which  was  constnjcted  by  Aprrippa  to  supply  Nemansus  (Nimee),  a 
colony  of  no  great  note,  with  water,  is  a  proof  of  this  assertion.  "Hie  lar^st 
modem  cities  can  hardly  show  a  work  of  public  titfllty  so  mngnlflcent  as  the 
structure  which  is  known  to  thousands  of  moiiern  tnirelers  under  the  name  of  th9 
Pont  du  Gard.  "—LiddelVa  History  of  Home.    See  page  261 . 


Roman  Civilization. 


253 


and  gymnastic  contests.  These  games  were,  as  among  the 
Greeks,  of  a  religious  character,  intended  as  an  expression  of 
Joy  for  the  favor  of  the  gods  or  to  appease  their 
displeasure.     Among  the  exercises  were  also  the 


Circus 


dreadful  gladiatorial  combats,  introduced  in  264  B.C.     The 


The  Flavian  Amphitheatek,  or  cjolusseum. 

largest  and  oldest  circus  was  the  Circus  Maximus,  capable  oi 
holding  more  than  200,000  persons.  There  frere  seyeral  owjer 
buildings  of  this  character  in  the  city. 

111.  To  the  circus  succeeded,  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar, 
the  amphitheater,  which  was  better  adapted  to  the  exhibition 
of  the  gladiatorial  combats,  the  seats,  rising  in 
tiers,  being  arranged  around  the  central  space,  or 


Amphitheater. 


arena,  on  which  the  contests  took  place.  In  the  time  of 
Augustus,  a  stone  amphitheater  was  built  in  the  Campus 
Martius;  but  the  grandest  building  of  this  kind  was  erected 


254 


Ancient  History. 


about  one  hundred  years  later,  by  the  emi)erors  Vespasian 
and  Titus.  This  was  called  the  Fla'vian  Ampliitlieater  (from 
the  emperors'  family),  but  subsequently  received  the  title  of 
the  Oolosse'um,  on  account  of  its  immense  size.* 
It  was  elliptical  in  shape,  564  feet  long  and  467 
feet  wide,  resting   on  fourscore   arches,  and    rising   to  the 


The  Colosseum. 


>i,i:i  M  OF  AUOUSTCS  (Ki 


■height  of  140  feet.  It  accommodated  at  least  80,000  specta- 
tors. Its  internal  and  external  decorations  were  of  the 
grandest  description. 


♦  •*  The  outside  of  the  edifice  was  incrusted  with  marble,  and  decorated  with 
statues.  The  slopes  of  the  vast  concave  which  formed  the  inside  tivui  filled  and 
surrounded  with  sixty  or  eij?hty  rows  of  seats  of  murble.  likewise  covere<l  with 
cushions,  and  capable  of  receiving  with  ease  above  fourscore  thousand  spectators. 
Sixty-four  vomitories  (for  by  that  name  the  di>ors  were  very  aptly  ilLstin^ruished) 
poured  forth  the  immense  multitude;  and  the  entrances,  pas-sn^cs.  nntl  staircase* 
were  contrived  with  such  exquisite  skill  that  each  person,  whether  of  the  senato- 
rial, the  equestrian,  or  plebeian  order,  arrived  at  b|8  destined  place  without  trouble 
or  confusion."— Cttdon, 


Roman  Civilization.  255 

112.  Pompey's  Theater  was  another  remarkable  building, 
erected  by  that  great  general  after  his  return  from  the  east. 
It  was  built  of  stone,  and  was  large  enough  to 
seat  40,000  spectators.  There  were  also  spacious 
edifices  for  the  public  baths,  built  of  marble,  and 


Pompey's 
Theatpr. 


supplied  with  every  convenience ;  and  numerous  palaces 
{palaHia),  among  which  the  imperial  palace  of  Augustus, 
fronting  the  Forum,  was  conspicuous;  but  several 
others  were  built  by  his  successors.     Many  of  the 


Mausoiea. 


private  palaces  were  very  spacious  and  elegant.  On  the  hills 
around  the  city  were  laid  out  parks  and  gardens  (Jiorti), 
adorned  with  handsome  buildings  and  works  of  art.  The 
city  was  also  rich  in  sei)ulchral  monuments — imperial  or 
private  mausolea,  as  well  as  columns  erected  in  honor  of 
illustrious  Eomans. 

Roman  Art. 

113.  In  the  early  period  of  Roman  history,  art  had  made 
some  progress.  Statues  were  erected  to  heroes  and  patriots, 
distinguished  by  their  services  to  their  country, 
and  temples  were  built  to  the  gods;  but  of  these 


-Early  period. 


works  of  the  olden  time  little  remains  besi«le  the  famous 
bronze  group  of  the  wolf  suckling  the  twins,  constructed 
about  three  centuries  B.C.,  and  set  up  in  the 
Capitol.  The  Eomans  seem  to  have  derived  their 
art  from  the  Etruscans  and  Greeks,  whose  artistic 


Source  of 
Roman  art. 


styles  and  designs  had  very  much  in  common.  After  the 
conquest  of  Southern  Italy,  Rome  was  brought  into  imme- 
diate contact  with  the  finest  specimens  of  Greek  art. 

114.  Utility  rather  than  beauty  was  the  guiding  principle 
in  Roman  art;  and  the  aqueducts,  sewers,  public 
roads,  and  other  works  already  referred  to  are  the 
best  monuments  of  their  building  and  engineering 


Guiding 
principle. 


skill.     They  aimed  not  to  please  the  taste  simply,  but  to 
accomplish  some  great  public  benefit  by  their  vast  structures. 


256 


Ancient  History. 


Thus,  they  cut  tunnels  through  the  solid  rock  for  the  purpose 
of  draining  oft  the  volcanic  lakes;*  and,  when  Julius  Cgesar 
had  reached  the  height  of  his  power,  he  formed  the  design  of 
draining  the  Pontine  marshes  by  constructing  a  canal,  so  as 
^^^  ^^^^     I  to  improye  the  healthfulness  of  the  city,  and  pro- 

__ — I  jected  other  great  works.     In  the  early  times,  an 

order  of  architecture  called  the   Tuscan  was  mostly  uscd.+ 


ii  Ml  M      I    Vesta— (In  its  present  couditiou). 

Roman  architecture  is  particularly  distinguished  for  the  use 
made  of  the  arch,  supj)osed  to  have  been  invented  by  tlie 
Etruscans,  and  of  the  vaulted  dome.  J 


♦  "The  first  tunnel  of  which  wo  hear  was  that  by  which  tJie  Alban  Lake  was 
partially  let  off  during  the  siege  of  Veii,  a  work  which  was  suggested  by  an  Etrus- 
can soothsayer.  Other  works  of  like  kind  still  remain,  thougli  the  time  of  their 
execution  is  not  always  known."— LiV/rfeM'«  History  of  Rome. 

t  This  is  an  order  of  architecture,  the  composition  of  which  is  attributed  to  the 
Ktniscans.  It  is  a  s|)ecies  of  simple  Doric.  No  complete  sample  of  It,  however, 
has  been  left  to  us  by  the  ancients. 

%  WiUi  the  fifth  century  began  the  building  of  gates,  bridges,  and  aqueducts 
based  mainly  on  the  arch,  which  is  thenceforth  inseparably  associated  with  the 


Roman  Cimlization.^  257 


115.  In  the  later  period,  after  wealth  and  luxury  had 
invaded  Kome,  Greek  art  became  a  study;  and  though  there 
were  no  Eoujan  artists  of  any  account,  there  were  i 
many  connoik:eurs  and  collectors.     The  dwellings      ^'®  °l^'^^^ 

of  the  rich  were  adorned  with  the  works  of  Greek  I . 

masters,  as  were  likewise  the  public  buildings  and  temples. 
Music  and  dancing  were  especially  cultivated;  as, 
in  the  Roman  banquets,  the  singers  and  instru- 
mental performers,  as  well  as  the  dancing-girls. 


Music  and 
dancing. 


were  in  great  demand.     This  was  also  the  custom  in  their 
theatrical  entertainments. 

Roman  Liteeattiee. 

116.  Roman  literature,  for  the  most  part,  was  only  an 
imitation  of  that  of  the  Greeks.  Rome  had  no  literature 
worthy  of  the  name  until  near  the  close  of  the 
republic;  and  the  rage  for   Greek  models  con- 


First  period. 


stantly  repressed  all   original  genius.     The  first   period   of 
Roman  literature  begins  with  the  dramatist  Livius 
An-dro-ni'cus,  who  flourished  about  240  B.C.     He 
was  a  native  of  Magna  Graecia ;   and,  when  his 


Livius 
Andronicus. 


country  was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  he  was  brought 
a  captive  to  Rome.  He  wrote  comedies  and  tragedies,  in 
which  he  also  took  part  as  an  actor.  The  stirring 
hymn  which  he  composed  for  the  Romans  during 


O+her  poets. 


the  first  Punic  War  was  much  admired.  Ennius,  sometimes 
called  the  "father  of  Roman  song,"  and  Plan tus and  Terence, 
noted  for  their  comedies,  also  lived  during  this  period  (in  the 
second  century  B.C.). 

117.  The  second  period,  sometimes  called  the  golden  age, 
of  Roman  literature,  was  more  prolific  of  genius.  In  the  early 
part,  flourished  Varro,  celebrated  for  his  learning,  who  wrote 

Roman  name.  Akin  to  this  was  the  development  of  the  form  of  the  round  temple 
with  the  dome-shaped  roof,  which  was  foreign  to  the  Greeks,  but  was  a  peculiar 
favorite  with  the  Romans,  and  was  especially  apphed  by  them  in  the  case  of  their 
peculiar  non-Grecian  worship,  particularly  that  of  Vesta.  "—JfowimaeTi , 


268 


Andeid  History, 


on  agriculture,  grammar,  antiquities,  and  many  other  subjects. 
Indeed,  it  is  said,  bis  works  filled  500  volumes. 
He  died  26  b.  c.    Lucretius,  a  noted 


Golden  age. 


VlKGlL. 


HORACB. 


philosophical  poet,  who  embodied  in  verse  tl^-:r 
peculiar  tenets  of  Epicurus,  was  a  contemporary 
with  Varro.  It  was,  however,  during  the  age 
of  Augustus  that  Latin  literature  reached  its 
height,  through  the  genius  of  many  gifted  poets: 
Virgil,  the  author  of  the  jEneid  ; 
Horace,  renowned  for  his  odes,  satires,  and 
poetical  epistles ;  Ovid,  for  many  beautiful 
poems ;  Livy  and  Sallust,  for  their  histories ; 
and  Chltullus,  Tibullus,  and  Pro])ertius,  for  their 
lyi|ic  poems.  Augustus  was  h  great  patron  of 
letters,  as  was  likewise  his  friend  and  minister, 
Mse-ce'nas.  Among  the  writers  of  the  golden 
age  must  also  be  mentioned  Caesar,  whose  Commentaries  on 
his  own  campaigns  are  a  model  of  military  history;  and  Cicero, 
illustrious  not  only  for  his  orations  but  for  his  philosophical 
works,  and  his  essays  and  letters. 

118.  The  third  period,  sometimes  called  the  Silver  Age, 
belongs  to  the  time  of  the  empire;  but,  in  continuation  of 

this  topic,  we  may  here  mention  the  most  promi- 
nent writers  who  flourished  during  it,  as  their 
works  form  an  essential  portion  of  Roman  lit^jrature.  Tac'i-tus 
and  Sue-to'ni-us  are  especially  noted  for  their  histories  and 
biographies;  Per'seus  and  Ju've-nal,  for  tlieir  satires;  and  the 
elder  Pliny  for  his  writings  on  natural  history.  To  these 
must  be  added  Sen'e-ca,  the  ])hilosopher  and  moralist,  whose 
writings  are  prized  for  their  purity  and  elevation. 

Roman  Religion. 

119.  The  religion  of  the  Romans,  in  its  general  features, 
resembled  that  of  the  Greeks;  that  is  to  say,  it  consistf^d  in 
the  worship  of  a  large  number  of  ^^ities;  and  among  these 


Silver  age. 


Roman  Cimlization, 


259 


were  many  of  the  gods  of  Olympus,  but  with  different  names. 
This  has  already  been  pointed  out  in  the  account 
given  of  the  Greek  mythology.      Some   of  the 
prominent  features  of  the  Eoman  religion  were 


General 
features. 


derived  from  the  Etruscans,  who  were  exceedingly  superstitious. 
As  the  Eomans  were  very  religious,  and  as  they  traced  the  causes 
of  all  events,  including  the  phenomena  of  nature,  to  the  action 
of  the  gods,  nothing  was  undertaken  without  previously  con- 


Thk  Pantheon— (^its  present  condition,  1881). 


suiting  their  will,  by  established  methods,  which  constituted 
a  part  of  the  Roman  political  as  well  as  religious  system. 

120.  There  were  many  modes  of  divination — ^by  omens, 
prodigies,  the  Sibylline  books,*  and  the  auspices;  but  the  most 

*  The  Sibylline  books  were  said  to  have  been  brought  from  Cumae.  "  The  story 
runs  that  a  strange  woman  came  to  Tarquin  and  offered  nine  books  for  sale.  The 
king  refused  to  buy  the  books.  The  sibyl  departed  and  burnt  three  ,•  then  returned, 
offering  the  remaining  six  at  the  same  price.  The  king  again  refused.  The  sibyl 
then  burnt  three  more,  and  demanded  the  same  price  for  the  remaining  three. 
The  curiosity  of  the  king  was  aroused;  he  bought  the  books,  and  the  woman 
vanished.    The  books  were  kept  in  a  stone  chest  under  the  capitol  in  charge  of  two 


260  Ancient  History, 


important  were  the  auspices,  which  were  certain  signs  sup- 
posed to  be  given  by  the  gods  in  order  that  their 
will  might  become  known.     There  were  officers,  a 


Divination. 


kind  of  priesthood,  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  attending  to 
the  proper  rites  to  be  employed  in  interpreting 
these  signs;  these  composed  the  College  of  Augurs, 
consisting  at  first  of  four,  afterward  increased  to 


College  of 
Augurs. 


sixteen,  and  selected  from  the  patrician  order.  Besides  these 
there  was  a  College  of  Pontiffs,  the  most  sacred 
of  all  the  religious  institutions,  whicli  supervised 
and  regulated  the  worship  of  the  state,  including 


College  of 
Pontiffs. 


the  times  of  the  religious  festivals,  which  were  very  numerous; 

and  also  decided  what  gods  should  be  adored. 

121.  The  public  meetings  could  not  be  convened  without 

consulting  an  augur;  nor  could  the  business  jjroceed  if  he 
pronounced  the  omens  unfavorable.  If  it  light- 
ened or  thundered,  or  tliere  was  any  other  dis- 
turbance in  the  atmosphere — a  storm,  darkness,  or 


Office  of  the 
augurs. 


any  peculiar  appearance  of  the  sky — tlie  assembly  was  com- 
pelled to  disperse.  There  was,  also,  a 'form  of  divination 
perfoi-mod  by  pric^sts  culled  Ha-rus'pi-ces,  intro- 
duced from  Etruria.     It  was  based  upon  an  in- 


Harusplces. 


spection  of  the  entrails  of  victims  offered  in  sacrifice,  by 
which  they  pretended  to  ascertain  the  will  of  the  gods.  They 
also  professed  to  be  able  to  appease  by  certain  ceremonies  the 
anger  of  the  gods,  when  it  was  indicated  by  some  strange 
natural  occurrence,  as  when  the  liglTtiiing  struck,  wlien  it 
rained  stones  or  blood,  or  when  any  o\X\qx  prodigy  occurred. 

122.  The  priests  did  not  form  an  exclusive  class.  They 
were  elected  as  likewise  were  tlie  other  magistrates,  but  for  life; 
and  sometimes  held  a  civil  as  well  as  a  priestly  office.  The 
pontifex  maximus  (high  priest)  stood  first  in  power;  but  the 

men,  called  duoviri  Mcrorum.  They  were  consulted  by  order  of  the  senate  In 
times  of  great  emergency  or  public  calamity.  Through  thtiir  Influence  the  worKhip 
of  many  Grecian  deities  was  introduced."— Leiyhton's  History  of  Home. 


RoTTian  Civilization. 


261 


King  of  the  Sacrifices  {rex  sacrific^ulus)  held  the  highest  rank 
in  sanctity   of   office.      The   subordinate  priests 
were  called  flamens   {flmn'i-nes),  who  attended 


Priesthood. 


to  the  worship  of  particular  deities:  the  Vestal  Virgins  were 
priestesses  of  Vesta.  It  was  unlawful  for  a  flamen  to  ride 
upon  a  horse,  to  look  upon  an  army  equipped  for  battle,  or 
to  take  an  oath.  He  could  have  no  knot  in  any  part  of  his 
clothing;  nor  was  he  permitted  to  be  absent  from  the  city  a 

single  night.  Such  are  a  few 
of  the  restraints  to  which 
every  priest  was  subjected. 

123.  The  Roman  calen- 
dar showed  the  festival  days, 
which  afforded  tlie  people 
a  great  deal  of 


,.  „         ,    .  Festivals. 

time  for  leisure   

and  enjoyment,  besides  inj- 
pressing  their  minds  with 
their  religious  duties.  The 
worship  of  Jupiter  and 
Mars  (Qui-ri'nus)  was  the 
most  prominent,  but  that  of 
SuovETAURiLiA.  Vcsta  was  the  most  sacred.* 

The  days  of  full  moon  were  sacred  to  Jupiter.  To  Mars 
belonged  the  new  year's  day,  March  1,  which  was  a  gi'eat 
warrior  festival,  celebrated  with  war-dances,  and  the  conse- 
cration of  arms;  and  besides  this  there  were  the  Qiiirina'lin, 
on  the  27th  of  February,  sacred  to  the  same  deity.  The 
com  and  wine  festival  {Cerea'lia)^  sacred  to  Ceres,  took  place 
in  June;  the  Vina'lia,  or  wine  feast,  in  August;  the  Saturn-' 
u'lia,  or  festival  of  Saturn,  in  December ;  the  Luperca'Ua, 

*  "  Six  chaste  virgins,  daughters  as  it  were  of  the  household  of  the  Roman  people, 
attended  to  the  service  of  Vesta,  and  had  to  maintain  the  wholesome  fire  of  the 
common  hearth  always  blazing  as  an  example,  and  an  omen  to  the  bm^esses. 
This  worship,  half  domestic,  half  public,  was  the  most  sacred  of  all  in  Rome."— 
Mommsen. 


262  Ancient  History. 


or  woK  festival,  in  February.  Then  there  were  tlie  festival  of 
departed  spirits  {Fera'lia)  and  the  ghost  celebration  {Lemur- 
a'lia),  lasting  three  days,  besides  many  others.  At  certain 
ceremonies  of  purification  {lustrations)^  a  pig,  a  sheep,  and 
a  bull  were  sacrificed.  These  were  called  the  suovetauriVia. 
The  Latin  religion  lacked  the  spiritual  and  aesthetic  element 
so  prominent  in  that  of  the  Greeks,  and  soon  degenerated 
into  a  dreary  round  of  meaningless  ceremonies.  The  wor- 
ship was  very  sensuous,  consisting  chiefly  in  expressions  of 
joy, — songs,  games,  dances,  and  banquets. 

Mannebs  and  Customs. 

124.  Roman  houses,  in  early  times,  were  very  plain  and 
simple,  one  story  in  height,  and  containing  but  a  single  room, 
the  floor  of  which  was  usually  covered  with  straw; 
the  windows  being  only  openings  in   the  walls 


Roman  houses. 


closed  by  shutters,  which  also  supplied  the  place  of  chimneys 
for  the  escape  of  smoke.  When  the  tide  of  wealth  and  luxury 
flowed  into  Rome,  handsome  residences  took  the  place  of  these 
hovels,  and  many  magnificent  mansions  were  erected. 

125.  From  the  vestibule,  at  the  entrance  of  which  the 
word  salve  (welcome)  was  carved,  the  visitor  i)assed  into  a 
spacious  hall,  or  reception  room,  called  the  atrium, 
doors  from  which  led  to  the  otlier  ai)artment8, 
either  directly  or  by  intermediate  courts.     There 


Vestibule, 
atrium,  etc. 


were  separate  rooms  set  apart  for  cooking,  for  the  entertain- 
ment of  intimate  friends,  and  for  the  domestics,  besides  sleej)- 
ing-apartments,  banquet-halls,  and  often  a  chajiel  for  the 
worship  of  the  gods.  Here  were  the  lares,  or  liousehold  gods; 
while  the  imsiges  of  the  dead  were  placed  in  the  atrium, 
Windows  of  transparent  stone  succeeded  the  rude  openings 
with  shutters;  but,  under  the  emi)ire,  glass  was  used. 

126.  The  walls  and  ceilings  were  i)ainted  in  various  colors, 
or  adorned  with  frescos,  representing  mythological  groups, 
landscapes,  or  scenes  from  daily  life.    The  furniture  consistec? 


Roman  Cimlization^  263 

of  chairs,  tables,  dinner-couches,  lamps  of  various  forms, 
vases,  mirrors,   urns,  incense-burners,   etc.;    and 
the  floors   were  sometimes  covered  with  many- 


Furniture. 


colored  carpets  from  eastern  looms.  The  house  was  heated 
by  means  of  a  fire-place  or  a  portable  furnace,  sometimes  by 
the  admission  of  air  heated  by  a  furnace  below.  Oil-lamps 
were  used  for  lighting,  in  the  designing  of  which  much  taste 
and  skill  were  expended.  The  candelabra,  or  supports  for  the 
lamps,  were  often  very  elaborate  and  beautiful. 

127.  The  Romans  had  three  meals  each  day:  a  light  break- 
fast; a  lunch,  at  noon;  and  a  dinner,  toward  evening,  which 
was  the  chief  meal.  At  the  costly  banquets  given 
by  the  rich,  there  was  every  possible  display,  as  well 
as  luxurious  entertainmeut,  including  crowds  of  slaves,  gor- 
geous furniture,  music,  and  dancing-girls.  While 
eating,  they  reclined  on  couches,  like  the  Greeks. 


Meals. 


Banquets. 


Instead  of  knives,  they  used  two  spoons,  both  pointed  at  the 
end.  Each  guest  brought  with  him  a  linen  napkin  to  fasten 
over  his  breast. 

128.  Marriage  was  celebrated  with  great  ceremony.  The 
auspices  having  been  taken,  and  the  bride  and  bridegroom 
led  to  the  household  altar,  sacrifices  were  offered; 
then   the  marriage-feast  was  given,  after  which 


Marriage. 


the  bride  was  conducted  to  her  husband's  house,  being  care- 
fully lifted  over  the  threshold  of  the  ati  him,  to  avoid  the  ill 
omen  of  stumbling.  The  next  day  a  second  marriage-feast 
was  held,  and  the  bride  offered  sacrifices  to  the  gods  of  her 
new  home. 

129.  The  mother  took  charge  of  the  early  education  of 
her  children,  after  which  the  father  assumed  that  duty;  in 
fact,  the  authority  of  a  father  over  his  sons  continued  until 
liis  death,  unless  the  son  became  a  flamen  of 
Jupiter,    or  the  father  resigned  his  authority. 


Schools. 


Elementary  schools  for  boys  and  girls  seem  to  have  been 
established  at  Rome  at  an  early  period;  but,  for  many  cen- 


•264 


Ancient  History, 


turies,  the  branches  studied  were  very  rudimental — merely 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  Later,  the  literature  and 
language  of  the  Greeks  were  generally  taught.     The  punish- 


Implements  op  Writino.* 

mentswere  severe:  Martial,  the  poet,  remarks  that  before  the 
~  crowing  of  the  cock  the  air  resounded  with  the 

noise  of  flogging  and  the  cries  of  the  children. 

Hence  the  schools  must  have  begun  at  a  very 
early  hour  of  the  day.  The  books  and  implements  of  writing 
resembled  those  of  the  Greeks. 


Books  and 
writing. 


*  "  The  circular  wooden  or  metal  case  (scrinium)  at  the  left,  with  a  cover,  con- 
tains six  volumes  rolled  up  (hence  the  word  volume),  and  labelled  that  they  may  b<» 
easily  disting'uished.  In  front  of  the  case  Is  a  stylus  and  a  penta>ronal  inkstami, 
very  similar  t^  those  now  in  use.  A  little  to  the  rijjht  is  a  i)en  nnvdi'  t»f  it»ed,  hence 
railed  calamus.  Next  to  the  ca.se  of  books  is  the  Inhclhi,  joined  toj;ether  jus  with 
hinpfes.  an<i  covered  with  wax.  Above  this,  is  another,  piimed  as  it  were  to  the 
wall  with  a  stylus;  to  the  ri^ht  of  the  last,  lies  a  book  of  tablets  oim»!i.  In  the  center 
are  single  volumes  in  cases;  one  of  the  cases  on  the  left  is  open,  and  the  other 
shut.  On  the  right,  are  four  volumes,  two  of  which  have  their  titles,  one  attached 
to  the  papyrus  itself,  and  the  other  to  the  vmhilicHs  or  cylinder  of  wood  in  its 
center.  The  books  wen*  carried  in  the  sm'nium.  When  a  Roman,  either  In  the 
city  or  on  a  joum<\v,  wished  tx)  use  bo<->ks,  a  slave  nccompaniwi  him  to  carry  the 
«iTintwm.  The  <'hildren  of  the  rich  were  accompanied  io  school  by  a  slave,  who 
•carried  their  books  and  writing-tablets.  H<M)ks  and  diM-nments  when  not  in  use 
were  deposited  In  the  scrinium,  widch  was  sealed  If  the  documents  were  Im- 


Roman  Cimlization. 


265 


130.  The  principal  g<arment  of  the  men  was  the  toga,  a 
loose  upper  garment,  under  which  was  worn  the  tunic,  which 
fitted  more  closely.  The  toga  was  permitted  to 
none  but  citizens,  and  was  in  all  periods  the  gar- 
ment that  especially  characterized  a  Roman.     It  was  made  of 


Male  costume. 


pure  white  wool,  and  was  nearly  semicir- 
cular in  form.  In  adjusting  it,  one  end 
was  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder  to  the 
front,  so  that  the  round  side  fell  out- 
ward; then  it  was  drawn  over  the  right 
shoulder  behind  the  body,  so  that  the 
arm  rested  as  in  a  sling,  while  the  re- 
maining part  was  drawn  in  front  and 
thrown  over  the  left  shoulder.  The 
mantle  {pcenuld)  was  another  form  of 
over-garment.  The  covering  for  the  feet 
was  either  sandals  fastened  by  straps,  or 
a  kind  of  shoes. 

131.  The  costume  of  Roman  ladies 
consisted  of  an  inner  tunic,  and  a  loose 
over-dress  {stolct),  gathered 
in  and  confined  at  the  waist 
by  a  girdle  and  ending  in  a 


Female 
costume. 


deep  border  or  flounce,  which  extended 
to  the  feet.  Over  these,  in  the  street, 
a  kind  of  shawl  {palla)  was  worn,  large 
enough  to  envelop  the  whole  figure. 
Great  care  was  bestowed  upon  the  dress- 
ing of  the  hair,  over  which  nets,  veils,  caps,  or  turbans  were 
worn,  of  various  designs,  and  often  costly  materials.  The 
other  ornaments  of  the  person,  as  necklaces,  bracelets,  and 
earrings,  were  often  very  rich  and  beautiful. 


Toga. 


portant.  A  library'  of  30,000  and  even  60,000  volumes  was  not  uncommon.  In  the 
time  of  Augustus,  there  were  31  libraries  in  Rome.  Others  were  added  by  later 
emperors.    The  Ulpian  library  was  the  most  important  of  oW'—Leighton^s  Rome. 


266 


Ancient  History. 


132.  The  bath  constituted  a  very  important  element  of 
comfort  and  luxury  with  the  Romans;  and,  in  the  later  period 
1  of    their    history,    magnificent    buildings    were 

^ I  erected,  splendidly  decorated,  and  supplied  with 

every  luxury.     The  bathing-houses  in  Rome  must  have  been 


Funerals. 


very  numerous;  for  Agrippa,  the  friend  of  Augustus,  added 
no  less  than  170  to  those  existing  previously. 
They  included  not  only  bathing  appliances, 
but  gymnasia  and  libraries,  all  free  to  the 
public.  Tliey  were  in  fact  the  popular  re- 
sorts for  amusement  and  pastime,  and  an 
exchange  of  the  gossip  of  the  day.  The 
famous  batlis  of  Caracalla,  the  most  spacious 
of  all,  belong  to  a  later  period  of  the  history. 

133.  Funerals    resembled    those    of    the 
Greeks;  like  them,  the  Romans  believed  that 

the  spirits  of  the  unburied  wan- 

dered    about   witliout   rest,   not 

being  permitted  to  enter  Hades.  The  corpse 
was  laid  out  and  placed  in  the  atrium,  with  empress  livia. 
the  images  of  the  deceased  person's  ancestors;  while  a  oy})ress 
or  pine  tree  was  jihiced  before  the  house  as  an  emblem  of 
death.  A  funeral  procession  was  formed,  and  the  corpse 
was  taken  to  the  forum,  where  an  address  was  delivered  by 
one  of  the  relatives,  extolling  the  deeds  of  the  deceased  and 
those  of  his  ancestors.  After  this  the  procession  moved  to  a 
place  beyond  the  walls  where  the  body  was  buried,  or,  in  later 
times,  cremated.  On  the  ninth  day  after  the  funeral,  articles 
of  food  were  placed  beside  the  tomb,  which  wjis  decked  with 
garlands;  while  beside  the  niches  within  were  placed  lamps 
and  an  inscription. 

Military  System. 

134.  The  divisions  of  the  Roman  army  were  called  legions, 
each  consisting  of  infantry  and  cavalry.    The  legion  originally 


Roman  Civilization. 


267 


was  composed  of  3000  foot-soldiers  and  300  horse ;  but  it 
afterward  underwent  various  modifications,  and  contained 
from  5000  to  6000  men.  For  a  long  period  tlie 
Roman  citizens  were  all  subject  to  military  duty; 
but  after  the  time  of  Marius,  a  soldier  when  en- 


Organization 
of  the  army. 


listed  remained  constantly  with  the  army  for  twenty  years.  The 


SuNGsa. 


Legionary. 


LiCTOB. 


Knight. 


legion  then  consisted  of  ten  cohorts  of  600  men  each,  all  being 
under  pay;*  and  the  army  was  composed  of  legionaries  and 
auxiliaries  sent  from  the  provinces,  or  from  allied  states. 
Under  Augustus  the  legion  consisted  of  about  7000  men.f 

*  "  Caesar  fixed  the  annual  pay  at  225  denarii,  equal  to  about  $37  for  each  soldier, 
payable  in  three  installments  of  75  denarii  each.  The  pay  remained  as  fixed  by 
Ceesar  until  the  time  of  Doraitian."— Le«sr/ifon's  Rome. 

+  "The  legion  of  Augustus  was  organized  as  follows:  (1)  Infantry— ten  'com- 
panies '  {cohortes),  containmg  555  men  each,  except  the  first,  which  Vfts  of  double 


268 


Ancient  History. 


135.  Tlie  legionaries  were  armed  with  a  short  sword  and 
the  pilurny  a  kind  of  javelin  or  spear;    and   also  carried  a 
shield.    The  knights,  or  horse-soldiers,  wore  a  coat 
of  mail,  carried  a  round  shield,  and  were  armed 


Arms. 


with  the  pilum  and  sword.    There  were  also  mercenaries,  such 


Berieoino  Tower. 
as  the  slingers  from  the  Balearic  Islands  and  bowmen  from 
Crete.      Several  kinds  of   military  engines  were  used    for 

strenf^h,  and  therefore  contained  1110  men  :  total.  filOS  men.  f2)  Cavalry— t^n 
^ troops  ^  (turmcp),  containing  00  mon  each,  ex<*«'i»t  the  first,  which  had  twice  the 
number;  total,  720  men,  (8)  Arfillcni  two  lar^e  and  ten  small  machinn\  with  a 
sufficiency  of  men  to  work  them,  iinmber  unknown;  probably  not  less  than  TO. 
Total  (probable)  strength  of  the  entire  legion,  6001."— /^aWinaon'a  Ancient  Historif. 


Roman  Cimlization, 


269 


the  taking  of  cities,    such  as   tlie    battering-ram   and  the 
besieging-tower,  the  latter  composed  of  several 
stories,  on  which  were  placed  soldiers  who  cleared 
the  walls  by  means  of  their  missiles,  or  made  a 


Besieging- 
towers,   etc. 


direct  attack  by  the  drawbridges.  Besides  these,  the  catapult 
was  employed  for  discharging  darts,  and  the  ballista  for  hurl- 
ing balls  or  stones  at  the  enemy.  * 

136.  In  making  an  assault  upon  a  city,  the  battering-ram 
was  used  to  destroy  the  lower  part  of  the  wall,  the  catapult 
hurled  its  darts  at  the  defenders  on  the  top  of  the 
walls,  while  the  missiles  from  the  ballista  de- 
stroyed the  battlements.    Those  who  were  engaged 


Mode  of 
attack. 


in  filling  up  the  moat  so  as  to  approach  the  walls,  were  pro- 
tected from  the  missiles  of  the  besieged  by  wooden  sheds, 
covered  with  hides  or  other  incombustible  material,  and  i^laced 

on  rollers  so  as  to  be  pushed 
forward.      Mines  were  some- 


times dug  under  the  fortifica- 


tions. In  the 
mean  time,  the 
besiesred     hurled 


Mode  of 
defense. 


from  the  walls  stones,  darts, 
and  fire,  pushed  the  attacking 
ladders  back,  or  seizing  the 
assailants  with  tongs  drew 
them  into  the  city.  Counter- 
mines were  constructed  under 
the  walls;  and  huge  stones  or 
sand-bags  were  let  down  to 
protect  the  walls  from  the  effects  of  the  battering-ram. 

137.  Auxiliary  to  the  military  system  was  the  triumph,  the 

*  The  Romans  first  learned  the  use  of  the  ballista  at  the  siege  of  Syracuse, 
where  Archimedes,  by  means  of  these  machines,  hurled  stones  weighing  1200  pounds 
upon  the  vessels  of  the  Romans  lying  in  the  harbor. 

t  The  letters  S  P  Q  R  on  the  standard  signified  Senatus  populusque  Roma'o,v,s~ 
Senate  and  {que)  People  of  Rome. 


Roman  Standard. 


270 


Ancient  History. 


tribute  of  praise  and  honor  ])iil)li('ly  l)estowei]  on  ii  victorious 
general  after  his  return  from  war.  To  be  the 
central  figure  in  this  splendid  pageant  was  the 


The  triumph. 


highest  object  of  the  soldier's  ambition,  and  excited  him  to 
glorious  deeds  of  fortitude  and  valor.  It  consisted  of  a  grand 
procession  along  the  Via  Sacra  (sacred  street),  up  to  the 
capitol,  where  a  bull  or  ox  was  sacrificed  to  Jupiter.*  It  was 
an  occasion  of  general  rejoicing.     The  temples  were  thrown 


^ 

^)^    ^ 

K    flff^ffX 

.(^s 

hM^^^ 

^^^^^m 

'(^^ 

NlllW^iK^^j^ii  Juill  i5 

ft^fiiil 

8  L^'="#!"<l*l/|  1 11"' 

II  <  (  vV    an\f\S^i3rf/i 

mMllswi 

iS/fi^T^^^ 

/\^jm^^ 

Wmm 

'^jln<^hfv)^ir^a^^4i% 

^^^ft)^ 

Wml 

ifati 

Spoils  of  Jerusalem,  from  the  Arch  of  Titus,  t 

Open,  and  were  adorned  with  flowers;  jind  tlie  people,  in  their 
holiday  attire,  thronged  the  streets,  or  stood  on  balconies  or 
temporary  scaffoldings,  eager  to  gaze  on  tlie  spectacle. 

138.  The  victorious  imperntor  entered  tlie  city  by  the  gate 
<if  triumph,  in  a  cliariot  drawn  by  four  horses,  and  was  met 
by  the  Senate  and  other  magistrates  ;  and  the 
procession  then  i)assed  on,  consisting  first  of  the 
civil  officers;  then  the  spoils  of  the  vanquished;  tlie  priests, 
with  the  victim  to  be  sacrificed;  distinguislied  captives,  and 
other  prisoners  in  chains,  the  lictors  with  tlicir  fasces;  then 
the  victor,  bearing  a  laurel  bough  in  his  riglit  hand,  in  his 
left  a  scepter,  and  wearing  a  laurel  wreatli  on  his  head;  wUil^ 
the  army  brought  up  the  rear. 


The  procession. 


♦  There  was  a  lesser  triumph,  9,%  w^ch  only  a  slieep  (avi»)  was  sacrificed.   Hence 
this  was  called  an  ovation. 


THE                                     \^^ 

ROMAN      EMPIRE 

■ ''., 

IN  THE  TIME  OH 

AUGUSTUS 

Scale  of  Miles 

e      100    2003604006boW0    700    8(K>  Engllih 

Tlie  Roman  Empire.  271 


SECTION  V. 

The  Eoman  Empire. 

139.  The  reign  of  Augustus  virtually  though  not  formall}' 
commenced  with  the  victory  at  Actium.  It  lasted  forty-five 
years  from  that  event  (to  14  a.d.),  for  Augustus  lived  to  be 
seventy-seven  years  of  age.  Although  he  ruled  with  absolute 
power,  he  was  careful  to  retain  the  forms  of  the  republican 
government,  and  to  avoid  every  offensive  title,  such 
as  kiug  or  dictator;  but  he  caused  all  the  important 
offices  to  be  conferred  upon  himself.     Thus,  as 


Reign 
of  Augustus. 


Imperator  (commander-in-chief), he  had  the  command  of  the  ar- 
mies, and  as  president  of  the  Senate  and  consul, he  administered 
the  civil  government.  The  Senate  still  held  its  sessions,  but 
its  decrees  had  no  real  weight.  The  long  civil  wars  had  made 
the  Romans  greatly  desire  tranquillity;  and  as  Augustus  ruled 
with  equity  and  moderation,  they  acquiesced  in  his  authority. 
He  kept  large  armies  stationed  at  various  parts  of  the  empire 
to  repress  all  opposition,  and  he  instituted  the  Praetorian 
Guards*  to  protect  his  person.     He  also  appointed  a  special 

Geographical  Study. 
What  were  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  Empire  under  Augustus?  Ans.  North, 
the  British  Channel,  the  German  Ocean,  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  and  the  Euxine 
(Black  Sea);  East,  the  Euphrates  River  and  the  desert  of  Syria;  South,  the  great 
African  desert ;  West,  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  How  were  the  provinces  divided  ? 
Ans.  Into  three  groups— the  Western,  or  European;  the  Eastern,  or  Asiatic;  and 
the  Southern,  or  African.  What  were  the  Western  provinces?  Ans.  Hispania 
(Spain),  Gallia  (Gaid),  Germania  (Germany),  Vindelicia,  Rhaetia,  Noricum,  Pan- 
nonia,  Moesia,  Elyricum,  Macedonia,  Thracia  (Thrace),  Achaia,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia 
(14).  What  were  the  Eastern  provinces?  Ans.  Asia,  Bithynia,  Galatia,  Pamphylia, 
Cappadocia,  Cilicia,  Syria,  and  Judea  (8).  What  were  the  Southern?  Ans.  ^gyptus 
(Sgypt),  the  Cyrenaica  (including  Crete),  Africa  Proper,  Numidia,  and  Mauretania 
(5).  How  many  were  there  in  all?  Ans.  Twenty-seven.  WTiat  was  the  situation 
of  each  of  these  provinces?  (See  Map  VH.)  WTiat  was  the  extent  of  the  Roman 
Empire?  Ans.  About  2700  miles,  from  east  to  west;  and  about  1000,  from  north 
to  south. 

*  So  called  from /)roe^ori«m,  the  name  given  to  the  tent  of  the  general  in  every 
Roman  camp.  The  praetorian  guard  comprised  ten  cohorts  of  a  thousand  men 
each,  and  consisteil  exclusively  of  Italian  soldiers.    Augustus  kept  three  cohorts 


272  Ancient  History, 


council  of   state  with  whom  he  advised  iu  regard  to  his 

measures. 

140.  Under   his    direction,  campaigns  were  carried  on 

against  the  tribes  in  northern  Spain  and  among  the  eastern 

Alps — the  Rhaetians  and  Vindelicians,  as  well  as  in  the  terri- 
tories bordering  on  the  Rhine  and  Danube. 
The  provinces  of  Rhsetia,  Noricum,  Pannonia, 
and  Mcesia  were  annexed  to  the  empire  during  his 


Military 
operations. 


reign;  but  his  forces  met  with  a  severe  defeat  in  the  attempt 
to  conquer  the  Germans  living  to  the  east  of  the  Rhine. 
Led  by  the  brave  and  patriotic  Ar-min'i-us,  or  Her'mann, 
some  of  the  tribes  that  had  submitted  to  the  Romans  revolted, 
and  the  proconsul  Va'rus  was  surprised,  and  his  army  cut  to 
pieces  (a.d.  10).  This  disaster  so  preyed  upon  the  emperor's 
mind  that  he  died  a  short  time  after  (a.d.  14), 
leaving  the  government  to  his  stej^son  Tiberius. 


Birth  of  Christ. 


The  reign  of  Augustus  is  especially  memorable  for  the  birth 

of  Christ,  in  Judea  (4  B.C.).     [See  page  21.] 

141.  The  Twelve  Caesars  include  Julius,  the  illustrious 

founder  of  the  line,  Augustus,  who  is  considered  the  first 
emperor  (imperator),  and  his  ten  successors. 
Most  of  these  were  odious  tyrants,  distinguished 
for  nothing  but  their  sensuality  and  bloodthirsty 


The  twelve 
Caesars. 


cruelty.*     Vespasian  and  his  son  Titus,  the  latter  of  whom 

in  Rome,  and  distributed  the  otliera  among  the  neighboring  cities.  HiH  successor, 
Tiberius,  collected  the  whole  body  in  a  camp  just  outside  the  walls  of  liome.  These 
praetorian  guards  afterward  became  the  ciiief  instruments  of  usurpation  and 
tyranny.  The  Roman  standing  army  maintained  by  Augustus  at  diflTerent  points 
of  the  frontier  and  in  the  provinces,  amounted  to  about  350,(XX)  men. 

*  Tlie  following  is  a  list  of  the  Twelve  Cuesara,  witli  the  date  of  the  death  of  each: 


JuliuflCassar 44  bo. 

Augustus 14  A.D. 

Tibenus 87   " 

Caligula 41    *' 

Claudius 64   " 

Nero 68  " 


Qalba 60  a.d. 

Otho GO  " 

VitellluR 60    '• 

Vespasian ;.... 79  " 

Titus  81   " 

Domition 96  ** 


The  Caesarian  lino  really  tenninate<l  with  the  death  of  Nero,  who  was  the  lost  who 
could  claim  connection  with  tlie  .Tulian  family  eitlu-r  by  bhxKl  or  adoptitMi. 
Vespasian,  Titus,  and  Domitian  constituted  the  Flavian  line,  Inking  so  galled  frpiw 
tbe  family  name  (F'lavius)  of  Vespasian. 


The  Roman  Empire, 


273 


was  called,  on  account  of  his  virtues,  the  "  Delight  of  Man- 
kind," were  alone  worthy  to  occupy  the  throne. 
The  most  noted  event  of  Vespasian's  reign  was 
the   taking    and  destruction    of    Jerusalem    by 
Ti'tus,  the  son  of  Vespasian.     This  was  accomplished  after  a 


/esp£isian  and 
Titus. 


terrible  siege  of  six  months,  during  which,  according  to 
Josephus,  more  than  a  million  of  persons  perished.  The 
city  was  razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  inhabitants  sold  cr 
driven  into  banishment  (a.d.  70). 


The  Arch  of  Titus  (in  its  present  condition,  1881). 

142.  The  reign  of  Titus  was  marked  by  many  disastrous 
events.  In  tlie  first  year  occurred  the  dreadful  eruption  of 
Vesuvius,  during  which  the  cities  of  Pompeii 
{pom-pe'yi  or  pom-jM'ye)   and   Her-cu-la'ne-um 


Reign  of  Thus 


were  overwhelmed  by  a  dense  shower  of  black  ashes  that  fell, 
burying  many  of  the  inhabitants  in  their  dwellings.  Fugitives 
from  Campania  flocked  into  Rome,  and  a  terrible  pestilence 
ensued,  during  which  10,000  persons  died  daily.    This  was  sue- 


274  Ancient  History. 


ceeded  by  a  great  conflagration  that  raged  for  several  days, 
and  destroyed  a  considerable  portion  of  the  city.  Titus  gave 
liberally  to  relieve  the  sufferers,  and  caused  the  edifices  which 
had  been  consumed  to  be  rebuilt  He  also  completed  the 
Colosseum,  commenced  by  Vespasian.  His  deatli  occurred 
soon  after,  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign  (a.d.  81);  and  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Domitian  (do-mish'e-an),  who 
was  as  remarkable  for  tyranny  and  cruelty  as  Titus  had  been 
for  his  goodness. 

143.  The  period  of  the  empire  ending  with  the  reign  of 
Domitian  is  especially  noted  for  the  power  possessed   by 
the  praetorian  guards,  who  became  virtually  the 
real  sovereigns  after  they  had  been  concentrated 
in  the  vicinity  of  Rome  by  Tiberius.     This  was 


Praetorian 
guards. 


a  most  momentous  event  in  the  history  of  the  empire,  since 
it  thus  became  a  military  despotism.  During  Nero's  reign, 
Armenia  was  taken  from  the  Parthians,  but  re- 
stored to  them  on  the  condition  that  it  should  be 
held  as  a  tributary  province  of  Rome  ;  and  Britain 


Growth  of  the 
empire. 


was  subdued  as  far  north  as  the  Trent.  Owing  to  the  peac'e 
which  prevailed  throughout  the  empire,  except  on  the  fron- 
tier, the  population  greatly  increased,  the  towns  became  tiUod 
with  inhabitants,  and  a  vast  tide  of  wealth  poured  into  the 
city.  The  state  of  society,  however,  became  more  and  more 
depraved,  and  dreadful  immorality  prevailed. 

144.  The  reigns  of  the  "  five  good  emperors  "  (00-180  a.d.) 
formed  a  better  era.  These  were  Ner'va,  Tra'jan,  llad'ri-an, 
An-to-ni'nus  Pi'us,  and  Marcus  Au-re'li-us.  Trajan  wjis 
equally  great  as  a  monarch  and  a  general,  while 
his  many  virtues  entitle  him  to  a  place  among 
the  best    of    men.      He    made   a    conquest    of 


Five  good 
•mperort. 


Dacia,  and   gained   important  victories  in  Armenia,   Meso- 
potamia, and  Parthia,  the  cities  of  Se-leu'cia*  and  Ctes'i-phon 

♦  Seleuda  was  founded  by  Seleucus,  and  became  one  of  the  most  mafrtiiflcent 
ciUeH  in  the  world.    It  was  sitiutted  on  the  west  side  of  the  Tigris,  about  forty  niiiee 


The  Roman  Empire.  215 

surrendering  to  his  arms.  In  commemoration  of  his  con- 
quest of  Dacia,  he  erected  a  column  in  the  forum.  Hadrian 
spent  thirteen  years  in  visiting  the  different  parts  of  the  em- 
pire to  inspect  the  administration  of  the  government.  To 
defend  the  Roman  province  of  Britain,  he  caused  a  rampart  of 
earth  to  be  built  across  the  island  from  Sol  way  Frith  to  the 
North  Sea.  The  hordes  of  barbarians  commenced  their  inroads 
during  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  whose  death  marks  the 
commencement  of  the  decline  of  the  Roman  Empire  (180  a.d.). 
146.  During  the  succeeding  century,  the  army  gained  still 
greater  power;  for  the  soldiers  dictated  who  should  reign, 
and  the  Senate  was  unable  to  make  any  resist- 
ance to  their  choice.  At  one  period  (193  A.D.), 
the  praetorians   sold   the   throne  to   the  highest 


Power  of  the  - 
praetorians. 


bidder,  who  happened  to  be  a  wealthy  senator,  named  M. 
Did'i-us  Ju-li-a'nus;  but  he  only  occupied  it  for  two  months, 
and  never  exercised  any  authority  over  the  provinces.*  In 
Britain,  Pannonia,  and  Syria,  the  legions,  indignant  at  the 
disgraceful  conduct  of  the  praetorians,  refused  to  ratify  their 
choice,  and  conferred  the  imperial  purple  upon  their  own 
generals.  Of  these,  Septim'ius  Se-ve'rus,  a  bold  and  active 
soldier,  was  fortunate  enough  to  hold  it;  for  he 
marched  at  once  to  Rome,  won  over  the  praetori- 
ans, and  obtained   the  acknowledgment   of  the 


Septimius 
Severus. 


Senate.  His  rule  was  vigorous  and  energetic,  but  that  of  a  mili- 
tary despot.  He  defeated  the  Parthians,  and  took  Seleucia, 
Ctesiphon,  and  Babylon.  He  also  carried  on  war  in  Britain 
against  the  Caledonians,  or  Scots,  w^hom  he  drove  back  into 

from  Babylon,  which  was  partly  despoUed  and  depopulated  to  enrich  it.  Ctesiphon 
was  built  by  the  Parthians  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  nearly  opposite  Seleucia, 
and  became  the  capital  of  the  Parthian  monarchy. 

*  Gibbon  says  the  donation  given  by  Julianus  to  each  soldier  amounted  to  up- 
ward of  two  hundred  pounds  sterling.  His  competitor  was  Sulpicianus,  father-in- 
law  of  the  preceding  emperor,  who  had  been  murdered.  Sulpicianus  had  offered 
to  the  soldiers  a  donation  of  about  one  himdred  and  sixty  pounds.  Rawlinson  says 
fche  whole  amount  paid  amounted  to  about  three  millions  sterling.  Julianus  was 
soon  deposed,  condemned  to  death,  and  executed. 


276 


Ancient  History. 


their  fastnesses,  and  strengthened  the  wall  which  had  heen 
built  between  the  Clyde  and  Forth  rivers  to  prevent  their 
incursions.     After  a  successful  reign,  he  died  in  211  a.d. 

146.  During  the  reign  of  his  son  Caracal'la,  a  remorse- 
less tyrant,  the  old  distinction  between  Romans  or  Italians 
and  Provincials  was  abolished,  and  Roman  citizen- 
ship was  given  to  all  the  free  inhabitants  of  the 


Caracalla. 


empire.  Several  of  the  emperors  who  subsequently  reigned 
were  natives  of  the  provinces.  The  two  emperors  who  suc- 
ceeded Caracalla  were  perfectly  detestable ;  but  Alexander 
Severus,  who  followed,  was  a  virtuous  young  man,  of  a  mild 
and  benevolent  disposition,  and  very  fond  of  learning;  and 
his  government  was  all  that  could  have  been  expected  from  so 
excellent  a  prince.     During  his  reign  the  Parthian  Empire 

was  overturned  by  a  revolt  of  the  Persians  under 

'^  EJnpfre!""  Ard-c-shir',  the  founder  of  the  famous  dynasty  of 
I  the  Sas-san'i-des,  wlio  afterward  ruled  over  Persia 
for  more  than  four  centuries.  Alexander  was  murdered  (235 
A.D.)  by  some  of  the  sol- 
diers, who  chose  their  own 
general  to  succeed  liim. 

147.    The  government 
being  thus  at  the  mercy 

of   the  army, 

it     sometimes 


The  tyrants. 


happened  that  there  were 
several  personswho  claimed 
the  throne  in  different 
parts  of  the  empire,  hav- 
ing been  chosen  by  the 
armies  which  they  com- 
manded. These  visually 
were  called  tyranU.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Gallio'nus  (2GO-208  A.D.),  there  wore  nineteen 
of  these  pretenders,  among  whom  was  Od-d-na'thus,  a  prince 


Al^XAMDER  SSYBRUa 


The  Roman  Empire,  277 

of  Palmyra,  which  had  become  an  independent  city,  having 
revolted  from   the   Romans  on  account   of  the 
exactions  of  the  proconsul.     As  a  reward  for  his 
services  against  the  Persians,  Gallienus  conferred 


Odenathus  and 
Zenobia. 


on  him  and  his  queen  Ze-no'bia  the  government  of  the  East, 
thus  converting  a  rival  into  a  friend  and  partner. 

148.  Odenathus  having  been  murdered  by  some  of  his 
own  family,  Zenobia  succeeded  him  in  the  government.  This 
queen  was  esteemed  the  most  accomplished  woman  of 
her  age,  having  been  instructed  by  the  celebrated  scholar  and 
critic,  Lon-gi'nus.  After  her  husband's  death  she  filled  the 
throne  of  Palmyra  for  five  years;  but,  by  claim- 
ing an  independent  sovereignty,  she  gave  offense 
to  the  emperor  Aurelian,  who,  having  defeated 


Reign  of 
Zenobia. 


her  forces  in  two  great  battles,  besieged  and  took  Palmyra. 
Zenobia  was  made  a  captive  to  grace  the  triumph  of  her  con- 
queror, and  her  favorite  minister  Longinus  was 
executed  (273  a.d.).  The  inhabitants  having 
subsequently  revolted,  the  city  was  destroyed. 


Destructian  of 
Palmyra. 


The  ruins  of  Palmyra  are  among  the  most  interesting  relics 
of  the  ancient  world. 

149.  In  the  space  of  sixty-six  years  (217-283  a.d.),  ten 
emperors  perished  by  the  violence  of  the  soldiers;  but  a 
change  took  place  on  the  accession  of  Di-o-cle'- 
tian,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  emperors. 
He  was  a  native  of  Dalmatia,  and  his  parents 


Reign  of 
Diocletian. 


were  slaves;  but  he  had  been  promoted  successively  to  the 
offices  of  provincial  governor,  consul,  and  praetorian  prefect. 
He  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army  in  284  a.d.  ;  and,  the 
year  after,  feeling  that  the  extent  of  the  empire  and  the 
troubles  in  which  it  was  involved  were  too  vast  for  any  single 
mind,  he  divided  the  government  with  a  colleague.  After  a 
few  years  each  emperor  took  an  associate  with  the  title  of 
Caesar;  and  thus  the  empire  was  divided  among  four  rulers 
—two  emperors  and  two  Caesars. 


278  Ancient  History, 

150.  During  this  reign,  the  Persians  were  defeated,  and 
Mesopotamia,  with  several  districts  beyond  the  Tigris,  was  sub- 
dued.    In  305  A.D.,  Diocletian  took  the  extraor- 
dinary resolution  to  resign  the  empire,  and  obliged 
his  colleague  to  do  the  same.     The  Caesars,  Ga- 


Abdication  of 
Diocletian. 


le'ri-us  and  Oon-stan'tius,  then  became  emperors;  and  the 
former,  with  the  sanction  of  Diocletian,  appointed  the  Caesars 
to  succeed  them.  Diocletian  retired  to  Sa-lo'na,  in  Dalmatia, 
and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  the  quiet  pursuits  of 
agriculture;  and  so  well  satisfied  was  he  with  the  change,  that 
when  Maximian,  his  former  colleague,  afterward  urged  him  to 
resume  the  imperial  dignity,  he  replied:  "I  wish  you  would 
come  to  Salona  and  see  the  cabbages  I  have  planted;  for,  hay- 
ing once  visited  my  garden,  you  would  never  again  mention 
to  me  the  name  of  empire." 

161.  Constantius  having  died  at  York,  in  Britain,  his  son 
Con'stan-tine  was  saluted  emperor  by  the  army;  but  Galerius 
and  the  two  Caesars  refusing  to  ratify  the  elec- 
tion, civil  war  ensued,  in  which  there  were  no  less 


Constantin«. 


than  six  competitors  for  the  throne,  among  them  the  former 
colleague  of  Diocletian  and  his  son  Max-Bn'tius.  Constan- 
tine,  after  eighteen  years  of  war,  finally  prevailed  over  al\  his 
rivals,  and  became  sole  monarch  of  the  empire  (a.d.  323). 
During  this  conflict,  while  marching  against  Maxentius,  he 
saw,  it  is  said,  in  the  heavens  a  luminous  cross,  bearing  the 
inscription,  in  Greek,  "Conquer  by  this;"  and  under  the 
standard  of  the  cross,  having  defeated  his  rival,  he  became  a 

1  convert  to  Christianity.     In  order  that  his  resi- 

theTapi'tSi.       dence  might  be  nearer  the  center  of  his  dominions, 
and  to  strengthen  his  vast  empire,  he  removed  the 


capital  from  Rotne  to  the  Greek  city  Byzantium,  which  he 
embellished  with  magnificent  churches,  ])alacea,  and  other 
edifices,  and  fortified  with  walls  and  towers.  The  emperor 
called  it  New  Rome,  btit  it  afterward  received  the  name  of 
Constantinople  (city  of  Constantine). 


The  Roman  Empire,  279 

EisE  AND  Progress  of  Christianity. 

162.  The  conversion  of  Oonstantine  was  an  event  of  great 
importance,  for  the  Christian  church  acquired  by  means  of  this 
a  strengtli  which  it  had  not  previously  possessed. 
Its  struggle  with  Koman  paganism  was  brought 
to  a  close  by  the  famous  Edict  of  Milan,  granting 


Conversion  of 
Constantine. 


toleration  to  the  Christians  (313  A.  d.);  and,  in  fact,  Christian- 
ity soon  became  the  acknowledged  religion  of  the  empire.* 
We  shall,  therefore,  here  briefly  review  the  history  of  its 
rise  and  progress  during  the  three  centuries  preceding  this 
momentous  event. 

153.  The  founder  of  Christianity,  who  was  crucified  in 
Jerusalem  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Tiberius,  brought 
to  the  world  a  religion,  designed  to  do  away  with 
the  polytheistic  worship  of  false  gods,  to  abolish 
the  superstitions  of  paganism,  to  teach  the  high- 


Rise  of 
Christianity. 


est  moral  truth,  and  to  infuse  a  gi'eat  spiritualizing  element 
into  society.  The  gospel  Avas  first  preached  in  Judea,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Greece,  and  afterward  in  the  city  of  Eome  itself, 
and  in  a  few  years  gained  many  adherents.  The  character  and 
tendency  of  the  new  religion  were  at  first  mis- 
understood, or  were  purposely  misrepresented  by 


Its  progress. 


those  whose  interests  it  opposed.  Still  it  made  wonderful  pro- 
gress, notwithstanding  the  bitter  persecutions  which  its  follow- 
ers everywhere  suffered. 

154.  The  Roman  government  usually  was  tolerant  of  all 
religions.  Rome,  indeed,  sometimes  admitted  into  her  own 
religious  system  the  worship  of  the  gods  of  those  nations  which 

*  "  Constantine  did  not,  as  has  been  supposed,  proscribe  heathenism ;  he  did  not 
shut  up  the  temples,  neither  did  he  forbid  the  offering  of  sacrifice.  But  he  com- 
pletely dissociated  the  state  from  heathenism,  and  to  a  certain  extent  allied  it 
with  Christianity,  he  stopped  all  magisterial  offering  of  sacrifice;  he  shut  up  the 
templas  where  the  ritual  was  immoral.  Though  not  a  baptized  Christian  till 
shortly  before  his  death,  he  threw  the  whole  weight  of  his  encouragement  on  the 
Christian  side."— 7?awimson. 


280  Ancient  History. 


she  had  conquered;  but  Christianity  was  hostile  not  simply 
to  the  religion  of  Kome,  but  to  her  civil  and  politi- 
cal system,  which  constantly  required  the  perform- 
ance of  some  act  of  pagan  worship.     Hence,  the 


Persecution  of 
the  Christians. 


Toleration  of 
Christianity. 


Roman  magistrate  could  not  avoid  condemning  the  Christian 
who  was  brought  before  him,  because  of  his  refusal  to  obey  the 
laws  and  to  conform  to  the  prescribed  usages  of  the  state, 
which  required  an  act  of  sacrifice  to  the  heathen  gods.  On 
this  account,  the  Christians  were  terribly  persecuted  even  by 
such  emperors  as  Trajan  and  JViarcus  Aurelius — men  renowned 
for  their  virtues. 

165.  Christianity,  however,  in  spite  of  this  opposition, 
continued  to  spread.     Its  adherents  were  at  first  obliged  to 

\ — I  worship  in  secret  places,  and  in  the  dead  of  night. 

wors  ip.  I  ^^^^^  catacombs  of  Rome  now  show  how  carefully 
they  were  compelled  to  conceal  the  celebration  of  their  re- 
ligious rites,  including  the  burial  of  the  dead.  But,  in  the 
first  half  of  the  third  century,  the  ])crsecutions 
were  relaxed  ;  and  they  were  allowed  to  erect 
edifices  for  public  worship;  while  their  doctrines 
gained  believers  through  the  courage  and  devotion  of  the 
dauntless  followers  of  Christ. 

156.  This  period  of  calm  was  followed  by  dreadful  perse- 
cutions, ordered  by  Dccius  and  Valerian,  and  afterward  by 

Diocletian,  during  whose  reign,  the  tenth  and 
last  persecution  took  place,  principally  through 
the  influence  of  the  Ca?sar  Galerius.  An  imperial 
edict  was  issued  directing  that  all  Cliristian  churches  should 
be  razed  to  the  ground,  that  the  Scriptures  should  be  burned, 
and  that  every  Christian  should  be  deprived  of  office  and 
honors;  while  those  who  refused  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods 
should  be  given  over  to  torture  or  death. 

157.  But  these  cruelties  only  stimulated  the  Christians  to 
noble  acts  of  self-renunciation  and  lieroism,  and  at  last 
kindled  feelings  of  sympathy  in  the  hearts  of  their  enemies. 


Persecution 

under 
Diocletian. 


Tlie  Roman  Empire, 


281 


Even  Galerius,  who  had  shown  the  most  bitter  hatred  of  the 
new  religion,  just  before  his  death  (311  a.d.)  is- 
sued an  edict  that  the  Christians  should  be  per- 
mitted "  freely  to  prof  ess  their  private  opinions. 


Edict  of 
Galerius. 


and  to  assemble  in  their  conventicles  without  fear  of  molesta- 
tion, provided  always  that  they  preserve  a  due  respect  to  the 
established  laws  and  government."  But  this  edict  was  for  a 
>*^hile  disregarded  by  the  successor  of  Galerius,  and  the  per- 


Arch  of  Constantine,  Rome,  (in  its  present  condition). 

secutions  were  renewed,  until  Constantine,  two  years  later, 
issued  the  edict  of  Milan,  to  which  we  have  already  referred. 
158.  The  vision  of  Constantine,  followed  by  a  remarkable 
dream,  prompted  him,  it  is  said,  to  adopt  the  celebrated 
LaVa-rum,  or  standard  of  the  cross,  which  afterward  was 
borne  by  the  Christian  emperors.  This  is  described  as  a  "long 
pike  intersected  by  a  transversal  beam.  The 
silken  veil  which  hung  down  from  the  beam  was 


The  Labarum. 


curiously  inwrought  with  the  images  of  the  reigning  monarch 


282  Ancient  History, 


and  Lis  children.  The  summit  of  tlie  pike  supported  a  crown 
of  gold,  which  inclosed  the  mysterious  monogram,  at  once 
expressive  of  the  figure  of  the  cross  and  the  initial  letters  of 
the  name  of  Christ."*  Fifty  guards  constantly  watched  over 
the  safety  of  the  Laharum ;  and  in  battle  the  sight  of  it  in- 
spired the  soldiers  of  Constantine  with  invincible  enthusiasm, 
and  scattered  terror  and  dismay  through  the  ranks  of  the 
opposing  legions. 

159.  Constantine,  until  near  the  close  of  his  life,  did  not 
forbid  the  practice  of  paganism;  but  he  carefully  encouraged 
Christianity.     He  caused  the  old  churches  to  be 
repaired,  and  splendid  edifices  to  be  erected  for 
Christian  worship.     lie  exempted  the  Christian 


Measures  of 
Constantine. 


priesthood  from  taxes,  and  proclaimed  the  first  day  of  the 
week,  Sunday  {dies  solis),  a  day  of  rest.  During 
his  reign,  the  celebrated  Council  of  Nice  (in 
Bithynia)  was  held,  in  which  the  doctrines  of  the 


Council  of 
Nice. 


Church  wore  more  clearly  defined  (325  A.D.).t     Constantine 

died  in  337  A.  D.t 

160.  A  few  years  later,  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  emperor 

Julian  to  re-esta])lish  paganism  as  the  national  religion.  This 
emi)eror  had  been  educated  in  Athens,  and  had 
imbibed  a  great  fondness  for  the  pagan  philosophy 
and   religion.      On   his  accession,    therefore,   he 


Revival  of 
paganism. 


determined  to  overthrow  Christianity,  and  restore  the  ancient 
faith  and  worship;  and  hence  he  has  been  called  "the  Apos- 
tate."   To  disprove  the  prophecy  of  Christ,  lie  attempted  to 

♦  Sometimes  the  monopram  wna  inscribed  on  the  banderole,  or  fdlken  veil,  and 
the  crown  omittod.    The  ori(,'in  of  the  name  Inbarvm  is  imknown. 

+  In  this  conncil,  which  was  convened  and  attended  by  Constantine.  the  NIcene 
Creed  was  adopted  In  opposition  to  the  opponents  of  the  doi-trine  of  the  Trinity," 
and  this  creed  was  ratified  by  Constantine,  who  pronounced  a  sentence  of  Im- 
mediate exile  upon  all  who  opposed  it. 

X  "It  must  be  confessed  that  the  life  and  actions  of  this  prince  were  not  such 
as  the  Christian  relijrion  demands  from  those  who  profess  t-o  believe  its  sub- 
lime doctrines;  yet  the  sincerity  of  hi  -i  zeal  for  Christianity  can  scarcely  be  doubted." 
—MttHheim. 


The  Roman  Empire,  283 


rebuild  the  temple  at  Jerusalem;  but  the  design,  it  is  said, 
was  frustrated  by  a  miracle,  fire-balls  breaking  out  from  the 
foundation  and  driving  the  workmen  away,  so  that  they  were 
obliged  to  abandon  the  attempt.*  Julian  was 
afterward  killed  in  a  disastrous  expedition  against 
the   Persians,  after   a   reign   of  sixteen   months 


Christianity 
restored. 


(A.D.  363);  and  his  successor,   Jovian,  re-established  Chris- 
tianity as  the  religion  of  the  state. 

The  Ieeuptions  of  the  Bakbakian& 

161.  It  is  now  necessary  to  consider  those  great  irniptions 
of  the  barbarous  nations  of  the  north  and  east,  that,  like  a 
vast  tide,  constantly  poured  into  the  empire  during  more 
than  three  centuries,  successively  occupying  various  parts  of 
its  dominions,  and  at  last  caused  its  overthrow.  '  These  in- 
vasions were  commenced  by  the  German  races  in 
an  attack  on  Pannonia,  in  the  latter  i:)art  of  the 


Germans. 


Goths. 


second  century;  but  they  were  repelled  by  Marcus  Aurelius. 
The  attack  was  repeated   in   subsequent  reigns;  r 
and,    during   that   of   the   emperor   Decius,   the  L 
Goths,  a  Teutonic  race  from  the  north,  made  an  incursion 

*  "  The  desire  of  rebuilding  the  temple  has  in  every  age  been  the  ruling  passion 
of  the  children  of  Israel.  In  this  propitious  moment,  the  men  forgot  their  avarice, 
and  the  women  their  delicacy  ;  spades  and  pickaxes  of  silver  were  provided  by 
the  vanity  of  the  rich,  and  the  rubbish  was  transported  in  mantles  of  silk  and 
purple.  Every  purse  was  opened  in  liberal  contributions,  every  hand  claimed  a 
share  in  the  pious  labor;  and  the  commands  of  a  great  monarch  were  executed  by 
the  enthusiasm  of  a  whole  people.  Yet,  on  this  occasion,  the  joint  efforts  of  power 
and  enthusiasm  were  unsuccessful;  and  the  ground  of  the  Jewish  temple,  which  is 
now  covered  by  a  Mahometan  mosque,  still  continued  to  exhibit  the  same  edifying 
spectacle  of  ruin  and  desolation.  An  earthquake,  a  whirlwind,  and  a  fiery  erupH 
tion,  which  overturned  and  scattered  the  new  foundations  of  the  temple,  are 
attested,  with  some  variations,  by  contemporary  and  respectable  evidence.  Even 
Ammianus  Marcellinus,  a  contemporary  and  a  pagan,  relates  that '  whilst  Alypius, 
assisted  by  the  governor  of  the  province,  urged  with  vigor  and  diligence  the 
execution  of  the  work,  horrible  balls  of  fire,  breaking  out  near  the  foundations, 
with  frequent  and  reiterated  attacks,  rendered  the  place,  from  time  to  time, 
inaccessible  to  the  scorched  and  blasted  workmen;  and,  the  victorious  element 
continuing  in  this  manner  obstinately  and  resolutely  bent,  as  it  were,  to  drive 
them  to  a  distance,  the  undertaking  was  abandoned.'  ^''—Gibbon. 


284  Ancient  History. 


into  Dacia,  and,  crossing  the  Danube,  attacked  Moesia  and 
Thrace.  The  Romans  suffered  a  disastrous  defeat;  the  city 
of  Phil-ip-pop'o-lis  was  taken  by  storm,  and  100,000  persons 
were  massacred.  In  a  second  defeat,  after  a  temfic  conflict, 
Decius  himself  was  slain  (251  a.d.). 

162.  The  emperor  Claudius,  a  great  general,  about  twenty 
years  later,  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Goths  in  Moesia,  de- 
stroying one  of  the  mightiest  armaments  that  ever  invaded  the 
empire;  but  Aurelian,  his  successor,  finding  it  impossible  to 
withstand  the  vast  hordes  of  the  Goths,  now  joined  by  the 
Vandals,  a  kindred  race,  relinquished  to  them  the 
large  province  of  Dacia,  most  of  the  inhabitants 
of    which    removed    to  the  south    side   of    the 


Settlement  of 

the  Goths  in 

Dacia. 


Danube  (270  a.d.).     Aurelian  next  defeated  the  Al-e-man'ni, 

a  German  tribe,  who  had  invaded  Italy  and  threatened  the 

city  of  Rome  itself. 

163.  The  Goths  for  some  time  resided  peacefully  in  their 

new  home,  and  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  were 
converted  to  Christianity.  About  the  same  time 
they  began  to  be  known  as  the  Visigoths  and  the 
Ostrogoths — that  is,  the  western  and  the  eiistern 


Visigoths  and 
Ostrogoths. 


Goths — the  former  inhabiting  the  Dacian  province,  the  latter 
the  regions  farther  east,  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  But 
now  a  new  horde,  called  the  Huns,  an  Asiatic 
or    Mongolian   tribe,   poured   into   Europe,   and 


Huns. 


attacked  the  Goths,  who  then,  having  api)licd  to  the  Romans 
for  protection,  were  allowed  to  cross  the  Danube  into  Moesia. 
A  dispute,  however,  soon  after  arose  between  the  Goths  and 
the  Romans,  and  a  great  battle  was  fought  near 
Adrianople,  in  which  Valens,  the  Roman  emperor, 
lost  his  life  (378  a.d.).     His  successor,  Theodo- 


Victory  of  the 
Goths. 


sius  the  Great,  the  next  year  signally  defeated  them ;  and 

great  numbers  of  them  were  received  into  tlic  Roman  armies. 

164.  The  subsequent  part  of  the  history  of  the  empire  is 

chielly  occupied  by  accounts  of  the  invasions  of  these  bar- 


The  Roman  Empire.  285 

barous  races — tlie  Goths,  the  Vandals,  the  Huns,  and  other 
tribes.  This  will  be  perceived  as  we  rapidly  sketch  the  most 
prominent  events  of  the  period  succeeding  the  reign  of  the 
great  Theodosius.  The  complete  overthrow  of 
paganism  and  the  establishment  of  Christianity 
in  the  Roman  dominions,  as  well  as  the  repulse 


Reign  of 
Theodosius. 


of  the  barbarians  from  every  part  of  the  frontier,  were  striking 
events  of  this  reign — the  last  that  reflected  any  credit  upon 
the  Roman  name.  Theodosius  at  his  death  divided  the  empire 
between  his  two  sons,  Ho-no'ri-us  being  placed  on  the  throne 
of  the  West,  and  Ar-ca'di-us  on  that  of  the  East  (a.d.  395). 

165.  The  reign  of  Honorius  had  scarcely  commenced, 
when  the  Goths,  indignant  that  their  subsidy  had  not  been 
paid,  invaded  Greece  under  their  renowned  leader 
Al'a-ric,  and  devastated  the  whole  country  from 
Thermopylae  to  Sparta.     Stil'i-cho  (-X'o),  the  brave 


Invasion  of 
Alaric. 


and  talented  minister  of  Honorius,  by  a  series  of  masterly  move- 
ments, drove  out  the  barbarians;  but  the  pusillanimous  Arca- 
dius  made  a  disgraceful  treaty  with  Alaric,  which  put  an  end 
to  the  campaign.  Alaric  soon  after  invaded  Italy,  and  made 
a  rapid  march  for  Rome;  but  he  was  overtaken  near  Ve-ro'na 
and  entirely  defeated  by  Stilicho  (a.d.  403).  His  departure 
from  Italy  was,  however,  purchased  by  the  weak  and  timid 
Honorius  by  the  payment  of  a  large  pension. 

166.  During  the  next  five  years  Stilicho   gained  several 
victories  over  the  barbarians;  but  the  unworthy 
emperor,  tired  of  his  influence  and  jealous  of  his 
great  fame,  treaclierously  caused  him  to  be  put  to 


Death  of 
Stilicho. 


death,  appointing  in  his  stead  a  minister  of  neither  capacity 
nor  worth.  The  latter  having  caused  a  massacre  of  the  fami- 
lies of  the  barbarians  throughout  Italy,  the  Gothic  soldiers  in 
the  Roman  army  revolted  and  joined  the  standard  of  Alnric, 
who  immediately  invaded  Italy  and  marclied  to  Rome.  The 
city  was  soon  compelled  by  famine  to  surrender,  and  Hono- 
rius, who  held  his  court  at  Baveuna,  refusing  to  treat  for  peace, 


286  Ancient  History. 

the  ancient  capital  was  giveu  up  to  pillage  (a.d.  410).  The 
devastation  and  massacre  were  frightful;  but  Ala- 
ric,  professing  Christianity,  spared  the  cliurches; 
and,  unwilling  utterly  to  destroy  the  city  which 


Taking  of  Rome 
by  the  Goths. 


had  been  the  world's  mistress,  the  sixth  day  after  its  capture 
he  withdrew  his  forces.  While  about  to  invade  Sicily,  he  was 
seized  with  a  mortal  disease;  and  his  remains  were  buried 
beneath  the  bed  of  a  small  stream,  in  southern  Italy. 

167.  A-dol'phus,  the  brother-in-law  of  Alaric,  succeeded 
to  the  sovereignty  of  the  Goths;  and  liaving  married  Pla- 
cid'i-a,  the  sister  of  Honorius,  he  made  peace  with  the  Ro- 
mans. He  then  retired  to  Spain,  and  founded  in  that  coun- 
try the  Kingdom  of  the  Vis'i-goths.  About  the 
same  time  the  Vandals  settled  in  the  central  and 
southern  parts  of  Spain;  and  the  Sue'vi  and  other 


Kingdom  of  the 
Visigoths. 


German  tribes,  in  the  north-western  part.     Under  the  suc- 
cessors of  Adolphus,  the  Vandals  were  exi)elled  (a.d.  427),- 
the  other  nations  subdued,  and  the  Gothic  monarchy  extended 
over  a  large  part  of  Gaul  as  well  Jis  Sj)ain.     The 
Vandals,  crossing  into  Africa,   made  themselves 


Vandals. 


masters  of  the  northern  part  of  that  region.  About  this 
time  also  the  Franks,  Burgundians,  and  other  barbarous  tribes 
invaded  Gaul. 

168.  After  a  disgraceful  reign  of  twenty-eight  years, 
Honorius  died  (a.d.  423),  and  was  succeeded  by  Valentinian 
ni.,  a  weak  prince,  under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother 
Placidia,  who  ruled  in  his  name  for  twenty-five  years.    During 

^ 1  this  period  the  Huns,  under  their  terrible  leader 

Attiia's invasion.  |  ^^,^-_^j^^  haviug  defeated  several  Koman  armies, 
ravaged  the  Eastern  Empire  from  the  Euxine  to  the  Adriatic 
(a.d.  441-450).     After  extorting  immense  treasures  from  the 

1  Emperor  of  the  East,  as  the  price  of  peace,  Attila 

^*^'"*'  I  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Franks,  and  marched 
into  Gaul,  where  he  was  met  and  defeated  with  terrible  slaugh- 
ter by  the  united  forces  of  the  Romans  and  Goths,  the  former 


TJie  Roman  Empire,  287 

commanded  by  A-e'tius,  (a-e' slie-us)  the  greatest  general  of 
his  age,  called  by  some  *'the  last  of  the  Romans"  (a.d.  451). 

169.  Notwithstanding  this  great  defeat,  Attila  the  next 
year  invaded  Italy,  and  committed  the  most  dreadful  devasta- 
tions, boasting  that  ^Hhe  grass  never  grew  on  the 
spot  where  his  horse  had  trod."  Many  of  the 
most  flourishing  cities  were  taken   and  utterly 


Devastations  by 
Attila. 


destroyed.  The  people  of  the  Venetian  territory  (the  Ven'e-ti) 
took  refuge  in  the  neighboring  islands;  and  thus  was  founded 
a  maritime  city,  which  afterward  became  the 
greatest  emporium  of  Europe.  The  entreaties  of 
Leo,  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  the  payment  of  an 


Death  of 
Attila. 


immense  sum,  finally  induced  Attila  to  depart  from  Italy; 
and  the  next  year  (a.d.  453)  his  death  relieved  the  empire  from 
the  terror  of  his  arms. 

170.  The  emperor  Valentinian  having  been  assassinated, 
his  widow  implored  the  aid  of  Gen'se-ric,  king  of  the  Vandals, 
to  avenge  his  death.  With  a  numerous  fleet  he 
set  sail  from  Carthage,  his  capital;:  and,  disem- 
barking at  Ostia,  marched  to  Rome,  which  be 


Pillage  of 

Rome 

by  the  Vandals. 


came  a  prey  to  the  violence  of  his  followers.  The  pillage 
of  the  city  lasted  fourteen  days  and  nights;  and  the  vessels 
of  the  Vandals  and  Moors  were  laden  with  the  spoils  of 
temples  and  palaces  (a.d.  455).  During  the  next  twenty- 
one  years  eight  emperors  successively  assumed  the  purple,  the 
last  of  whom  was  Romulus,  the  son  of  0-res'tes,  a  Pannonian 
chief,  who  had  been  in  the  service  of  Attila. 

171.  The  barbarian  mercenaries,  demanding  from  Orestes 
a  third  part  of  Italy  and  being  refused,  revolted,  and  chose 
Od-o-a'cer,  chief  of  a  Gothic  tribe  called  the 
Her'uli,  as  their  leader.  Pavia  was  taken  by 
storm;  and  Orestes,  having  been  made  a  prisoner, 


End  of  the 
Western 
Empire. 


was  put  to  death.  Odoacer  compelled  Romulus,  surnamed 
in  derision  Au-gus'tii-lics  (that  is,  Augustus  the  Little),  to 
resign  the  purple ;  and  then,  abolishing  the  title  and  office  of 


288 


Ancient  History, 


Emperor  of  tlie  West,  he  proclaimed  liimself  King  of  Italy 
(a.d.  47G).  Thus  terminated  the  western  division  of  the 
Great  Roman  Empire.  The  eastern  division,  usually  called 
the  Eastern  or  Greek  Empire,  continued  to  exist  for  nearly 
one  thousand  years. 


The  Roman  Emperors. 

[The  date  is  that  of  the  commencement  of  the  reign.] 


Name. 

Augustus 

Tiberius 

Caligula 

Claudius 

Nero 

Galba 

Otho 

Vitellius 

Vespasian 

Titus 

DomitifUi • 

Nerva 

Trajan 

Hadrian 

Antoninus  Pius 

Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus. . 

Commodus 

Pertinax 

Didius  Julianus 

Septimius  Severus 

Caracalla 

Macrinus 

Elagabalus 

Alexander  Severus 

Maximiu 

Gordian  I. 

Oordian 

Maximus  and   Balbinus  (joint 

reign) 

Ooi-dianus  m 

Philip 

Decius 

Gallus 


Date. 

81    B.C. 
14  A.D. 

87  " 
41  " 
54    " 


117 
13S 
101 
180 
192 
198 
193 
211 
217 
217 


\} 


IM4 
S49 
251 


n.} 


Name. 
^milianus.. 
"Valerian . . . 

Gallienus 

Claudius  II. , 
Aurelian .... 

Tacitus 

Carinus 

Diocletian . . . 
Maximian  . . 
Galerius 
Constantius 
Constantine , 
Constantino  11. 
Constantius 
Constans 

Julian 

Jovian , 

Valentinfan  I , 

Gratian , 

Valentinian  II , 

Theodosius  the  Great 

Honorius , 

Valentinian  m , 

Maximus , 

Avitus 

Majorian , 

Jjibius  Severus 

Arethemlus 

Olybrius , 

Glycerins 

Julius  Nepos 

Romulus  Augustulus. . 


Date. 

253  A.D. 

254  " 
2C0  " 
268  " 
2:0  " 
275  " 
288  " 
284  " 
286  •• 

305  " 

806  " 

337  " 

861  " 

868  " 

864  •* 

375  " 


425 
455 
455 
457 
461 
407 
4T3 
473 
474 
475 


Remew  Outline. 


289 


Topical  Review. 


STATESMEN  AND  GENERALS. 

In  wliat  period  did  they  livef 

What  was  their  character? 

With  what  events  connected?        page 

Junius  Brutus 188,  189 

Spurius  Cassius 193 

Coriolanus 194 

Appius  Claudius 195 

Furius  Camillus 196,  198,  200 

Caius  Licinius 199 

Regulus 207 

.->   Scipi.  Africanus 213,  215 

^      Flamininus 214 

Scipio  Asiaticus 214 

Porcius  Cato 216 

.(Emilius  Paulus 215 

Scipio  uEmilianus 219 

Scipio  Nasica 220 

V,  Tiberius  Giacchus 221 

N  Caius  Gracchus 223 

Caius  Marius 224,  227 

Sulla 226,229 

'  .'  Lucullus 226,  230 

^Pompey  the  Great 226,234 

Sertorius 229 

Crassus 229,  233 

Lucius  Catiline 231 

Cicero 231.  240 

Julius  Caesar 232,  238 

Cassius 234,  238,  242 

Mark  Antony 239,  243 

Octavius  Caesar, 240,  243 

Lepidus 241,  242 

Marcus  Brutus .238,  242 

EMINENT  WRITERS. 
In  what  period  did  they  live? 
What  works  did  they  ivrite? 

Livius  Andronicus 257 

Plautus 257 

Terence 257 

Varro 258 

Lucretius 258 

^>  Virgil 258 

Horace 258 

Uvy.  258 


PAGE 

Sallusfc 258 

Juvenal 258 

Suetonius 258 

Pliny 258 

Seneca 258 

Julius  Caesar 258 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Who  were  they? 

When  did  tliey  live? 

With  what  events  connected? 

Lars  Porsenna 189 

Jloratius  Codes 189,190 

Mucins  Scsevola 189,  190 

Timoleon 204 

Agathocles 184,  206 

Hannibal 209,  213 

Hiero .206,  211 

Dionysius 204 

Viriathus 217 

Archimedes 206 

Jugurtha 223,  224 

Spartacus 229 

Mithridates 225,  232 

Tigranes 226 

^Cleopatra 242,  243 

DECISIVE  BATTLES. 

Where  were  they  fought? 
What  led  to  them? 
What  resulted  therefrom? 

Allia 197 

Sentinum 201 

Beneventum .202 

Cannae 206 

Zama 212 

Cynoscephalae 214 

Pydna 215 

Magnesia 214 

Pharsalia , 235 

Ziela 236 

Thapsus 236 

Munda 237 

>Philippi 232 

^ctium. 243 


290 


Ancient  History. 


Topical  Keview  of  the  Roman  Empire. 


EMINENT  PERSONAGES. 

In  what  period  did  they  live? 

What  was  their  character? 

With  wliat  events  connected?       page 

A-ugustus  CsBsar 271,  272 

Arminius 272 

Titus 272,273 

Trajan 274,  275,  280 

Marcus  AureUus 275,  280,  283 

Septimius  Severus  275 

Caracalla .  276 

Alexander  Severus 276 

Odenathus 276,277 

Zenobia 277 

Ijonginus 277 

Diocletian 277,  278 

r^Constantine 278,281,282 

Decius 281 ,  283 

JuUan 282,283 

Aurelian 277,  284 

Theodosius 285 

Stilicho 285 

Alaric 285 

Adolphus 286 

Attila 286 

Genserlc 287 

Odoacer 287 

IMPORTANT  EVENTS. 

When  did  they  occur? 
'  What  led  to  them? 

What  resulted  therefrom? 
Institution  of  the  Prsetorians. 

271,  274,  275,  27? 

Conquest  of  Moesla 278 

Destruction  of  Jerusalem 278 

Abolition  of  the  Provincial  System,.  278 

Abdication  of  Diocletian 278 

Vision  of  Constantine 278,  281 

Edict  of  Milan 279 

Council  of  Nice 282 

Invasion  of  the  Germans. 288,  286 

Invasions  of  the  Ooths 288,  284,  285 

Invasion  of  the  Huns 284,  286 

Invasions  of  the  Vandals. ...  .284, 286,  287 
Taking  of  Pavia 287 


ROMAN  PROVINCES. 
What  vxi.'i  their  situation? 
Wlien  were  ttiey  annexed  to  the  em 
pire? 
Any  other  facts  relating  to  them? 

PACK 

Rhaetia 272 

Noricum 272 

Pannonia 272,  283 

McEsia 272,284 

Armenia 274 

Britain 272,275 

Mesopotamia 278 

OBJECTS  OF  INTEREST. 

How  are  they  described? 

When  and  by  whom  were  they  erected 
and  established? 

For  what  purpose? 

Roman  Fonun 249,  250 

Basilicee 250,  n 

Mamertine  Prison 250 

Campus  Martins 251 

Pantheon 251,252 

Aqueducts 262 

Circus 253 

Amphitheater 2r>3 

Colosseum 2r)4 

Pompey's  Theater ,. 255 

Mausolea .      2.^5 

MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 

What  account  is  given  of  them? 

College  of  Augiut» 200 

College  of  Pontiffs 2G0 

Haruspices 200 

Flamens 2Cl 

Festivals 861 

Houses 262 

Household  Goda 208 

Furniture 268 

Marriage 268 

Schools 268 

Writing  and  Books 264 

Costume  of  Males 265 

Costume  of  Females 86B 

Funerals 266 

MUitary  System 867 


General  Chronological  Hemew,  291 


Geneeal  Chronological  Eevlew. 


B.C. 

2700.  Commencement  of  the  first  Egyptian  dynasty. 
2200.  Babylon  founded. 
1652.  Exodus  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt 
1550.  Cecrops  at  Athens. 
1492.  Cadmus  in  Boeotia. 
1200.  Migration  of  the  Hellenic  races. 
1184.  Troy  burned  by  the  Greeks. 
1124.  Great  Dorian  migration. 
1095.  Saul  liiug  of  Israel. 
1055.  David  begins  to  reign  over  Israel. 
1015.  Accession  of  Solomon. 

"975.  Secession  of  the  Ten  Tribes.     Kingdom  of  Israel  divided. 
•7  878.  Carthage  founded  by  the  Tyrians. 
-,  776.  Commencement  of  the  Olympiads. 
%  753.  Rome  founded. 
^    747.  Era  of  Nabonassar. 

721.  Samaria  taken.     End  of  the  kingdom  of  IsraeL 

625.  Nineveh  taken  by  the  Medes. 
Periander  tyrant  of  Corinth. 
>  624.  Draco  gives  laws  to  Athens. 
^  594.  Legislation  of  Solon  at  Athens. 

^58,6.  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
"^  585.  Tyre  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

560.  Usurpation  of  the  government  of  Athens  by  Pisistrtjttia. 

554.  Croesus  taken  prisoner  by  Cyrus.     End  of  the  kingdom  of  Lydia 

538.  Babylon  taken  by  Cyrus. 

536.  Restoration  of  the  Jews  by  an  edict  of  Cyrus. 

525.  Pelusium  taken,  and  Egypt  subdued  by  Cambyses. 

522.  Accession  of  Darius  Hystaspes. 

514.  Conspiracy  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton. 

510.  Expulsion  of  Hippias  from  Athens. 
V  509.  Expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  from  Rome. 
^    500.  Ionian  revolt  in  Asia  Minor. 

494.  Creation  of  the  office  of  Tribunes  at  Rome. 

490.  Battle  of  Marathon. 


292  Ancient  History, 


B.C. 

486.  First  agrarian  law  proposed  at  Rome. 

485.  Accession  of  Xerxes  to  tlie  tlirone  of  Persia. 

>  483.  Banislimeut  of  Aristides  by  tlie  Ostracism. 
480.  Baltics  of  Tliermopylae  and  Salamis. 

479.  Battle  of  Plataja. 

471.  Confederacy  of  Delds.    Commencement  of  Athenian  supremacy. 

Banislimeut  of  Tliemistocles  by  the  Ostracism. 

468.  Death  of  Aristides. 

y  461.  Pericles  at  the  head  of  public  affairs  at  Athens. 

\  458.  The  ^quians  defeated  by  Cincinnatus. 

451.  Appointment  of  the  Decemvirs  at  Rome. 

449  Death  of  Cimon.     End  of  the  Persian  war. 

>  445.  Intermarriage  of  patricians  and  plebeians  permitted  at  Rome. 
431.  Commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 

429.  Plague  at  Athens.    Death  of  Pericles. 

415.  Expedition  against  Sicily  under  Alcibiades  and  Niciaa 

405.  Battle  of  J^gospotamos. 

Dionysius  tyrant  of  Syracuse. 
404.  Death  of  Alcibiades.     Taking  of  Athens  by  Lysander. 
403.  The  Thirty  Tyrants  expelled  from  Athens. 
401.  Battle  of  Cunaxa,  and  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand. 
899.  Condemnation  and  death  of  Socrates. 
894.  Victoiy  of  Agcsilaus  at  Coronea. 

The  Spartan  fleet  defeated  by  Conon. 
890.  Rome  taken  and  burnt  by  the  Gauls. 
887.  Peace  of  Antalcidas. 
884.  Birth  of  Aristotle  at  Stagira. 

871.  Battle  of  Leuctra.    The  Spartans  defeated  by  Epaminondas. 
370.  The  Licinian  laws  proposed  at  Rome. 
362.  Battle  of  Man  tinea.     Death  of  Epaminondas. 
359.  Accession  of  Philip  to  the  throne  of  Macedon. 
855.  End  of  the  Social  War  in  Greece. 
846.  End  of  the  Sacred  War. 

344.  The  freedom  of  Syracuse  restored  by  Timoleon. 
343.  War  between  the  Romans  and  Samnites. 
839.  Latium  annexed  to  the  Roman  territory. 
338.  Battle  of  Clucronea. 
336.  Accession  of  Alexander  the  Gren*" 
834.  Battle  of  the  Granicus  River 
933.  Battle  of  Issus. 


General  Chronological  Heview.  293 


331.  Battle  of  Arbela. 

331.  The  Spartans  under  Agis  defeated  by  Antipater. 

333.  Death  of  Alexander  at  Babylon. 

333.  The  Lamian  War.     Defeat  of  Leosthenes. 

331.  Defeat  of  the  Romans  by  the  Samnites. 

Perdiccas  assassinated. 
317.  Demetrius  Phalereus  at  Athens. 

Despotism  re-established  at  Syracuse  by  Agathocles. 
313.  Kingdom  of  the  Seleucidae  founded. 
305,  The  Samnites  subdued  by  the  Romans. 
301.  Battle  of  Ipsus.     Defeat  of  Antigonus. 
395.  Final  defeat  of  the  Samnites  at  Sentinum. 
283.  Death  of  Ptolemy  Lagi. 

Kingdom  of  Pergamus  founded. 
281.  Lysimachus  defeated  by  Seleucus. 
280.  Seleucus  assassinated  by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus. 

Invasion  of  Greece  by  the  Gauls. 
279.  The  Gauls  defeated  at  Delphi. 
275.  Pyrrhus  defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Beneventum. 
->  264.  Rome  mistress  of  all  Italy. 
r  Commencement  of  the  First  Punic  War. 

.  261.  Antiochus  Soter  defeated  by  the  Gauls. 
255.  Regulus  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Carthaginians. 
247.  Death  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
243.  Aratus  leader  of  the  Achaean  league. 
241.,  End  of  the  First  Punic  War. 

Agis  (IV.),  king  of  Sparta,  put  to  death. 
221.  Sparta  taken  by  Antigonus  Doson. 
219.  Saguntum  taken  by  Hannibal. 
218.  Commencement  of  tlie  Second  Punic  War. 

The  Romans  defeated  by  Hannibal,  at  the  Ticinus  and  Trebia. 
217.  Victory  of  Hannibal  at  Lake  Trasimenus. 
216.  The  Romans  defeated  at  Cannae. 
213.  Assassination  of  Aratus  of  Sicyon. 

212.  Taking  of  Syracuse  by  Marcellus.    Death  of  Archimedes. 
207.  Defeat  and  death  of  Hasdrubal. 

Defeat  of  the  Spartans  by  Philopoemen. 
205.  Conquest  of  Spain  by  Scipio. 
203.  Hannibal  defeated  by  Scipio  at  Zama. 
197.  Philip  of  Macedon  defeated  at  Cynoscephalse.  * 


294  Ancient  History, 


B.C. 

190.  Antiochus  defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Magnesia. 
183.  Philopoemen  put  to  death  by  the  Messenians. 

Death  of  Hannibal  by  suicide. 
168.  Battle  of  Pydna.     End  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy. 
146.  Taking  of  Corinth  by  Mummius.    Greece  a  Roman  provinee. 

Destruction  of  Carthage  by  the  Romans. 
140.  Viriatus  assassinated,  and  Lusitania  subjugated  by  the  Romans. 
133.  Spain  completely  subjugated  by  the  Romans. 
133.  Death  of  Tiberius  Gracchus. 
121.  Caius  Gracchus  put  to  death. 
106.  Jugurtha  taken  prisoner  by  Marius  and  Sylla. 
102.  The  Teutons  defeated  by  Marius. 
101.  The  Cimbrians  defeated  by  'Marius. 

90.  The  Social  War. 

88.  Commencement  of  the  Mithridatic  War.    First  CivU  Ww 

87.  Marius's  proscription. 

82.  Sylla's  proscription. 

72.  Assassination  of  Sertorius  in  Spain. 

71.  Spartacus  defeated  and  slain. 

67.  Ponipey  clears  the  Mediterranean  of  pirates. 

66.  Mithridates  subdued.    Pontus  a  Roman  province. 

63.  Conspiracy  of  Catiline. 
,^.  First  Triumvirate. 

55.  Invasion  of  Britain  by  Caesar, 

53.  Crassus  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Parthiana. 

48.  Battle  of  Pharsalia.    Pompey  defeated. 

46.  Battle  of  Thapsus.    Death  of  Cato. 

44.  Assassination  of  Caesar. 
,-  43.  Second  Triumvirate. 

Assassination  of  Cicero  by  order  of  Antony. 

42.  Battles  of  Phili,ppi.     Death  of  Brutus  and  Casaiu^ 

31.  Battle  of  Actium. 

30.  Death  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 

29.  Octavius  emperor  under  the  title  of  Augustus. 
4.  Birth  of  Christ. 

A.D. 

10.  Defeat  of  Varus  by  the  Germans. 

14,  Death  of  Augustus.    Accession  of  TibeiiuB^ 

70.  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus. 

y  79.  Destruction  of  Pompeii  ftftd  I|erqulaneum., 


General  Chronological  Meview,  295 


81.  Death  of  Titus. 
98.  Accession  of  Trajan. 
117.  Accession  of  Hadrian. 
161.  Accession  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 
180.  Death  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 

193.  Didius  Julianus  buys  the  empire  of  the  Praetorians, 
211.  Death  of  Septimius  Severus. 
226.  End  of  the  Parthian  Empire. 
235.  Assassination  of  Alexander  Severus. 
251.  Decius  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Goths. 
270.  Dacia  surrendered  to  the  Goths. 
273.  Palnlyra  taken  by  Aurelian. 
284.  Diocletian  proclaimed  emperor. 
305.  Abdication  of  Diocletian. 
311.  Edict  of  Galerius  in  favor  of  the  Christians. 
313.  Edict  of  Milan  issued  by  Constantine. 
323.  Constantine  emperor. 
325.  Council  of  Nice. 
337.  Death  of  Constantine. 

361.  Accession  of  Julian.    Attempt  to  re-establish  paganism. 
363.  Death  of  Julian  the  Apostate. 

Christianity  restored  by  Jovian. 
378.  Valens  defeated  by  the  Goths  at  Adrianople. 
395.  Division  of  the  Empire  by  Theodosius. 
403.  Alaric  defeated  at  Verona  by  Stilicho. 
410.  Rome  pillaged  by  the  Goths. 
423.  Death  of  Honorius. 
427.  The  Vandals  expelled  from  Spain. 
441.  Invasion  of  the  Huns. 

451.  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  defeated  by  Aetius. 
155.  Rome  pillaged  by  the  Vandals  and  Moors. 
176.  Romulus  Augustulus,  the  last  of  the  Roman  emperors,  deposed. 

Odoacer  proclaimed  king  of  Italy. 

End  of  tlie  Western  Empire. 


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PART   II. 

Medleval  and  Modekn  History. 


L   MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

A  General  View  of  Europe,  a.d.  500. 

1.  Before  taking  up  the  march  of  events  following  the 
fall  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire,  it  is  necessary  that  we 
glance  at  the  general  state  of  Europe  at  that 
period.  While  the  Empire  was  gradually  becom- 
ing enfeebled,  in  the   slow  process  of  national 


Conquering 
races. 


corruption  and  decay,  its  ruin  was  precipitated  by  the  repeated 
irruptions  of  the  conquering  races — the  Goths,  the  Vandals, 
the  Sueves,  and  other  German  tribes,  also  the  Huns.  These, 
at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  (a.d.  500),  had  established 
themselves  as  shown  in  the  map  (Map  No.  VIII.).  Besides  these 
races  we  must  mention  the  Burgundians,  a  peo- 
ple who,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. 


Burgundians. 


had  made  their  way  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  and  located 
themselves  in  the  country  between  the  Rhone  and  the  Alps, 

Geographical  Study,  Map  No.  VIII. 

What  was  the  situation  and  extent  of:  The  Eastern  Empire  ?  East  Gothic 
Kingdom  ?  West  Gothic  Kingdom  ?  Burgundian  Kingdom  ?  Frankish  Kingdom  ? 
SuEviAN  Kingdom  ?   Vandal  Kingdom  ? 

Where  was  the  territory  of:  The  Huns  ?  Slavs  ?  Gepid^?  Lombards  ?  Danes  ? 
Scots  ?  Picts  ?  Britons  ?  Saxons  ?  Saracens  ?  Alemanni  ? 

What  was  the  sitvxition  of:  Persian  Kingdom  ?  Illyricum  ?  Thrace  ?  Pontus  ? 
Thuringia?  Francia?  Constantinople?  Antioch?  Nisibis?  ^lia?  ^ona?  Ravenna? 
Milan?  Aries?  Narbonne?  Toulouse?  Cordova?  Toledo?  Meta? 


298  MedicBval  History. 

where  at  the  period  referred  to  they  had  founded  a  kingdom 

bearing  their  name. 

2.  The  Goths,  the  first  of  the  invading  races  who  had 

pushed  southward  from  Scandinavia,  wei*e  now  divided  into 
the  two  branches  of  Eastern  Goths  (Ostrogoths) 
and  Western   Goths   (Visigoths).      The  former 


Ostrogoths. 


had  established  themselves  in  Italy  and  in  the  lands  lying 
immediately  north  of  it;  the  latter  possessed  the 
southwestern  part  of  France  and  the  whole  of 


Visigoths. 


Spain  except  the  small  portion  in  the  northwest  occupied  by 
the  kingdom  of  the  Sueves  (Suevi).  This  was  an 
adventurous  German  race,  one  horde  of  whom 


Sueves. 


located  themselves  in  the  south  of  Germany  (hence  the  name 
Swabia,  or  Suabia);  and  another  made  a  conquest  of  northern 
Spain,  from  which  they  were  in  part  driven  by  the  mor^ 
powerful  Visigoths. 

3.  Early  in.  the  fifth  century,  the  Alans,*  a  people  under 
Gothic  influence,  established  themselves  in  the  central  part 
of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  possessing  a  territory 
that  extended  from  sea  to  sea.     Their  domin- 


Alans. 


ions  having  been  conquered  by  tl'e  Sueves,  they  had  ceased, 

at  the  period  here  spoken  of,  to  have  any  place  in  the  map  of 

Europe. 

4,  The  Vandals,  who  had  occu])ied  southern  Si)ain,t  had, 

at  this  period,  i)assed  into  Africa,  ah)ng  the  northern  coast  of 
which  they  founded  a  kingdom,  with  Cartliago 
as  its  capital.     This  was  the  only  Teutonic  king- 


Vandats. 


dom  formed  in  that  continent.     It  embraced  also  the  largo 
islands  in  the  western  part  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  includ* 


♦  "  The  Alans  are  a  puzzling  race,  our  accounts  of  whom  are  somewhat  contra* 
diutory,  but  who  may  perhaps  be  most  safely  set  down  as  a  nt)n-Aryan,  or,  at 
any  rate,  a  non-Teutonic  people,  who  had  been  largely  brought  under  Gothic  influ- 
ences."—jFVeeman'*  Historical  Geography  of  Europe. 

t"The  Vandals,  though  th«'y  pivssod  alto^^elljcr  out  of  .Spain,  have  Irft  their 
name  to  this  day  in  its  southern  i)art  und»>r  the  form  of  Andalnsiay  a  name  which, 
under  the  Saracen  conquerors,  spread  Itself  oyer  th^  whole  peninsula.*'— i^eematk 


General  View  of  Burope.  299 

ing  Sicily.     The  Saxons,  another  fierce  and  powerful  Teutonic 
race,  had,  for  about  half  a  century,  kept  up  a  series 
of  invasions  of  the  island  of  Britain,  after  its  aban- 


Saxons. 


donment  by  the  Komans,  and  had  now  established  themselves 
in  several  parts  of  the  island. 

5.  Another  Teutonic  race  called  the  Gep'i-dae  had  made 
their  home  in  Dacia;  while  the  Lombards  were  about  to  cross 
the  Danube  into  Pannonia.  Subsequently  the 
latter  race  allied  themselves  with  the  Avars 
(a-varz')f  and  after  destroying  the  kingdom  of 


Gepidae  and 
Lombards. 


the  Gepidae,  poured  into  Italy,  where  they  founded  a  kingdom 
of  their  own.     The  Slavonic  races  (Slavs)  at  this 
time  were  just  hovering  on  the  northern  frontier 


Slavs. 


of  the  Eastern  Empire,  prepared  to  repeat  in  the  east  the  part 
which  the  Teutons  had  played  in  the  west. 

6.  At  this  time  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire  extended  from 
the  Danube  to  the  southern  limit  of  Egypt,  and  from  the 
Adriatic  Sea  on  the  west  to  the  Persian  Kingdom 
on  the  east.     Thus  it  maintained  its  integrity 


Eastern  Empire, 


while  the  barbaric  nations  were  dismembering  the  Western 
Empire,  out  of  which  the  various  states  of  mediaeval  and 
modern  Europe  were  afterward  formed. 

7.  Nearly  all  these  conquering  races  were  Aryans;  indeed, 
Europe  from  the  earliest  historic  period  has  been  almost 
exclusively  an  Aryan  continent.  To  find  it  other- 
wise we  should  have  to  go  back  probably  to  2500 


Aryans 


B.C.,  a  period  antecedent  to  those  great  Aryan  migrations  from 
Asia  of  the  Greek  and  Italo-Celtic  races  that  swept  westward 
over  Europe,  driving  before  them  or  exterminating  the  races 
that  previously  occupied  it.  Remnants  of  the  latter  are  still 
discovered  in  the  Basques  (basks)  of  the  Pyrenees, 
the  relics  of  a  great  people,  and  the  Fins  and 


Basques,  etc. 


Laps  of  northern  Europe.  These  are  all  that  survive  the 
conquests  of  the  Celts,  who  were  probably  the  vanguard  oJ 
the  Aryan  conquering  tribes. 


300  MedicBval  History, 

ETHNOLOGICAL    SYNOPSIS 

OP    THE    RACES    THAT    INVADED    EUROPB. 

I.  ARYANS,  or  INDO-EUBOPEANS. 

I.  Grj^co- Roman  Races. 
II.  Celtic  Races. 

1.  Gauls. 

2.  Britons. 

3.  Gael. 

a.  Irish. 
h.  Old  Scots. 
III.  Slavo-German  Races. 

1.  Teutonic  races. 

a.  Goths,  Vandals,  and  GepidsB. 

b.  Scandinavians,  or  Normans. 

c.  Germans  and  AUcmanni. 

1.  Frisians. 

2.  Saxons,  Angles,  Jutee 

3.  Low  Germans. 

d.  Franks. 

e.  Rurgundians. 
/.  Lombards. 

g.  Sueves. 

2.  Slavs,  or  Slavonians. 

a.  Czechs. 

b.  Poles. 
&  Baltics. 

1.  Lithuanians 

2.  Letts. 

3.  Wends. 

II.  NON-AKYAN  EACES. 

I.  BAsciUEs,  Fins,  Laps. 

II.  TmiANiAN  Races. 

1.  Huns. 

2.  Avars. 

8.  Bulgarians. 
4.  Magyars. 
6.  Turks. 

a.  Seljuks. 

b.  Ottomans 
III.  SEMITIC. 

SARACBNa 


No.  9. 

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CHAPTER  n. 

The  Eastern  Empiee. 

1.  The  Eastern  or  Byz'an-tine  Empire,  sometimes  called 
the  Greek  Empire,  was  founded  in  a.d.  395,  when  Theodosius 
divided  the  Roman  Empire  between  his  two  sons, 
Honorius  and  Arcadius,  assigning  to  the  latter 


Foundation. 


all  the  portion  lying  between  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  the  upper 
Tigris  River.      Arcadius  was  a  weak  monarch, 
who  left  the  administration  of  the  government  to 


Arcadius. 


ambitious  and  corrupt  ministers,  while  he  himself  lived  in 
oriental  luxury,  indifferent  to  his  duties  and  careless  of  the 
condition  of  his  subjects.     His  death  occurred  in  408. 

2.  During  the  reign  of  his  silCRssor,  Theodosius  H.,  the 
Huns  under  Attila,  who  assumed  the  title  of  the  *'  Scourge  of 
God,"  invaded  the  empire,  and  having  vanquished 
the  armies  sent  to  oppose  him,  committed  the 


Huns. 


most  dreadful  ravages.  They  dictated  terms  of  peace  in  the 
suburbs  of  Constantinople,  exacting  the  enormous  annual 
tribute  of  2100  pounds  of  gold,  and  the  immediate  payment 
of  an  immense  sum.  Soon  afterward,  on  the  death  of  Attila 
(453),  the  Hunnish  Empire  was  dissolved;  and  the  Ostro- 
goths, under  their  leader  The-od'o-ric,  became  the  dominant^ 
people  in  eastern  Europe. 

3.  Theodoric  made  war  upon  the  Slavonic  tribes,  and  con. 
quered  the  lands  lying  between  the  Adriatic  and  Black  seas. 

Geographical  Study,  Map  No.  IX. 

WJiat  was  the  situation  and  extent  of :  The  Eastern  Empire  ?  (Name  the  coun- 
tries it  embraced.)  Kingdom  op  the  Franks?  West  Gothic  Kingdom?  Suevian 
Kingdom  ? 

Where  was  the  territory  of :  The  Saxons  ?  The  Frisians  ?  The  Angles  ?  Britons  ? 
Scots  ?  Danes  ?  Lombards  ?  Gepidsa  ?  Avars  ?  Saracens  ?  Where  was  the  Persian 
Kingdom  ? 


302  MedicBval  History. 

There  he  established  a  kingdom,  and  became  the  friend  and 
ally  of  Zeno,  the  Greek  emperor,  who  lavished 
upon  him  all  kinds  of  honors.     This  friendship, 


Theodoric. 


however,  was  not  lasting;  and  Theodoric  led  his  hosts  into 
Thrace,  and  threatened  Constantinople.  To  save  himself 
Zeno  instigated  or  commissioned  the  Gothic  conqueror  to 
enter  Italy,  where  0-do-a'cer  ruled,  as  he  claimed,  by  author- 
ity of  the  Eastern  emperor,  over  a  population  made  up  of 
many  elements — native  Italians,  Visigoths,  Huns,  Vandiils, 
Franks,  etc. 

4.  Theodoric,  availing  himself  of  Zeno's  permission,  in- 
vaded Italy,  and  after  four  years'  war,  in  which  lie  received 
assistance  from  the  Visigoths  of  Gaul  and  Spain, 
Odoacer  was  deposed  and  put  to  death,  and  The- 
odoric, being  invested  with  the  title  of  king  of 


Gothic 

conquest  of 

Italy. 


Italy,  fixed  his  capital  at  Ravenna  (493).  Subsequently  he 
took  up  his  residence  at  Rome  (500).  He  reigned  over  Italy 
thirty-three  years  (493-526),  with  such  wisdom  and  modera- 
tion as  to  earn  the  title  of  **  Great."  A  large  part  of  the 
Gothic  nation  had  been  transported  into  Italy,  and  after  its 
conquest  one  third  of  all  the  lands  wei'e  divided 
among  the  followers  of  Theodoric;  and  yet  such 


Government. 


was  the  efficiency  of  his  government,  that  peace  and  pros- 
perity were  everywhere  pi-evalent,  and  it  was  a  common  say- 
ing **  that  a  purse  of  gold  might  be  safely  left  in  the  lields.-' 

5.  The  famous  reign  of  Jus-tin'i-an  over  the  empire  of 
the  East  commenced  in  527,  and  lasted  thirty-eight  years. 
It  is  remarkable  for  the  code  of  laws  which  the 


Justinian. 


emperor  caused  to  be  framed,  and  for  tlie  vic- 
tories of  Bel-i-sa'ri-us  and  Nar'ses,  the  two  greatest  generals 
of  the  age.  The  former  defeated  the  Vandals,  in  Africa,  and 
recovered  the  provinces  which  thoy  had  subdued 
(534).    He  next  reduced  Sicily,  and,  crossing  into 


Belisariu*. 


Italy,  defeated  the  Goths  ami  ca])tured  their  capital,  Rji-ven'na 
(539).      In   544   the   barbarians   having,    under    their    king 


lie  Eastern  Empire,  3()3 


Tot'i-la,  again  invaded  and  reconquered  Italy,  Belisarius 
waged  war  against  them  for  five  years,  but  with  very  inade- 
quate forces;  and,  through  the  jealousy  and  unjust  suspicions 
of  Justinian,  was  finally  recalled. 

6.  After  several  years  of  retirement,  Belisarius,  in  his  old 
age,  was  called  upon  to  defend  Constantinople  against  the 
Bul-ga'ri-ans  and  Sla-vo'ni-ans,*  who,  after  com 
mitting  frightful  ravages  in  various  parts  of  the 
empire,  threatened   Constantinople.      The  aged 


Bulgarians  and 
Slavonians. 


hero,  by  his  skill  and  valor,  entirely  defeated  these  fierce  bar- 
barians; but,  four  years  afterward,  notwithstanding  his  great 
services,  he  was  unjustly  accused  of  treason  by  the  emperor, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  last  year  of  his  life  was  passed  in 
prison.     He  died  in  565. 

7.  Meanwhile  the  war  had  been  continued  against  the 
Goths  in  Italy.  Rome,  which  had  been  taken  by  Totila,  and 
its  entire  destruction  threatened,  was  recaptured 
by  Narses,  and  the  Goths  were  defeated  with 
great  slaughter,  their  king,  Totila,  being  slain 


Conquest  o? 
Italy. 


(552).  After  he  had  gained  another  great  victory  over 
the  Goths  the  next  year,  and  defeated  the  Franks  and  other 
German  tribes  who  had  ravaged  the  peninsula  from  the  Alps 
to  Otranto,  Narses  entered  Rome  as  a  conqueror,  and  was 
afterward  appointed  by  Justinian  Exarch  of  Italy.  He  fixed 
his  court  at  Ravenna,  and  continued  to  govern  the  country 
till  the  death  of  Justinian  (565),  by  whose  successor  he  was 
recalled.  He  died  in  Rome  a  short  time  afterward,  at  the 
age,  it  is  said,  of  95. 

8.  During  the  reign  of  Justinian,  the  A-vars',f  a  race 
similar  in  origin  to  the  Huns,  fleeing  from  the  Turks,  who 

*  The  Bulgarians  were  the  remains  of  the  Huns  who,  after  the  death  of  Attila, 
retreated  to  the  Euxine  and  the  lake  Maeotis.  The  Slavonians  were  a  barbarous 
race  from  the  plains  of  Russia,  who  afterward  settled  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Baltic  Sea. 

t  "In  the  thirty-first  year  of  the  reign  of  Justinian,  an  embassy  of  the  Avars 
appeared  at  Constantinople.    This  people,  who  were  Tartars,  and  belonged,  like 


i^04  Mediceval  History. 

lived  at  that  time  near  the  Altai  Mountains,  crossed  the 
Tan'a-is  and  Bo-rys'the-nOs  (Don  and  Dnieper 
rivers),  and  advanced  into  Poland  and  Germany. 


They  then  passed  to  the  Danube,  and,  subduing  the  Bulgari- 
ans, took  possession  of  the  country  which  tlie  latter  had 
occupied  (Dacia).  This  period  is  also  noted  for  tlie  passage 
to  the  south  of  the  Lombards,*  who  had  been 
invited  by  the   emperor   to  enter  Noricum  and 


Lombards. 


Pannonia,  in  order  to  check  the  advance  of  another  barbarous 
race  called  the  Gej)'i-dae.  These,  after  a  thirty 
years'  war,  were  almost  entirely  exterminated  by 


Gepida 


the  Lombards,  under  Al'bo-in,  assisted  by  the  Avars,  the 
latter  of  whom  continued  to  occupy  Dacia  and  some  of  tlie 
adjacent  countries  for  more  than  two  centuries. 

9.  In  the  reign  of  Justinian's  successor,  the  Lombards, 
under  Alboin,  entered-  Italy  (  5G8),  being  invited,  as  it  is 
said,  by  Narses,  in  revenge  for  the  affront  of  liis 
recall.    In  a  short  time  they  conquered  tlie  whole 
countiy,  except  a  small  })ortion  which  continued, 


Conquest  of 
Italy. 


under  the  name  of  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  in  possession 
of  the  Eastern  Emi)ire.  The  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  in 
Italy  lasted  more  than  two  centuries,  their  seat  of  govern- 
ment being  Pa-vi'a.     The  famous  *'  iron  crown"  of  the  Lom- 

the  Huns,  to  the  Turkish  stock,  had  then  arrived  at  tlie  foot  of  Mount  Caucasus, 
flying  l)efore  tlie  Turks,  wlioso  name  now  appears  for  the  fli-st  lime  in  liistory. 
The  Avar  anibaswulors  professed  their  \villinKn^'««  to  <lev(>te  theins««lves  to  the  ser. 
viee  of  the  emperor,  and  destroy  all  the  enemies  who  dislurlKHl  his  ivpose;  but 
they  claimed,  as  the  price  of  tlieir  alliance  and  the  reward  of  their  vnlor,  precious 
Kifts,  annual  subsidies,  and  fruitful  possessions.  .Justinian  was  now  above  .»;eventy- 
five  years;  his  mind,  as  well  as  his  bmly,  was  feeb'  >  and  languid;  and  the  con- 
queror of  Africa  and  Italy,  careless  of  the  permant  nt  inU'rest  of  his  people,  aspired 
only  to  end  his  days  in  the  bosom  of  inglorious  peace.  In  a  studied  oration,  ho 
Impart-ed  to  the  Senate  his  re.sohition  to  dissemble  the  insult  and  to  purcha.w  the 
friendship  of  the  Avars;  and  the  whole  Senate,  like  the  mandarins  of  China, 
applaudetl  the  incomparable  wisdom  and  foresight  of  their  tovereign."— G»66<;ti'» 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  lioman  Empire. 

♦Tlie  name  Is  derived  from  the  I>afin  form  />ihi/o/ki»y/»,  or  7>)nf;oftatYfi'.  stip- 
posed  by  some  t«i  ref«'r  to  the  lonu'  beards  by  whi«'h  tJicse  people  weii>  chanicter- 
Ized,  but  more  probably  derived  fiom  the  word  /unfa,  or  />fi/7t'.  a  battle-ax.  The 
Romans  flrst  came  la  coutuct  with  thia  tribe  oa  the  lower  Elbe  iu  ^be  flrst  century. 


Tlie  Eastern  Empire,  305 


bards  is  said  to  have  been  presented  to  one  of  their  queens  by 
the  celebrated  Eoman  pontiff,  Gregory  the  Great,  as  a  reward 
for  converting  the  king  to  the  Catholic  faith  (about  600). 
10.  The  reigns  of  Justinian  and  several  of  his  successors 
were  much  disturbed  by  the  encroachments  of  Persia,  then 
the  most  extensive  and  powerful  monarchy  of 
the  East;   but  the  emperor  Her-a-cli'us,  in  the 


Persia. 


beginning  of  the  seventh  century  (622-628),  in  three  great 
expeditions,  in  which  he  displayed  remarkable  boldness,  per- 
severance, and  military  skill,  defeated  Khos'ru, 
the  greatest  of  the  Persian  monarchs,  and  effectu- 


Khosru. 


ally  broke  the  Persian  power.  Eight  years  afterward,  the  last 
of  the  Persian  dynasty  called  the  Sas-san'i-des,  which  had 
occupied  the  throne  for  four  centuries,  was  de- 
feated by  the  Saracens,  and  in  a  few  years  the 


Saracens. 


whole  of  the  Persian  dominions  had  yielded  to  their  victorioua 
arms.     (Khosru's  name  is  also  sjDelled  Chosroes.) 

11.  The  reign  of  Heraclius  is  notable  for  the  commence- 
ment of  the  attacks  of  the  Saracens  upon  the  Eastern  Empire. 
Syria  was  subdued  (638),  Damascus  *  and  Jeru- 
salem falling  a  prey  to  these  Mohammedan  zea- 
lots seven  centuries  after  Pompey  had  achieved 


Saracen 
conquests. 


the  conquest  of  Syria  and  annexed  it  to  the  Roman  Republic. 
Egypt  shared  the  same  fate  within  the  next  two  years,  Alex- 
andria being  taken  after  a  siege  of  fourteen  months  (640). 
It  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  great  Alexandrian  library  was 

*  "  This  renowned  and  beautiful  city,  one  of  tlie  largest  and  most  magnificent  of 
the  East,  and  reputed  to  be  the  oldest  in  the  world,  stood  in  a  i)lam  of  wonderful 
richness  and  fertility,  covered  with  groves  and  gardens,  and  bounded  by  an 
amphitheater  of  hills,  the  skirts  of  Mount  Lebanon.  A  river,  called  by  the  ancients 
Chrysorrhea,  or  the  stream  of  gold,  flows  through  this  plain,  feeding  the  canals 
and  water-courses  of  its  gardens,  and  the  fountains  of  the  city.  The  commerce  of 
the  place  bespoke  the  luxuriance  of  the  soil;  dealing  in  wines,  silks,  wool,  prunes, 
raisins,  figs  of  unrivaled  flavor,  sweet-scented  waters,  and  perfumes.  The  fields 
were  covered  with  odoriferous  flowers,  and  the  rose  of  Damascus  has  become 
famous  throughout  the  world.  This  is  one  of  the  few,  the  very  few,  cities  famous 
in  ancient  times,  which  still  retain  a  trace  of  ancient  deMgh.ls,''''— Irving' s  Mohamet 
and  His  Successors. 


306  Mediceval  History. 

burned,  the  bigoted  Mohammedan  Caliph  saying  that,  if  the 
books  agreed  with  the  Koran,  they  were  unnecessary;  and  if 
they  contradicted  it  they  were  pernicious.* 

12.  During  the  next  half  century  the  empire  was  despoiled 
of  i^rovince  after  province  by  the  irresistible  valor  and  activity 
of  the  Saracens,  who  twice  laid  siege  to  Constantinople  itself, 
but  were  repelled  from  its  walls,  partly  by  the  use  of  the 
famous  "Greek  fire."f  During  the  same  period,  also,  the 
Bulgarians,  who  in  the  previous  century  had  been 
subject  to  the  Avars,  crossed  the  Danube,  fol- 


Bulgaria. 


lowed  by  various  Slavonian  tribes,  the  Ser'vi-ans,  Bos'nians, 
and  Cro-a'tians,  and,  having  vanquished  the  Roman  armies 
sent  against  them,  founded  (680)  the  Kingdom  of  Bulgaria, 
in  the  country  a  part  of  which  still  bears  this  name.  This 
kingdom  was  a  formidable  enemy  of  the  Greek  Empire  till 
the  eleventh  century,  when,  after  a  war  of  several  years,  it 
was  entirely  subdued.  It  then  became  again  a  province  of 
the  empire,  and  so  remained  till  1187,  when  it  once  more 
regained  its  independence. 

13.  In  the  ninth  century  (865),   the  Russians,!   having 

*  The  Alexandrian  library  was  a  vast  collection  of  manuseripti?.  The  ortler  of 
the  Caliph  was  punctually  obeyed,  the  books  being  distributed  among  the  four 
thousand  baths  of  the  city;  but  so  numerous  were  they  that  it  took  six  uionths  to 
consume  them. 

t  The  Greek  Are  was  an  invention  of  the  Saracens,  but  a  dest^rter  from  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Cali,)h  had  disclosed  the  secret  of  its  preparation  to  the  emiH'ror.  It 
was  composed  of  bitumen,  sulpliur,  and  pitch,  and  was  jxiunMl  from  caldrons,  «>r 
projected  In  flre-balls,  or  on  arrows  and  javelins,  around  \\\w\\  tlax  was  rwist*^!, 
satutated  with  the  compound.  It  was  also  blown  throuprli  lonp  copptT  tubes,  some- 
times from  the  prows  of  flre-ships.  For  four  centuries  the  m<Kl»«  of  pii'pnrinjr  this 
iidlammable  compound  was  kept  as  a  secret  by  the  (IriM'k  Kmpin\  ;ind  the  ven- 
geance of  heaven  was  imprecated  upon  whomsoever  should  divr-)?'^  it,  the  p<»opIe 
being  taught  to  believe  that  an  angel  had  communicated  it  for  iLc  defense  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

X  "  The  Russian  is,  of  all  the  present  European  peoples,  the  one  which  may  lay 
the  best-grounded  claims  to  antiquity  of  residence  In  its  present  al)ode8.  In  the 
darkness  of  ancient  centuries,  extended  over  vast  plains,  into  which  tlie  genius  of 
Greece  and  the  arms  of  Rome  never  penetrated,  this  people  were  slowly  ri|>ening 
to  nationality  during  the  ages  of  classic  splendor,  when  Solon  gav»'  laws  to  the 
Athenians,  and  Rome  strove  after  principles  of  public  justice  and  liberty."^ 
Bancroft. 


The  Eastern  Empire,  307 

descended  the  Dnieper  Kiver  in  their  rude  boats  and  sailed 
into  the  Bosporus,  made  an  attack  upon  Con- 
stantinople,  but  were  repulsed.      A  few  years 


Russicins. 


later  (889),  the  Magyars  {mod-yars')y  or  Himgarians,  com- 
menced to  make  irruptions  into  the  countries  near  the 
Danube,  extending  their  ravages  westward  into  the  German 
Empire.  They  defeated  the  Bulgarians,  and  threatened  Con- 
stantinople. The  next  formidable  enemy  of  the  empire  were 
the  Turks,  who  abandoned  their  ancient  habita- 
tions in  Central  Asia;  and,  in  the  eleventh  cen- 


Turks. 


tury,  taking  advantage  of  the  dissensions  of  the  Saracens, 
invaded  their  dominions  and  captured  Bagdad  (1055).  Pre- 
vious to  this  they  had  carried  their  conquering  arms  as 
far  as  India.  In  1090  they  had  subdued  Asia  Minor  and 
Syria,  and  extended  their  sway  from  the  Hellespont  to  the 
borders  of  Chinese  Tartary.  Of  this  kingdom  Ispahan  was 
the  capital. 

14.  These  Turks  belonged  to  the  tribe  called  Seljuks* 
(seVjooks),  and  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Ot'to- 
man  Turks,  to  be  treated  of  hereafter.  The  dominions  cf 
the  Seljuks  were  afterward  divided,  four  monarchies  being 
formed,  of  which  Persia  ^as  the  chief;  and  a  new  kingdom 
was  established  in  Asia  Minor,  called  the  Sultanate  of  Roum 
(room),  which  lasted  about  two  centuries  (from 
1075   to   1272),  during  which   period   it  waged 


Roum. 


frequent  wars  with  the  Greek  Em]^ire.  Its  capital  was  at 
first  Nice,  in  Bithynia,  but  in  1097  was  removed  to  I-co'- 
ni-um.f  It  was  the  taking  of  the  holy  sepulcher 
by  the  Seljuks  that  led  to  those  remarkable  ex- 


Crusadss. 


peditions  called  the  Crusades.     In  the  fii'st  of  these,  Nice, 

*  "  The  Seljuks  were  a  tribe  of  Turcomans,  followers  and  subjects  of  their  great 
chief  Seljuk,  who  first  became  distinguished  in  history  by  the  conquests  of  the 
Sultan  Mahmoud,  who  was  succeeded  by  Alp  Arslan  {The  Lion),  under  whom  the 
Emperor  Romanus  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner."— Gtftfton. 

t  An  ancient  city  of  Phrygia,  in  Asia  Minor.  The  Kingdom  of  Rouro  (i.e.  Of  the 
Romans)  was  afterward  called  th^  Kingdom  of  Jconium. 


308  Medlceval  History, 

the  capital  of  Sol'y-man,  sultan  of  Eoum,  was  taken  (1097), 
and  soon  after  Antioch  and  Jerusalem  *  (see  page  409). 

15.  In  the  fourth  of  these  expeditions,  during  the  reign 
of  a  usurping  emperor  at  Constantinople,  the  Crusaders 
(French  and  Venetians)  were  induced  by  the  son  of  the  law- 
ful emperor  to  abandon  the  proper  object  of  the  expedition 
and  attack  Constantinople,  with  the  view  to  restore  the  union 
of  the  Roman  and  Greek  churches,  which  had  separated  on 
account  of  certain  differences  in  doctrine.  The  city  was  accord- 
ingly besieged  with  all  their  forces,  and,  mainly 
by  means  of  the  powerful  fleet  of  the  Venetians, 
was  taken;  and  the  lawful  emperor  was  restored 


Constantinople 
taken. 


to  the  throne.  He  being,  however,  the  next  year,  by  an 
insurrection  of  the  inhabitants,  deprived  of  his  throne  and 
put  to  death,  the  Crusaders  again  besieged  the  city,  and  took 
it  by  storm  (1204). 

16.  Most  of  the  dominions  of  the  empire  were  then  divided 
between  the  French  and  Venetians,  who  appointed  Baldwin, 
Count  of  Flanders,  emperor.  He  and  his  successors,  called 
the  Latin  Emperors,  continued  to  occupy  the 
throne  till   1261,  when  the  Greeks,  who  in  the 


Latin  ennperors. 


meanwhile  had  held  Nice  as  their  ca])ital,  again  obtained  pos- 
session of  Constantinople,  under  their  emperor  Pal-ae-ol'o-gus. 
This  emperor  expelled  the  Latins  from  the  city;  but  some 
few  Latin  principalities  continued  to  exist  within  the  limits 
of  tlie  empire  until  its  final  destruction. 

17.  Meanwhile,  another  tremendous  revolution  hwi  taken 
place  in  western  Asia,   occasioned   by  an   incursion  of  the 

♦  "Daily,  for  eight  days,  and  barefooted,  the  Crusaders  liml  walked  In  procession 
round  Jenisalem;  which  done,  a  general  assault  was  made  by  the  whole  army, 
Godfrey's  tower  rolled  to  the  walls,  and  on  Friday,  the  15th  of  July,  105)9.  nt  thr«»e 
o'clock,  on  the  very  day,  and  the  very  hour  of  the  PasHion.  n«xlfrey  of  Bouillon 
descended  from  his  tower  on  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  The  city  was  taktn,  and  a 
fearful  massatTe  followwl;  for  the  Crusaders.  In  their  blind  fury,  not  taking  into 
account  the  distance  of  time,  believfd  tiiat  in  t«a«'h  inn<lel  they  slew  In  Jerusalem 
they  put  to  death  one  of  the  executioners  of  Jesus  Christ."— i/tc/jWrr*  History  of 


The  Eastern  Empire.  309 

Mou*gols,  a  Tcii-tar  race  who,  in  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  under  the  renowned  chief  Gen'ghis  Khan, 
subdued  a  large  part  of  China,  overturned  the 
flourishing  kingdom  of  Kha-rasm  (now  Khiva). 


Mongols. 


and  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Persia.  Populous  terri- 
tories, abounding  in  the  noblest  works  of  mankind,  were 
made  entirely  desolate,  so  that  the  peaceful  industry  of  cen- 
turies has  been  scarcely  sufficient  to  repair  the  ravages  of  a 
few  years-.  After  the  death  of  Genghis  (1227),  the  Mongols 
passed  into  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  pillaged  Aleppo  and  Da- 
mascus, and  destroyed  the  kingdom  of  Koum,  or  Iconium, 
the  last  Seijuk  sultan  seeking  a  refuge  among  the  Greeks  of 
Constantinople  (1272).  The  Mongols  subsequently  carried 
their  victorious  arms  into  Europe,  and  devastated  or  con- 
quered many  of  its  most  fertile  and  populous  countries. 

18.  Soon  after  these  events,  and  while  the  descendants  of 
Palaeologus  still  continued  a  feeble  administration  at  Con- 
stantinople, there  arose  a  power  which  was  destined  to  cause 
the  final  destruction  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  and  establish 
upon  its  ruins  one  which  should  rival  it  in  extent, 
and  far  surpass  it  in  the  splendor  of  its  conquests. 


Ottomans. 


This  was  the  Ottoman  Turks,  so  called  from  the  founder  of 
the  empire,  Oth'man,  or  Os'man,  who  in  1299  invaded  Asia 
Minor,  and  in  a  few  years  succeeded  in  establishing  there  a 
kingdom,  the  capital  of  which  was  fixed  at  Pru'sa,  in  Bithy- 
nia.  This  kingdom  soon  became  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
states  of  the  East. 

19.  The  remaining  history  of  the  Greek  Empire,  during  a 
century  and  a  half,  is  but  the  narrative  of  its  contests  with 
the  Ottomans,  who  successively  wrested  from  it  the  fairest 
portions  of  its  dominions.  In  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century  (1360),  Am'u-rath,  one  of  the 


Amurath. 


successors  of  Othman,  captured  Adrianople,  and  made  it  his 
capital.  He  afterward  subdued  Thrace  and  Macedon,  but 
fell  at  Cos-so'va,  in  Servia,  where,  however,  ht  defeated  an 


310  Mediceval  History, 

immense  army  of  Christians,  amounting,  it  is  said,  to  500,000 
men  (1389).  His  successor,  Baj'a-zet,  continued  the  tide  of 
conquest;  and  for  ten  years  besieged  Constantino- 
ple, but  was  called  away  to  defend  his  own  doniin- 


Bajazet. 


ions  against  the  celebrated  chieftain  Ti-mour',  or  Tam'er-lane, 
by  whom  he  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  (1402). 

20.  This  delayed  the  fall  of  the  Greek  Empire  for  some 
years;    but  Timour's  empire  having  been  dismembered,  the 
Turks  resumed  their  encroachments,  and,  finally, 
under  Mohammed  II.,  after  a  siege  of  fifty-tliree 
days,   took   Constantinople   by   storm  (May   29, 


Taking  of 
Constantinople 


1453).  Constantino  (Palseologus),  the  last  of  the  Eastern 
emperors,  fell  in  the  battle,  and  the  inhabitants  were  either 
massacred  or  carried  into  slavery.  This  event  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  subjugation  of  all  the  remaining  dominions  of 
the  empire,  which  thus,  after  an  existence  of 
1058  years,  was  brought  to  an  end.  The  minute 
history  of  the  dynasties  and  emperors  which  fol- 


History  of  the 
Eastern  Empire. 


lowed  each  other  during  this  long  period,  presents  probably 
the  most  shocking  and  disgraceful  narrative  of  imbecility, 
wickedness,  and  crime  contained  in  any  part  of  the  annals  of 
the  world. 

Byzantine  Civilization. 

21.  In  the  preceding  brief  sketch,  :ve  have  rapidly  traced 
the  most  important  revolutions  which,  during  more  than  a 
thousand  years,  the  Eastern  Empire  suffered  from  tlie  suc- 
cessive incursions  of  the  barbarous  hordes  that  poured  into 
it  from  the  east  and  Bouth,  and  finally  broke  it 
into  pieces.  We  must  now  as  rapidly  sketch  the 
leading  features  of  the  civilization  of  that  long 


Ea«tem 
civilization. 


period.  Though,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  existence  of 
the  empire,  nearly  all  the  culture,  whether  of  art,  science, 
literature,  or  society,  that  could  be  found  in  the  world,  cen- 
tered in  Constantinople,  it  was  still  not  a  living,  progressive 


The  Eastern  Empire,  311 

civilization,  such  as  tlie  modern  states  of  Europe  afterward 
attained,  but  rather  a  relic  of  past  splendor,  a  feeble  attempt 
to  apply  to  the  changed  condition  of  things  the  faded  glories 
of  the  ancient  Greek  world.  We  will  here  speak  briefly  of 
the  church,  literature,  commerce,  and  art. 

22.  The  Church.  The  Greek  Church,  sometimes  called  the 
Greek  Catholic  or  Eastern  Church,  was  separated  from  the 
Western  or  Koman  Catholic  Church  in  conse- 
quence of  differences  as  to  doctrine  and  belief 


Greek  Church. 


which  occurred  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  There 
were,  also,  claims  to  dignity  and  authority  on  the  part  of  the 
emperor  and  patriarch  of  Constantinople — the  head  of  the 
Greek  Church — which  the  Bishops  of  Rome  could  not  sanc- 
tion. The  conflict  between  the  two  branches  of 
the  Christian  Church,  though  continued  for  cen- 
turies, did  not  become  a  permanent  schism  until 


Church 
conflicts. 


the  eleventh  century;  and,  even  down  to  the  taking  of  Con- 
stantinople, there  was  an  almost  continuous  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  Roman  head  of  the  Church  to  reconcile  the  differ- 
ences. 

23.  Literature.  By  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great 
and  his  successors,  the  use  of  the  Greek  language  became 
general  in  the  East;  and,  consequently,  this  was 
the  national  language  of  the  Greek  Empire. 
Though  essentially  the  language  of  the  ancient 


Greek 
language. 


Greeks,  many  changes  and  corruptions  had  been  introduced 
during  the  intervening  centuries.  The  writings  of  the  first 
five  centuries  were  chiefly  theological;  but  among 
their  authors  were  many  able  and  learned  men. 


Writings. 


such  as  Cyr'il,  bishop  of  Alexandria  (died  444),  and  the  two 
church  historians,  Socrates  and  Sozomen,  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. Among  the  most  important  works  of  this 
period  were  the  famous  treatises-  the  Code,  Insti- 


Civil  law. 


tutes,  and  Pandects  of  JiistinimL — containing  a  compilation 
of  the  Roman  laws.      These  were  prepared,  by  order  of  Jus- 


812  MedicevaL  History. 

tinian,  by  Tri-bo'nian,  an  eminent  lawyer  (died  545).     To 

these    must  be  added    the    historian  Proco'pius,   who  waa 

patronized  by  Justinian  and  Belisarius. 

24.  To  a  Jater  period  belonged  John  of  Damascus^  the 

last  of  the  Greek  fathers,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  orthodox 
faith  (730),  and  Syncel'lus,  with  other  historical 
compilers;  but  there  is  little  in  the  works  of  the 


Other  writers. 


"early  Byzantine  writers,"  either  as  regards  substance  or 
style,  to  commend  them  to  general  attention.  About  the 
time  of  the  Crusades  there  was  a  brief  intellectual 
revival  among  the  Greeks  of  Constantinople  and 


Revival. 


Asia  Minor,  and  a  few  writers  of  respectable  talent  appeared, 
such  as  Theophylact,  who  wrote  a  work  on  The  Education  of 
Princes,  for  the  use  of  the  Court  of  Constantinople.  The 
most  interesting  literary  character  of  this  period 
was  the  princess  Anna  Comnena  (1083-1148),  a 


Anna  Comnena. 


lady  of  high  culture  and  considerable  genius.  Slie  w\as  the 
daughter  of  the  emperor  Alexius  Comnenus.  Learned  men 
continued  to  flourish  in  Constantinople  till  it  was  taken  by 
the  Turks. 

25.  Commerce.     Constantinople  was  a  great  em]>orium  d t- 
ing  the  whole  Byzantine  period,  its  situation   affording   it 
many  natural  advantages  for  extensive  commerce 
Its  harbor,  tlie  Golden  Horn,  capacious  and  well 
protected,  provided  accommodation  and  shelter 


Constantinople 
as  a  mart. 


for  ships  of  all  sizes,  and  thus  for  many  centuries  attracted 
the  commerce  of  the  whole  civilized  world.  "  Wluitevcr  rude 
commodities  were  collected  in  the  forests  of  Germany  or 
Scythia,  as  far  as  the  sources  of  the  Tanais  and  the  Bory- 
sthenes;  whatever  was  manufactured  by  the  skill  of  Euroj^e 
or  Asia;  the  corn  of  Egypt,  and  the  gems  and  spices  of  the 
furthest  India,  were  brought  by  the  varying  winds  to  the  port 
of  Constantinople." 

26.  The  introduction  of  the  silk-worm,  in  the  reign  of 
Justinian,  gave  a  great  impulse  to  both  manufacturing  and 


Tlie  Eastern  Empire. 


313 


commercial  industry.*     Silk-worm  eggs  became  an  article  of 
extensive  trade,  and  mulberry-trees  were  culti- 
vated in  many  parts.    The  Peloponnesus  received 


Silk. 


the  name  Morea  from  its  extensive  growth  of  these  trees. 
The  trade  with  India  was  of  chief  importance. 
The  Persians  obstructing  the  Euphrates  valley. 


Indian  trade. 


Western  trade. 


Date. 


this  trade  was  carried  on  through  Egypt;  but  after  Alex- 
andria had  been  taken  by  the  Saracens,  a  route  was  opened, 
by  way  of  the  Greek  settlements  on  the  Black 
Sea  and  western  Tartary,  which  continued  to  be 
employed  for  two  centuries.  An  active  trade  was  also  carried 
on  with  the  west — Spain  and  the  republics  of  Italy. 

27.  Byzantine  Art,  as  distinct  from  the  earlier  styles, 
dates  from  the  reign  of  Justinian,  during  which 
it  received  a  great  impulse  from  the  many  works 
constructed  under  the  direction  of  that  monarch, 
especially  the  case  in  church  architecture.  The 
largest  edifice  of  this  kind  constructed  under 
Justinian  was  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  (now 
the  great  mosque  of  Constantinople).!  It  is  a  type  of  the 
Byzantine  style,  the  chief  features  of  which  is  the  free  use  of 
the  column  and  the  dome.  This  style  stands 
between  the  classic  or  pagan  and  the  western 
Gothic  styles.     Sculpture  and  painting  were  cul- 


This  was 


Church 
building. 


Sculpture  and 
painting. 


tivated  by  the  Byzantine  Greeks,  almost  exclusively  in  con- 
nection with  their  system  of  church  decoration. 

*  Silk  was  at  first  brouglit  from  China,  but  of  what  and  how  it  was  produced 
Was  for  many  years  a  mystery.  At  last,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  the  emperor 
of  China  to  prevent  it,  the  eggs  or  cocoons  of  silk-worms  were  brought  to  the  Ertv 
peror  Justinian  by  some  missionaries,  who,  according  to  Procopius,  concealed  them 
in  hollow  sticks. 

t  The  original  church  of  St.  Sophia  CDivine  Wisdom)  was  built  by  Constantine, 
but  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  who  within  six  years  caused  a 
new  cathedral  to  be  constructed.  This  was  partly  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake, 
when  it  was  again  restored  by  the  emperor.  "  In  tlie  thirty-sixth  year  of  his  reipra 
Justinian  celebrated  the  second  dedication  of  a  temple  which  remains,  after  twelve 
centuries,  a  stately  monument  of  his  fame.  "—Gibbon. 


814 


MedixBiml  History. 


Principal  Greek  Emperors. 


Name. 

Arcadius , 

Theodosiusn 

Marcian — 

Leo  I.  (Thracian). 

Leo  II , 

Zeno 

Anastasius  I 

Justin  I 

Justinian  I 

Justin  II 

Three  reigns.... 
BeracliusI 

Twelve  reigns.. 

Leo  III 

Constantino  V  ... 

Nine  reigns 

Michaellll 

BasUI..." 

Leo  VI 

C!onstantine  VII. . . 

Five  reigns 

Basil  II 

Constantine  IX,.. 

Four  reigns 


Date 


of  reign. 

395-408 

408-450 

450-457 

457-  474 

474-  474 

474-  491 

491-  518 

518-  527 

527-  565 

565-  578 

578-  610 

610- &11 

ft41-  717 

717-  741 

741-  775 

775-842 

842--  8G7 

867-886 

886-911 

911-  959 

959-  976 

976-1025 

1025-1028 

1028-1042 

Name.  Date  ofreiffti. 
Constantine  X. 1042-1054 

Seven  reigns 1054-lOHl 

Alexius  I.  (Comnenus). 1081-1118 

Joannes  II.  "  1118-1143 

Manuel  L  "  1143-1181 

Six  reigns 1181-1204 

Latin  Emperors. 

Baldwin  1 1204-1205 

Henry  III 1206-1216 

Three  reigns 1216-1237 

Baldwin  II 1237-1261 

Greek  Emperors  of  Niczi^ 

Theodorus  1 1206-1229 

Joannes  III 1222-1255 

Tvvo  reigns. 1255-1261 

Greek  Emperors  Restored. 

Michael  YIII.  (Palffiologus) ....  1261-1282 

Andronicus  IL  "  ....  1282-1328 

Five  reigns  "  ....  1328-1448 

Constantine  Xm.      "  ....  1448-1453 


Summary  of  Principal  Events  and  Dates. 

AD. 

The  Eastern  Empire  founded  under  Arcadius 395 

Italy  invaded  by  the  Ostrogoths,  under  Theodorio 493 

Italy  wrested  from  the  Goths  by  Belisarius 539 

Italy  invaded  by  the  Ix)mbards  568 

Conquest  of  Syria  by  the  Saracens 688 

Alexandria,  in  Egyi)t,  taken  by  tlie  Saracens WO 

Persian  monarchy  overturned  by  the  Saracens 651 

The  kingdom  of  Bulgaria  founded 680 

The  Russians  make  an  attack  on  Constantinople 865 

Bagdad  taken  L-y  the  Seljuk  Turks 1055 

Boum,  or  Iconium,  founded  by  the  Seljuks 1076 

Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Seljuks 1078 

Nice,  the  capital  of  Roum,  taken  by  the  Crusaders. 1097 

Constantinople  taken  by  the  Crusaders 1204 

Invasion  of  the  East  by  Genghis  Khan 1216-1227 

Kingdom  of  Roum  destroyed  by  the  Mongols 1274 

Invasion  of  Asia  Minor  by  the  Ottoman  Turks 129» 

Adrianople  tak«ui  by  the  Ottomans  tmder  Amurath 1860 

The  Christians  flefeated  by  Amutath  at  Cassova 1890 

BajazHt,  the  Turkisli  emperor,,  t^ikou  prisoner  by  TImour  the  Tartar. 1408 

Constantinople  taken  by  the  Tuik*    JOnd  of  the  Greek  Jiitnpire 1458 


No.  10. 


The  Franks  and  the  Normans,  815 


CHAPTER  m. 
The  CoifQUEEiNG  Eaces. 


SECTION  I. 

The  Franks  and  the  Normans. 

1.  We  now  come  to  the  history  of  western  and  central 
Europe  from  tlie  full  of  the  Western  Empire  (47G)  to  the 
general  establishment  of  the  modern  European 
states  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries.     This 


Dark  ages. 


period  of  invasion,  war,  and  revolution,  carried  on  by  the  bar- 
baric liordes  in  their  restless  migrations,  has  been  aptly  called 
the  Dark  Ages:  for  ignorance,  depravity,  and 
superstition  almost  universally  cliaracterized  the 
people  and  their  rulers.     Prominent  among  the 


Barbarous 
tribes. 


barbarous  tribes  of  this  period  were  the  Franks,  the  Normans, 
the  Saxons,  and  the  Saracens. 

2.  The  Franks*  {Freemen)  were  a  confederation  of  Ger- 
man tribes  living  in  the  country  near  the  lower  part  of  the 

Geographical.  Stttdy,  Map  No.  X 
How  far  did  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  extend  from  east  to  west?  What  river 
was  its  eastern  boundaiy?  How  far  did  it  extend  toward  the  south?— ^-Ijis.  To 
southern  Ttal}'.  IIow  far  did  it  extend  toward  the  north?-  Aiis.  To  the  Baltic  Sea. 
What  country  was  east  of  the  Rhone  River?  In  the  southwestern  part?— ^>ts.  Was- 
conia,  afterward  called  Gascony.  What  people  dwelt  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Upper  Danube?  What  people  occupied  both  banks  of  the  Weser?  What  province 
near  the  head -waters  of  the  Meuse  and  Rhone?  AVhat  province  south  of  the  Loire 
River?  What  province  bordered  on  the  English  Channel?  What  was  the  situation 
of  Paris?  Tolosa  (Toulouse)?  Lugdunimi  (Lyons)?  Constantia  (Constance)?  Pavia? 
Verdun?    Strasburg?    Verona?    Anglia  (England)? 

*  "The  Franks  were  not  a  people,  but  a  confederation,  which  varied  in  its  mem- 
bers as  it  fluctuated  in  its  influence,  but  which  must  have  been  powerful  at  the 


316  Medicenal  History. 

Rhine,  who  in  the  third  century  successfully  opposed  the 
Romans,  committing  great  devastations  through- 
out Gaul  and  Spain.     In  the  fifth  century  (486), 


Franks. 


Clo'vis,  cliief  of  a  tribe  known  as  the  Sa'lian  Franks,  invaded 
Gaul,  and  having  victoriously  overrun  the  greater 
part  of  it,  founded  therein  a  new  monarchy,  the 


Clovis. 


capital  of  which  he  fixed  at  Lu-te'tia,  or  Paris.*  He  chose 
for  his  queen  Clo-til'da,  a  Christian  princess,  and  niece  of  the 
king  of  Burgundy,  a  country  situated  east  of  the  Rhone;  and 
through  her  influence  he  embraced  Christianity.!  He  gained 
several  great  victories  over  the  Al-e-man'm — a  powerful  con- 
federation of  German  tribes — rjid  defeated  the  Burgundians 

close  of  the  fourth  century.  At  this  period  the  Franks  had  indisputably  large  pos- 
sessions in  the  empire.  Under  the  name  of  Franks,  Germans  of  every  race  com- 
posed the  best  troops  of  the  imperial  armies  and  the  body-guard  of  the  ennx'ror. 
Floating  between  Germany  and  the  empire,  they  generally  declared  against  the 
other  barbarians  whose  inniptions  into  Gaul  succeeded  theirs.  They  opposed, 
though  unsuccessfully,  the  great  invasion  of  the  Burgundians,  Suevi,  and  Vandals, 
in  400,  and  many  of  thcni  fought  against  Attila.  Seated  in  the  north  of  Fnince,  in 
the  northwest  comer  of  Europe,  the  Franks  held  their  ground  against  the  pagaa 
Saxons,  the  latest  swarm  from  Germany;  against  the  Arian  Visigoths;  an<l,  finally, 
against  the  Saracens;  all  three  equally  hostile  to  tho  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Therefore,  it  is  not  without  reason  that  the  Fi*ench  monarchs  have  been  styled  the 
eldest  .sons  of  the  C\\\irc\\.''—MichcleVs  Iliatory  of  F^'unrc, 

Tlie  Franks  gave  name  to  France  (F'rorj cm),  as  also  to  Franconia;  just  as  the 
Alemanni  impose<l  theirname  upon  Germany  (Fn'nch,  V  Allemaum). 

"  The  words  '  frank  and  free,'  usually  grouptnl  t^>gether,  are  in  fact  the  same  in 
origin  and  meaning.  The  name  Frank  carries  the  sense  of  boldness,  deflauee,  free- 
dom."—ry.  TV.  Kitchin, 

*  Lntetia  was  the  name  given  Vjy  tho  Romans  to  tho  collection  of  huts  built  of 
nuid  (lutum),  and  inhabited  by  a  Gallic  tribe  called  the  rarisii,  from  whom  it.  was 
afterward  called  2'aris. 

t '  Clevis's  destiny  was  principally  determine<l  by  his  adopting  the  Christian 
faith.  The  chief  agent  in  his  conversion  was  his  queen,  Clotilda,  daughter  [niece]  of 
Gundobald,  king  of  Burgtuidy,  his  neighbor  and  ally.  By  her  alTcctionate  exh«)rtA- 
tions,  the  mind  of  her  husband  was  disposed  to  Christianity,  though  ho  long  hesi- 
tated to  embrace  a  religion  wliich  impoHtnl  many  restriction!*.  At  length.  In  a  battle 
with  tho  Alemanni,  Clovis,  hard  press<'d,  was  induced  to  vow.  that  if  he  should 
obtain  a  victory,  which  seemed  extremely  doubtful,  he  wotild  become  n  Christian. 
The  king  of  the  Alemanni  was  slain,  his  army  disconUlted,  and  the  acquisition  of 
his  dominions  greally  augmented  the  power  of  the  Franks.  After  this  conquest, 
Clovis  a<lopt-ed  the  ChriHt  inn  faith,  according  to  his  vow,  and  was  baptized  In  tho 
Cathedral  at  llneims.  where  it  has  been  over  since  the  custom  to  crowu  and  cons©- 
crato  the  monarchs  of  France."— 6'co<* 


Tlie  Franks  and  the  Normans,  317 


and  the  Visigoths,  the  latter  of  whom  were  deprived  of  nearly 
all  their  possessions  in  Gaul. 
X   3.  After  the  death  of  Clovis  (511),  his  extensive  domin- 
k»ns  were  divided  among  his  four  sons;  but  the  permanent 
division  did  not  take  place  till  some  time  after- 
ward (567).     Then  were  formed  three  kingdoms: 


Divisions. 


i.  Aus-tra'sia,  in  the  eastern  part;  2.  Neus'tria,  north  of  the 
Loire;  and  3.  Burgundy,  which  had  been  annexed  to  the 
Prankish  dominions  by  conquest  (534);  and  to 
this  was  added  a  part  of  Aquitaine  (ak-we-tain^)^ 
a  kingdom  lying  between  the  Loire  (hoar)  and  the 


prankish 
nnonarchy. 


Pyrenees.  These  were  afterward  finally  united  under  a  single 
monarch  by  the  conquest  of  Neustria  by  the  Austrasians  (687). 
In  the  history  of  France,  Clovis  and  his  descend- 
ants are  called  the  Mer-o-vin'gi-ans,  from  Mer-o- 


Merovmgians. 


vae'us,  one  of  their  ancestors.     This  dynasty  lasted  a  little 
more  than  250  years  (486-752). 

4.  The  immediate  successors  of  Clovis  were  noted  for  their 
constant  dissensions,  their  vices,  and  the  dreadful  crimes 
which  they  perpetrated  to  obtain  possession  of 
each  other's  dominions.  Some  were  great  war- 
riors, like  Clovis  himself;  but,  for  more  than  a 


Descendants 
of  Clovis. 


century  previous  to  the  termination  of  the  dynasty,  they  were 
but  nominally  kings  [called  Faineants  (fa-na-ong) — Do-noth- 
ings}, all  the  royal  j^ower  being  exercised  by  the  great  minis-- 
ters,  styled  Mayors  of  the  Palace.  This  high 
office  was  made  hereditary  by  Pep'in  d'Her-is- 
tal',  who  held  it  from  687  to  714.     He  was  suc- 


Pepin 
d'Heristal. 


ceeded  by  the  famous  Charles  Mar-tel'  (the  Hammer),  who, 
when  the  Saracens,  after  completing  the  conquest 
of  Spain,  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  threatening  not 


Charies  Mattel 


only  the  subjugation  of  France  but  of  all  Europe,  met  them 
near  Tours  (toor),  and  inflicted  upon  them  so  severe  a  defeat 
that  they  were  completely  f^hecked  in  their  long  career  of 
ponnuest  (732^. 


318  MedicBval  History. 

0 

5.  Pepin  the,  Short,*  the  successor  of  Charles  Martel,  hav- 
ing rendered  important  aid  in  repelling  the  Lombards  from 
Rome,  was,  by  the  authority  of  Pope  Zach'ary, 
placed  upon  the  throne  of  the  Franks,  and  the 
weak  Chil'de-ric,  the  last  of  the  Merovingians, 


Pepin  the 
Short 


was  formally  deposed  (752).  Thus  commenced  the  Carlo- 
vingian  dynasty.  This  period  is  also  noted  for  the  terinina- 
tion  of  the  rule  of  the  Eastern  emperors  in  Italy, 
and  the  commencement  of  the  temporal  dominion 
of  the  Roman  Pontiff,  whose  government  of  the 


Temporal 

power  of  the 

Pope 


territories  previously  included  within  the  Exarchate  of  Ra- 
venna was  acknowledged  and  sustained  by  Pepin. 

6.  At  the  death  of  Pepin  (7G8),  his  two  sons  Car'lo-man 
and  Charles  succeeded,  but  the  former  dying,  Charles  [jifter- 
ward   known  as  Charlemagne  {shar-le-malm^) — ■ 
Charles  the  Great]  became  the  sole  monarch  of 


Charlemagne 


the  Franks,  and  the  ruler  over  not  only  France  but  a  large 
part  of  Germany.  He  made  war  upon  the  Lombards  in  Italy, 
and  having  taken  Pavia,  their  capital  (774),  put  an  end  to 
this  monarchy,  which  had  lasted  about  two  centuries.  Ho 
also,  after  several  years  of  severe  war,  reduced  the  Saxons  on 
the  lower  Weser  (we'zer),  and  invading  S})ain,  which  was  then 
in  the  possession  of  the  Saracens,  conquered  all  that  part  lying 
north  of  the  E'bro  (778).  On  his  return  througli  the  Pyre- 
nees, the  rearguard  of  his  army  was  surprised  by  tlie  Basques, 
at  Ron-ces-val'les,  and  defeated,  its  brave  commander  Ro'land. 
the  favorite  nephew  of  Charlemagne,  being  slain.  Tliis  battle 
gave  rise  to  many  romantic  stories,  and  formed  the  subject  of 
the  most  ]io])ular  epic  poem  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  famous 
'*  Song  of  Roland." 

7.  Charlemagne  also  gained  some  victories  over  the  Avars, 
in  Pannonia,  and  otlior  c  astern  races;  and  in  800,  while  on  a 
visit  to  Italy,  the  Pope  (I^eo  III.)  crowned  him  Emperor  of 

♦  So  called  from  his  very  low  stal-ure,  bclnff,  It  is  said,  only  four  and  a  half  feel 
high,  while  his  soa  Charletna(;ne  was  sevon  feot  in  hei^rht. 


The  Franks  and  t?ie  Normans.  310 

the  Eomans,    thus  reviving   the   Empire   of  the  West,  the 
capital  of  which  Charlemagne  fixed  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  {dkes4ah-sha-peV).     This  monarch  was 
not  only  distinguished  for  his  military  talents, 


E  mperor  of  the 
West 


but  was  passionately  fond  of  learning,  receiving  instruction 
from  Alcuin  (aVktviii),  a  Saxon,  the  most  accom- 
plished scholar  of  the  age.     He  also  showed  the 


Alcuin. 


greatness  as  well  as  beneficence  of  his  character  by  the  many 
useful  enterprises  which  he  planned  for  the  benefit  of  his 
people,  and  by  his  efforts  to  dispel  the  ignorance  which  uni- 
versally prevailed.     His  death  occurred  in  814.* 

8.  Louis,  his  son  and  successor,  called  le  Del-on-naire  (the 
Easy),  was  of  too  mild  and  unwarlike  a  disposition  to  reign 
over  an  empire  so  extensive,  and  composed  of  such 
heterogeneous  parts;  and  his  own  sons  formad 
conspiracies  against  him.      After  his  death,  in 


Louis 
le  Debonnaire. 


840,  three  divisions  were  formed,  one  for  each  of  his  sons; 
but  they  soon  quarreled,  and  the  great  battle  of  Fon-te- 
naille'  was  fought  (841),  in  which,  it  is  said,  so  many  of  the 
bravest  generals  and  soldiers  of  the  empire  fell  that  it  was 
afterward  impossible  to  repel  the  incursions  of 
the  Normans,  who  for  many  years  continued 


Normans, 


their  piratical  attacks.     Two  years  after  this  battle  (843),  a 
treaty  was  made  by  the  contending  parties  (at 
Verdun),  according  to  which  a  new  distribution 
of  the  imperial  dominions  was  made  among  the 


Treaty 
of  Verdun. 


three  sons — Louis  receiving  Germany;  Charles,  France;  and 

*  "  A  strong  sympathy  for  intellectual  excellence  was  the  leading  characteristio 
of  Charlemagne,  and  this  imdoubtedly  biased  him  In  the  chief  political  error  of  his 
conduct,  that  of  encouraging  the  power  and  pretensions  of  the  hierarchy.  But  per- 
haps his  greatest  eulogy  is  written  in  the  disgrace  of  succeeding  times,  and  the 
miseries  of  Europe.  He  stands  alone  like  a  beacon  upon  a  waste  or  a  rock  in  the 
broad  ocean.  His  scepter  was  as  the  bow  of  Ulysses,  which  could  not  be  drawn  by 
any  weaker  hand.  In  the  dark  ages  of  European  history,  the  reign  of  Charlemagne 
affords  a  solitary  resting-place  between  two  long  periods  of  turbulence  and 
Ignominy,  deriving  the  advantages  of  contrast  both  from  that  of  the  preceding 
dynasty  and  of  a  posterity  for  whom  he  had  formed  an  empire  which  they  were 
unworthy  and  unequal  to  maintain  ^^--llalUim's  Europe  during  the  Middle  Agea 


320 


MedicBnal  History, 


liothaire,  Italy.  Cliarles  the  Fat,  a  son  of  Louis,  obtained 
possession  of  the  whole  in  884;  but  three  years  afterward  it 
was  finally  separated,  Germany  alone  retaining  the 
imperial  title  and  dignity.     The  other  divisions 


Divisions 


were  France,  Italy,  and  Burgundy  or  Aries  (ar/),*  this  latter 


kingdom  having  regained  its  independence  during  the  weak 
reigns  of  some  of  the  preceding  Carlovingian  princes. 

The  Nokmans. 
9.  The  Kormans  were  a  bold,  active,  and  enterprising  race 
from  Scandinavia  and  Denmark,  and  were  sometimes  called 


"  So  named  because  Its  dukes,  or  rulers,  for  some  time  made  the  city  of  Aries 
tbi^ix  cdipitaL 


TTie  Franks  and  the  Normans.  321 

Norsemen  or  Northmen.*    They  commenced  their  ravages 
in  France  during  the  reign  of  Charlemagne;  but 


Ravages. 


under  his  successors,  taking  advantage  of  the 
weakness  of  the  government,  these  Vikings  or  sea-kings,  as 
they  were  also  called,  sailed  up  the  navigable  rivers,  pillaged 
and  burnt  the  great  towns,  and  retired  dragging  away  many 
of  the  inhabitants  with  them.  During  the  reign  of  an  imbe- 
cile king,  named  Charles  the  Simple,  they  ascended  the  Seine 
{sane),  and  besieged  Paris;  whereupon  the  king, 
unable  to  make  any  resistance,  finally  ceded  to 


Normandy. 


their  ruler,  Duke  Rollo,  a  large  district  in  the  north  of  France, 
afterward  called  Normandy  (912).  f     The   same 
active  race  about  this  time  crossed  the  Atlantic, 
and  established  colonies  in   the   Faroe   Islands, 


Other 
settlements. 


Iceland,  and  Greenland;  and  in  the  next  century  arc  supposed 
to  have  visited  the  eastern  shore  of  North  America. 

10.  The  Dukes  of  Normandy,  including   Rollo   and   his 
successors,   held   their  lands,   according  to   the 
feudal  system,   as  vassals   of  the  king  of    tlie 


Norman  dukes. 


Franks.     Rollo  married  a  daughter  of   the  Frankish  king 


&> 


*  "  The  northern  part  of  Europe,  peopled  by  a  race  closely  akin  to  the  Low 
Dutch,  and  speaking  another  dialect  of  the  common  Teutonic  speech,  now  began 
to  send  forth  swarms  of  pirates  over  all  the  seas  of  Europe,  who  from  pirates  often 
grew  into  conquerors.  They  were  still  heathens;  and  their  incursions,  both  in 
Britain  and  on  the  Continent,  must  have  been  a  scourge  almost  as  frightful  as  the 
settlement  of  the  English  had  been  to  the  original  Britons." — Freeman's  History 
of  the  Norman  Conquest. 

+  "  When  the  new  duke  was  to  receive  investiture  of  Normandy  from  Charles, 
his  pride  was  startled  at  the  form  wh.ch  required  him,  in  acknowledgment  of  the 
favor  bestowed  on  him,  to  kneel  to  his  liege  lord,  and  kiss  his  foot.  '  My  knee  shall 
never  bend  to  mortal,' said  the  haughty  Norman;  'and  I  will  be,  on  no  account, 
persuaded  to  kiss  the  foot  of  any  one  whatever.'  The  French  counselors  present 
suggested  '  nat  this  difficulty  might  be  surmounted  by  Rollo,  or  Robert,  appointing 
a  deputy  to  kiss,  in  his  name,  the  foot  of  Charles.  Accordingly,  the  duke  com- 
manded a  common  soldier  to  perform  the  ceremony  in  his  stead.  The  man  showed 
the  small  value  he  attached  to  the  ceremony,  by  the  careless  and  disrespectful  man- 
ner in  which  he  performed  it.  Instead  of  kneeling  to  salute  the  royal  foot,  he 
caught  it  up  and  performed  the  ceremony  by  lifting  it  to  his  mouth.  In  this  awk- 
ward operation  the  rude  Norman  well-nigh  overturned  the  simple  king,  threne  ami 
all,  and  exposed  him  to  the  laughter  of  all  aTound.'*— Scott 


322  Medicenal  History, 

and  embraced  Christianity;  and  his  followers  also  intermar- 
ried with  the  people  among  whom  they  had  settled.  The 
new  Norman  race  that  resulted  from  this  union, 
retaining  the  daring  and  adventurous  spirit  of 
the  old  Scandinavian  warriors  combined  with  tlic 


New  Norman 
race. 


higher  civilization  of  the  French,  played  a  great  part  in  the 
Bubsequent  history  of  Europe. 


SECTION  IL 
The    Saxons, 


11.  The  Saxons  (German  Sachsen,  from  sahs,  a  knife),  like 
the  Franks,  were  a  confederation  of  Teutonic  or  Low  German 
tribes.     As  early  as  the  third  century  they  made 
their  appearance   in  northern    Germany,    from 


Saxons. 


•which  they  passed  southward  and  invaded  the  Roman  Empire. 

At  a  later  period,  in  the  fifth  century,  they  commenced  their 
incursions  into  Gaul  and  Britain.*  After  the 
abandonment  of  the  latter  province  by  the  Ro- 


Incursions. 


mans,  hordes  of  these  barbarous  tribes,  associated  with  An'glea 
and  Jutes  from  Denmark,  rushed  with  irresistible  force  upon 


♦  Britain  had  been  in  the  possession  of  the  Romans  nearly  four  centuries.  The 
Matter  found  the  Britons  a  fierce,  hardy,  courageous  race  of  warriors;  they  left 
them  so  effeminated  by  the  corrupt  civilization  of  Rome  that  they  were  unable  to 
defend  themselves  from  the  warlike  barbarians  of  the  north ;  and  their  appeals  for 
ftid  to  the  Roman  Koverners  were  so  frequent  and  urfjent  that  thej'  were  called  the 
•'groans  of  the  Britons."  The  ancient  religion  of  the  Britons  was  calltnl  Druidism; 
nnd  the  Dniids,  or  priests,  were  not  only  ministers  of  religion,  but  judges,  physi- 
cians, and  teachers.  They  worshiped  tlie  stm  and  moon;  and  were  accustomed  to 
live  in  caverns  or  amid  the  gloom  of  forests.  There  are  many  remains  of  this 
curious  religion,  the  most  renmrl<able  of  which  is  Stonehenge  (Saxon,  raised 
Btoties)  on  Ralisbtiry  Plain.  This  singular  monument  originally  was  a  circle  (crom- 
lech) of  thirty  stones,  fourt*^n  feet  high,  sunnounted  with  large  flat  stones.  Such 
circles  were  called  "doom  rings,"  and  each  contained  in  the  center  an  altar 
(dolmen),  on  wliich  victims  were  sacrificed.  Besides  these  there  w«'re  *'  rocking- 
ptones"  (loggans\—v&st  masses  of  grnnite  or  sandstone,  sometimes  weighing  more 
than  500  tons,  so  nicely  poised  on  another  stone  as  to  be  moved  by  the  least  touch. 
(See  cut,  page  833.) 


*  The  Saxons. 


323 


the  island,  aud  completed  the  conquest  of  the  whole,  except 
the  western  portion,  now  called  Wales,  into  which  the  rem- 
nant of  the  British  population  retired. 

12.  The  Britons,  being  abandoned  by  their  Koman  con- 
querors,  were  subject  to  the  constant  and  harassing  attacks  of 
the  Scots  and  Picts  of  the  northern  districts;  and 
in  their  distress  adopted  the  desperate  measure 


Britons. 


of  inviting  the  Saxon  sea-rovers  to  come  to  their  aid  (449). 
The  Saxons  soon  drove  back  the  northern  invaders,  but  the 


Saxon 
conquest. 


SroNEUBNaE.    (See  note,  page  322 ) 

unfortunate  inhabitants  found  themselves  at  the  mercy  of 
these  pirates,  who,  with  the  assistance  of  con- 
stantly increasing  hordes  of  Saxons,  Angles,  and 
Jutes,  soon  possessed  themselves  of  most  of  the 
country,  driving  the  Britons  into  Gaul  or  the  western  fast- 
nesses of  the  island.  The  northwestern  part  of  France  was 
called  Brittany,  because  it  afforded  a  refuge  to  the  Britons.* 

*  "  The  whole  southern  part  of  the  island,  except  Wales  and  Cornwall,  had 
totally  changed  its  inhabitants,  language,  customs,  and  political  institutions.  The 
Britons,  under  the  Roman  dominion,  had  made  such  advances  toward  arts  and 
civil  manners,  that  they  had  built  twenty-eight  considerable  cities  ^vithin  their 
province,  besides  a  great  number  of  villages  and  coimtry-seats :  but  tlie  fierce  con- 
querors by  whom  they  were  now  subdued,  threw  everything  back  into  ancient 
barbarity ;  and  those  few  natives  who  were  not  either  massacred  or  expelled  their 
habitations,  wer©  reduced  to  the  most  abject  slavery."— iTitwie's  Bistory  of  Eng- 
land. 


324  Mediceval  History. 

13.  Thus  were  formed  during  the  fifth  and   sixth  cen- 
turies, by  the  iuroads  of  these  people,  seveu  kingdoms  in  the 
central  and  southern  parts  of  the  island  of  Brit- 
ain, named  collectively  the  Saxon  llep'tar-chy. 


Heptarchy. 


consisting  of :  1.  Kent ;  2.  Sussex ;  3.  Wessex;  4.  Essex ;  5. 
Northumbria;  G.  EastAnglia;  7.  Mercia.  (See  Map  No.  XI, ) 
Various  wars  arose  among  these  states,  and  many  changes 
occurred  in  their  respective   territories,  the  final  result  of 

which  was,  that  Wessex  absorbed  all  the  others; 

and  in  827,  its  king  Egbert  became  the  acknowl- 


England. 


edged  monarch  of  the  whole  country,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  England  {Engla-land,  i.e.,  Land  of  the  Angles), 


SECTION  III. 

The    Saracens. 


14.  Sar'a-cens  (Eastern  People)  was  the  name  given  to 
that  fierce  and  active  race  who,  proceeding  from  Arabia  in 
the  seventh  century,  rapidly^  overran  a  consider- 
able  part   of    western   Asia  and    the   whole   of 


Saracens. 


northern  Africa,  and  made  a  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Visigoths  in  Spain;  but  Avcre  stopi)cd  iri'thcir  victorious 
career  by  the  valor  of  the  Franks,  wlio  in  southern  Franc 
turned  the  tide  of  Saracenic  invasion. 

15.  They  wore  tlio  followers  of  Mo-ham'med,  or  Mah'o- 
met,  an  Arabian,  born  at  Mecca  in  570.*    He  professed  to  be 

*  The  Arabians,  up  to  the  time  of  Moharnm»Ml.  with  the  exception  of  the  inhabl- 
tuntsof  the  cities,  were  (lividcd  into  many  siiiull  tribfs,  each  haviinj  it«  leader, 
called  Sheik  or  Emir.  They  dwelt  In  the  deKerts^wanderinjf  from  place  to  place, 
and  fraiiiin-?  Ifuir  stil>sist<!nce  in  the  service  <»f  the  merchants,  by  carry  injf  h<kx1s 
across  the  deserts  on  the  backs  (tt  camels,  but  n;«)rc  often  tlu\v  dependtnl  tipon  the 
plunder  which  they  took  from  liostile  tribes.  Tln'y  were  skilled  in  the  use  of  the 
bow,  the  lance,  and  thecimetcr;  and  were  wouderfuUy  adroit  rulere.  lu  religion 
the  J  were  worshiper?  of  Are  or  the  stars. 


The  Saracens.  325 


a  prophet  and  the  bearer  of  a  new  revelation  from  God,  and 
began  to  preach  at  Mecca,*  but   his   doctrines 
were  received  with  such  opposition  that  he  was 


Moheunmed. 


compelled  to  flee  from  the  city  (622).      This  event,  called 
in  Arabic  the  He-gi'ra,  is  the  epoch  which  the 
Mohammedans  employ  in  their  chronology.     In 


Hegira. 


Medina,  where  he  found  a  refuge,  his  doctrines  were  received 
with  more  favor,  and  after  a  time  gained  general  credence. 

16.  At  the  first,  while  his  converts  were  few,  he  preached 
a  religion  of  love  and  peace,  particularly  exhorting  his  dis- 
ciples to  lead  abstemious  and  unselfish  lives; 
but  as  his  precepts  began  to  be  generally  ac- 


Doctrines. 


cepted,  and  when  he  found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  large 
body  of  warlike  followers,  a  great  change  came  over  him.  He 
became  ambitious  and  bigoted,  persuading  himself  that  the 
power  he  had  acquired  was  the  gift  of  the  Almighty,  to 
enable  him  to  promulgate  his  doctrines  by  the 
sword,  f  Thus,  in  seven  years  after  his  flight,  he 
was  enabled  to  return  to  Mecca  with  a  cousider- 


Return  to 
Mecca. 


able  army  of  roviug  Arabs,  whom  he  controlled  by  promises 
of  plunder  in  this  world  and  everlasting  bliss  in  the  next. 

*  "  Mahomet,  or  more  properly  Moliammed,  was  bom  at  Mecca,  four  years  after 
the  death  of  Justinian,  and  two  months  after  the  defeat  of  the  Abyssinians,  whose 
victory  would  have  introduced  into  the  Caaba  the  religion  of  the  Christians.  In  his 
early  infancy  he  was  deprived  of  his  father,  his  mother,  and  his  grandfather;  his 
uncles  were  strong  and  nmnerous;  and,  in  the  division  of  the  inheritance,  the 
orphan's  share  was  reduced  to  five  camels  and  an  Ethiopian  man-servant.  At 
home  and  abroad,  in  peace  and  war,  Abu  Taleb,  the  most  respectable  of  his  uncles, 
was  the  guide  and  guardian  of  his  youth.  In  his  twenty-fifth  year  he  entered  into 
the  service  of  Cadi jah,  a  i  ich  and  noble  widow  of  Mecca,  who  soon  rewarded  his 
fidelity  with  the  gift  of  her  hand  and  fortune.  By  this  alliance,  the  son  of  Abdallah 
was  restored  to  the  station  of  his  ancestors;  and  the  judicious  matron  was  content 
with  his  domestic  virtues,  till,  in  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age,  he  assumed  the  title 
of  a  prophet,  and  proclaimed  the  religion  of  the  Koran."— G'tfobon's  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

t  "  Even  the  miracles  of  Moses  and  Jesus  have  been  treated  with  unbelief.  I, 
therefore,  the  last  of  the  prophets,  am  sent  with  the  sword.  Let  those  who  pro- 
mulgate my  faith  enter  into  no  argument  nor  discussion,  but  slay  all  who  refuse 
obedience  to  the  law.  Whoever  fights  for  the  true  faith,  whether  he  fall  or  con- 
quer, will  assuredly  receive  a  glorious  tqwat^"— Manifesto  of  Mohammed, 


326  Mediceval  History, 

Soon  afterward  the  Arabians  generally  embraced  his  doc- 
trines, accepted  his  sacred  mission,  and  gave  their  assent  to 
the  cardinal  principle  of  his  creed,  '*  U'here  is  but  one  God, 
and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet."* 

17.  Mohammed  began  the   propagation  of  his  faith  by 
sending  emissaries  to  the  courts  of  the  neighboring  provinces 
to  invite  them  to  embrace  the  new  faith,  and 
become  Moslems,  true  believers.     Some  of  these 


First  overtures. 


were  treated  with  indifference;  but  at  the  court  of  Syria  his 
proposals  were  received  with  disdain,  and  his  embassy  was 
slain.  This  action  caused  the  first  great  battle  fought  by  the 
Saracens,  and  in  it  they  were  victorious.  Khaled, 
afterward   so  renowned  under  his  title  of  the 


Khaled. 


"  Sword  of  God,"  first  became  prominent  here. 

18.  Mohammed  had   scarcely  more  than  commericed  his 

successful  career  of  conquest,  when  he  was  stopped  by  death 
(G32),  being  succeeded  by  Abu  -  Bckr  {ah'hoo- 
lekr^),  styled  the  First  Caliph   (svccessor).     Ho 


First  Caliph. 


left  a  series  of  writings  which  he  said  he  had  received  directly 
from  heaven;  and  these  were  collected  and  compiled  by  his 
successor,  forming  the  sacred  volume,  or  Bible,  of 
the  Mohammedans.     This  book  is  called  by  them 


Korarf. 


the  Koran  (Arabic  Alcoran,  The  Book);  and  the  Mohamme- 
dan religion,  Islam — submission  to  the  Avill  of  God. 

19.  Abu-Bckr  prosecuted  the  conquest  of  Syria;  and  hid 
general  Khaled  defeated  the  army  of  Heraclius,  and  besieged 
B.jmascus.     Under  O'mar,  the  next  caliph,  Da- 
miiscus  and  Jerusalem  were  taken  (035  and  C37), 


Conquests. 


and  Syria  totally  subdued.     Egypt  also  was  subjugated,  and 


♦  "Mahomet  inculcated  the  belief  that  there  la,  was,  and  ever  will  be,  one  only 
God,  the  creator  of  all  thiii)^;  who  is  .sin^k',  immutable,  omniscient,  omnipotent, 
all-merciful,  and  eternal.  Tlio  unity  of  fhxl  was  speciflially  nnd  strongly  urjjed,  m 
contradistinction  to  tin?  Trinity  of  the  Christians.  It  wjis  deKi}?nate<l,  in  the  profe»»- 
Rion  of  faith,  hy  rnisinj;  one  flnj^cr,  and  exclaiming,  'There  is  no  God  but  God,'— to 
•wldch  was  added,  *  MaUomet  is  thv  prophet  of  God.'  "— /rvm^'a  ii(nh<iinct  and 
Si9  9w;q^99ot$, 


Tlie  Saracens.  327 


the  Persians  were  defeated  in  a  great  battle,,  at  Ca-de'sia,  on 
the  Tigris.  Omar,  it  is  said,  during  his  reign  of  ten  years 
reduced  36,000  cities  and  villages,  demolished  4000  Chris- 
tian churches,  and  erected  1500  Mohammedan  temples,  or 
mosques.  He  was  succeeded  by  Oth'man,  who  completed  the 
conquest  of  Persia  and  other  eastern  countries,  extended  his 
dominion  in  Africa,  and  published  a  new  edition  of  the  Koran. 
Cyprus  and  Rhodes  were  also  taken;  and  the  Saracens  at  the 
latter  place  took  possession  of  the  famous  brazen  Co-los'sus,* 
or  statue  of  Phoe'bus,  the  god  of  the  sun.  The  murder  of 
Othraan  made  Ali  {ah'le)  caliph,  who  is  considered  the  bravest 
and  most  virtuous  of  the  successors  of  Mohammed  (655). 

20.  During  the  reign  of  Ali  a  great  schism  occurred  which 
divided  the  Mohammedans  into  two  sects,  called  tlie  Sun'* 
nites  and  the  Shi'ites,  the  former  acknowledging 
the  authority  of  all  the  caliphs,  while  the  latter 


Schism. 


reject  all  but  Ali,  whom  they  regard  as  the  equal  of  Mo- 
hammed. The  Shiites  also  reject  the  Sun'nali,  a  book  of 
traditions  concerning  the  Prophet,  which  the  Sunnites,  or 
orthodox  Moliammcdans,  receive  as  sacred.  During  the 
reign  of  Ali,  Mo-a-wi'yah  usurped  the  govern- 
ment of  Syria,  and  by  the  murder  of  Ali  became 


Ommiyades. 


caliph.     He  was  the  first  of  tlie  dynasty  called  the  Ommiyades 
(om-me'yahds),  which  lasted  till  750. 

21.  Moawiyah  fixed  his  capital  at  Damascus,  and,  by  his 
A-mir-al-bahr  (commander  of  the  sea;  the  same  as  admiral)  and 
iiis  lieutenant  Ak'bar,  continued  the  conquest  of 
northern  Africa,  founding  south   of  Tunis  the 


Moawiyah. 


famous  city  of  Kairwan  {Tear e-w aim').     It  was  the  army  of 
this  caliph  that  besieged  Constantinople,  and  was 
repulsed  by  means  of  the  Greek  fire,  so  efficiently 
employed  by  its   defenders   (668-675).      About 


Defeat  of  the 
Saracens. 


forty  years  afterward  (717),  Constantinople  was  again  attacked 
by  an  army  of  Saracens,  said  to  number  120,000  men;  but, 

Srr- ..-..^ ■ : .....        ..     ■     L  .    ■ 

*  See  page  148. 


328  MedicBval  History, 

after  a  siege  of  thirteen  months,  was  relieved  by  the  Bul- 
garians, who  fell  upon  the  Saracens  and  defeated  tiieni  Avith 
immense  slaughter. 

22.  Carthage  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  in  G98,  and  utterly 
destroyed,  after  which  they  encountered  no  oi)])osition   in 
Africa  except  from   the   native   Berber    tribes, 
whom  they  finally  subdued  (709)  and  converted. 
From  the  union  of  the  Arabic  and  Berber  races. 


Conquest  of 
Africa. 


sprung  the  Moors,  so  noted  in  Saracenic  history.  The  con- 
quest of  Africa  was  immediately  followed  by  that  of  Spain; 
for  Mu'sa,  the  Saracen  general,  dispatched  his  lieutenant 
Ta'rik  across  the  strait  of  Gibraltar  (Gib-el- 
Tarik — mountain  of  Tarik)  with  an  army  which 


Spain. 


defeated  Eoderick,*  the  last  of  the  Visigothic  kings,  and  thu^ 
destroyed  their  monarchy  in  Spain,  after  an  existence  of  near- 
ly three  centuries  (711).  f  A  remnant  of  the  Gothic  nation, 
however,  escaped  to  the  highlands  among  the  Asturian  moun- 
tains, where  they  succeeded  in  raanitaining  their  indepen- 
dence for  many  centuries. 

23.  Crossing  the  Pyrenees,  the  victorious  Saracens  were 
still  pressing  on  in  their  career  of  conquest  when  they  were 
defeated,  in  a  battle  that  lasted  seven  days,  by  the 
Franks  under  Charles  Martel,  who  by  his  valor 


Defeats. 


and  skill  probably  rescued  Europe  from  the  Mohammedan 
yoke  (732).  His  grandson  Charlemagne  more  than  fifty  years 
afterward  drove  them  beyond  tlie  Ebro,  and  thus  confined 
them  to  their  dominions  in  Spain.  The  Ommiyado  dyna^^ly 
of  caliphs  was,  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  (752), 

♦  It  is  8^d  that  the  Saracens  were  Invited  Into  Spain  by  Count  Julian^  a  Oottiio 

boble,  In  revenjfe  for  an  injury  Infilctofl  upon  liim  by  Kltifr  R«^eriek. 

t  "Amidst  the  general  disorder,  RiMlerick  started  from  Ids  run  nn«l  monntiHl 
Orella,  the  fleet»'st  of  hisst^'cds;  l)ut  he  escapofi  from  a  soldier's  death  to  }>eriHh 
more  Iji^nobly  In  the  waters  of  tlie  Guadnlqulver.  Ills  din<le!n,  his  roln's,  and  Ids 
courser  were  found  on  the  bank;  b«it  as  the  body  of  tlie  Gothic  prince  was  lost  In 
the  waves,  the  pride  and  ipnoranc^  of  tliu  Caliph  must  have  been  f?ratilltHi  witli 
some  meaner  head,  which  was  exposed  in  trimnph  before  the  palace  of  Damascus.'* 


Tlie  Saracens.  329 


succeeded  by  tlie  Ab-bas'i-des,  descendants  of  Ab'bas,  the  uncle 
of  Mohammed;  but  one  of  the  Ommiyades,  escap- 
ing to  Spain,  founded  an  independent  caliphate 
at  Cor'do-va,  which  lasted   250  years,  and  was 


Caliphate  of 
Cordova. 


one  of  the  largest  and  most  s])lendid  centers  of  commerce, 
literature,  and  the  arts  in  the  world. 

24.  Al  Mansur  (inan-soor'),  the  second  of  the  Abbasides, 
removed  the  capital  to  the  Tigris,  founding  there  the  city  of 
Bagdad,  which  was  built  out  of  the  ruins  of 
Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon  (762).     The  most  cele- 


Bagdad. 


brated  of  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad  was  Haroun'  al  Kasch'id 
(Aaron  the  Just),  made  familiar  both  to  young  and  old  by 
the  tales  of  the  ** Arabian  Nights."*  During 
this  reign  (786-808),  and  several  succeeding 
reigns,  literature  and    science,   particularly   as- 


Haroun 
al  Raschid. 


tronomy,  were  carried  to  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection 
both  at  Cordova  and  Bagdad,  while  nearly  all  Europe  was 
slumbering  in  the  intellectual  night  of  the  dark  ages. 

26.  After  the  reign  of  Haroun  al  Easchid,  the  Saracen 
Emi)irc  became  divided  by  the  rebellion  and  usurpation  of 
the  provincial  governors,  so  that,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  tenth  century,  there  were  no  less  than 


Divisions. 


seven  caliphates,  all  of  whom  acknowledged  the  caliph  of 
Bagdad  only  as  the  successor  of  Mohammed,  denying  to  him 
any  temporal  authority  over  their  respective  dominions.  Of 
these  independent  kingdoms  the  most  distinguished  was  that 
of  the  Fat'i-mites,  or  Mo'ez-zites.  The  founder 
of  this  dyuMsty  was  an  African  Saracen,  who,  with 


Fati  mites. 


the  emirs  of  Fez,  claimed  descent  from  Fatimah,  the  daughter 
of  the  Prophet.  This  chief  commenced  his  career  in  908,  and 
soon  became  master  of  the  Mohammedan  states  of  Fez  and 

*  Haroun  al  Raschid  was  contemporaneous  with  the  great  Frankish  emperor 
Charlemagne,  and  exchanged  comi:esies  with  him.  He  sent  him  various  presents, 
among  which  was  a  curious  clock  that  struck  the  hours :  and  it  is  said  he  offered 
him  the  keys  of  Jerusalem,  the  Christian  monarch  being  supposed  to  regard  ^UQh  % 
possession  with  the  utmost  reverence. 


330  Mediceval  History. 


Kairwan,  which  he  united  into  one  kingdom  (910),  which 
was  afterward  extended  by  tlie  conquest  of  Sicily  and  several 
parts  of  Italy.  One  of  the  Fatimite  rulers  conquered  Egypt 
and  built  Cairo,  which  he  made  his  cai)ital  (OCO);  and  subse- 
quently Palestine  was  conquered  (9G9).  The  dynasty  of  the 
Fatimites  continued  in  power  till  1171,  when  its  last  repre- 
sentative was  conquered  by  Sal'a-din. 

26.  In  the  eleventh  century  (1055),  Bagdad  was  taken  by 
the  Seljuks;  but  these  fierce  barbarians,  being  believers  in  Mo- 
liammed,  acknowledged  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad  as 
their  superiors.    The  power,  however,  of  the  latter 


Bagdad  taken. 


had  been  greatly  diminished;  and  their  dominions  scarcely 
extended  beyond  the  walls  of  the  city.  At  length,  in  1258, 
during  the  reign  of  the  grandson  of  Genghis  Khan,  Bagdad 
was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  Mongols;  and  the 
caliphate  extinguished,  after  it  had  existed  nearly 
500  years.     This  event  is  generally  regarded  as 


End  of  the 
caliphate. 


the  termination  of  the  Saracen  Empire,  although,  centuries 
before,  its  various  parts  had  been  but  nominally  connected. 


SECTION  IV. 
Saracenic   Civilization. 


27.  The  rapid  and  extensive  conquests  of  the  Saracens 
made  them  acquainted  with  the  greater  i>art  of  the  civilized 
world,  and  as  tliey  were  a  highly  intellectual  and 
enterprising  race,  they  soon  learned  to  make  their 
knowledge   available.      Tliis  was  first  sliown  in 


Commercial 
activity. 


their  commercial  activity.  Planting  trading  stations  along 
the  African  coast,  they  soon  controlled  the  whole  maritime 
commerce  of  the  Mediterranean.  They  restored 
the  ancient  caravan  routes,  constructed  highways, 


Routes  of  travel. 


opened  wells  along  all  the  roads  leading  to  every  great  center, 
ftud  established  caravan^ftries  at  convenient  points.     Bagdad, 


Saracenic  CimUzation.  331 

which  became  the  center  of  the  caravan  routes,  acquired  a  splen- 
dor and  opulence  that  might  almost  vie  with  ancient  Babylon. 
28.  Their  trade  extended  to  the  far  east  as  well  as  the 
west.  There  were  caravan  routes  that  led  into  Siberia,  and 
their  traders  visited  India  and  even  China.  They 
brought  gold  and  negro  slaves  from  the  western 


Trade. 


coast  of  Africa;  and,  sailing  along  the  east  coast,  spread  their 
commerce  to  Madagascar.    They  exchanged  their 
linen,  silk,  and  cotton  manufactures  for  the  furs 
of  the  Kussians;  and  obtained  the  rich  products 


Articles  of 
exchange. 


of  Independent  Tartary  and  Persia  in  exchange  for  their 
tapestries  and  silk  stuffs,  the  cloths  of  Yemen,  the  dates  and 
flour  of  Sana,  the  balsams  of  Mecca,  and  the  cutlery  and 
textile  fabrics  of  Damascus  (damasks). 

29.  In  Spain  the  Saracenic  dominion  was  equally  wealthy 
and  magnificent.  Of  this  Cordova  was  the  capital,  renowned 
for  its  splendid  mosque  and  sumptuous  palace. 
It  was  the  seat  of  extensive  manufactures  of  silk, 
leather,  silver-work,  and  other  articles.     It  con- 


Manufactures 

in  Spain. 


Mines. 


tained  600  mosques,  nearly  1000  baths,  and  16,000  looms  for 
silk-weaving.  The  old  silver-mines  of  Spain  were 
worked  anew  by  the  Moors,  and  yielded  large 
treasures.  In  weaving  and  dyeing  they  showed  a  wonderful 
skill.  Granada  and  other  cities  also  enjoyed  great  prosperity. 
30.  In  learning,  the  Saracens  became  equally  advanced. 
They  founded  universities  and  schools,  built  observatories, 
and  instituted  public  libraries  and  museums. 
They  collected  the  works  of  the  ancient  classic 


Learning. 


writers,  and  translated  many  of  them  into  Arabic,  and  cul- 
tivated with    astonishing    success   almost  every 
branch   of    science,   particularly  chemistry,    as- 


Science. 


tronomy,  and  mathematics.  They  also  introduced  the  arith- 
metical notation  (Arabic)  which  we  now  use.  The  Saraceric 
architecture  is  a  special  order,  of  which  the  famous  palace  of 
Alhambra,  in  Granada,  is  a  type. 


332 


MedicRtal  History. 


Chronological  Synopsis  of  Events. 


A..D. 

Eastern  Empire. 

Wkstehk  Europe. 

Saracens. 

441 

luvasion  by  the  Huns. 

• 

449 

Saxon  invasion  of  Britain. 

486 

The  Franks  xmder  Clovis 
invade  GauL 

493 

Italy  invaded  by  the  Ostro- 
goths. 

511 

Death  of  aovis. 

568 

Lombards  invade  Italy. 

669 

Birth  of  Mohammed. 

€22 

Defeat  of  the  Persians  by 
Heraclius. 

Merovingians  in  France. 

The  Hegira. 

650 

Conquest  of  Persia. 

680 

Bulgaria  founded. 

687 

Pepin  d'Heristal,  Mayor  of 
the  Palace. 

711 

End  of  the  Visigothic  khig- 
dom  in  Spain. 

Conquest  of  Spato. 

732 

Defeated  by  Charles 
Martel. 

752 

End  of  the   Merovingian 
dynasty. 

762 

Bagdad  founded. 

768 

Accession  of  Charlemagne 

786 

Accession  of  Haroun  al 
Raschid. 

800 

Charlemagne  emperor  of 
the  West. 

806 

Death  of  Haroun. 

843 

Empire   of    Charlemagne 
divided. 

865 

Russian     invasion.  —  Con- 
stantinople attacked. 

884 

Empire       united      under 
Charles  the  Fat. 

887 

Final  division  of  the  em- 
pire. 

910 

Commencement  of  the 

Fatimite  dynasty. 

912 

Normans  settle  in  France. 

987 

End  of  the  Carlovlngians. 

1055 

Bagdad    taken    by   the 

1076 

Jerusalem  taken   by   the 
Seljuks. 

1097 

Nice  taken  by  the  Crusa- 
ders. 

1204 

Constantinople    taken  by 
the  Crusaders. 

1258 

Bagdad  taken  byGenghIa 
Khan. -End    of    the 

* 

Saracen  Empire. 

1453 

End  of  the  Eastern   Em- 

j    pire. 

1 
1 

No.  11 


Saxon  Period.  333 


CHAPTER  IV. 
England  in  the  Middle  Ages. 


SECTION  I. 
AXON   Period, 


1.  The  Saxon  period  of  the  history  of  England  includes 
that  of  the  Heptarchy,  about  three  and  a  half  centuries  pre- 
ceding the  consolidation  of  the  Saxon  kingdoms 
by  Egbert.     To  this  period  of  British  history 


Saxon  period. 


belong  the  stories  related  of  King  Arthur,  a  famous  British 
champion  who  became  renowned  for  his  many  victories  over 
the  Saxon  invaders;  also  the  partial  conversion  of 
the  Saxons  to  Christianity,  which  was  effected 


Events. 


by  St.  Au'gus-tine  and  several  monks,  commissioned  by  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great  to  perform  this  work  (597).  The  bar- 
barous and  ferocious  manners  of  the  age,  although  softened,- 
were  by  no  means  removed,  by  the  partial  Chris tianization. 
thus  effected. 

2.  In  the  same  period,  the  Danes  commenced  their  inva- 
sions. These  people  were  Norsemen  who  had  come  from 
Norway  to  Denmark,  and  occupied  the  lands  left 
uninhabited  by  the  emigration  of  the  Angles  and 


Danes. 


Jutes  to  Britain.     The  Danes  for  a  long  time  continued  to 
harass  the  kingdom  of  England,  in  the  reigns  of  both  Egbert 

Geographical  Study,  Map  No.  XI. 
What  was  the  situation  of:  Kent?  Sussex?  Wessex?  Essex?  East  Amglia?' 
Mercia?  Northumbria?  Strathclyde?  North  Wales?  West  Wales?  Senlacf 
Deal?  Stonehenge?  Glastonbury?  Wareham?  Stamford?  Leicester?  Derby?  Not- 
tingham? Lincoln?  York?  Leeds?  Stamford  Bridge?  Scarborough?  The  country  of 
the  Picts?  Anglefpy?  Isle  of  Wight?  River  Thames?  Humber?  Tees?  T^e?  Severn? 
Wye?  Firth  of  Forth?  Tay?  Clyde?  Sol  way  Firth  f 


334  Mediceval  History. 

and  his  successors,  the  Saxon  kings  of  England,  who,  except 
during  the  reigns  of  Canute  the  Dane  and  his  two  successors, 
held  the  throne  a  little  over  two  centuries  (827-1066). 

3.  Alfred  the  Great.     The  most  eminent  of  these  Saxon 
kings  was  Alfred  the  Great,  who  was  the  most  illustrious 
monarch  of  his  age,  and  one  of  the  wisest  and 
most  virtuous  kings  that  ever  reigned.     Though 


Reign  of  Alfred. 


at  one  time  entirely  overwhelmed  by  the  Danes,  and  re- 
duced to  such  an  extremity  that  he  was  obliged  to  seek 
safety  in  an  obscure  part  of  the  country,  in  the  disguise  of  a 
peasant,  he  at  last,  by  his  fortitude  and  address,  was  enabled 
to  defeat  his  enemies,  and  to  regain  his  throne.  Tlie  Danes 
being  expelled,  he  restored  tranquillity  to  the  country,  and 
endeavored,  by  judicious  measures,  to  promote  the  prosperity 
and  civilization  of  the  people.  lie  caused  the  rights  of  prop- 
erty to  be  respected,  improved  the  laws  of  tlie  kingdom,  and 
establislied  schools  for  the  education  of  the  people.  His  reign 
lasted  thirty  years  (871-901).* 

4.  During  the  next  century,  the  Danes  continued  their 
incursions,  until  the  English  monarch  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render one  half  of  his  dominions  to  the  Danish 
conqueror  Can-ute';  and  soon  afterward  the  latter 


Canute. 


obtained  full  possession  of  the  throne  (1017),  which  he  and 
his  two  successors  held,  until  tlie  Saxon  line  was 
again  restored  in  the  person  of  Edward,  called 
the  Confessor,  on  account  of  his  studious  habits 


Edward 
the  Confessor 


and  pious  disposition.     This  monarch  was  canonized  by  the 

*  "  Alfred  ig  the  most  perfect  character  In  histoty.  He  Is  a  sinsrular  instance  oT 
a  prince  whb  has  become  a  hero  of  romance,  who,  as  such,  has  had  coimtless 
imaginary  exploits  attributed  to  him,  but  to  whose  character  romance  has  done  no 
more  than  justice,  and  who  appears  in  exactly  the  same  Hcht  in  history  and  in 
fable.  No  other  man  on  record  has  ever  so  thon)UKhIy  tmited  all  the  virtues  both 
of  the  ruler  and  of  the  private  man.  In  no  other  man  on  reconl  were  so  many 
virtues  disfigured  by  so  little  alloy.  A  saint  without  Kiiperstltion,  a  scholar  without 
ostentation,  a  warrior  all  of  whose  wars  were  fought  in  the  defense  of  his  country,  a 
conqueror  whose  laurels  were  never  staine<l  by  cruelty,  a  prince  never  cast  down 
by  adversity,  never  lifted  up  to  insolence  in  the  day  of  triumph,  there  is  no  other 
name  in  history  to  compare  with  his."— FVeemaH'*  Norman  Coturuest, 


Saxon  Period.  385 

Pope,  and  very  much  revered  by  the  people,  who  imputed  to 
him  the  power  of  curing  the  scrofula  by  the  touch  of  his 
hand.  Hence  this  disease  was  called  the  "  king's  3vil;"  and 
for  seven  centuries  those  afflicted  with  it  were,  at  times,  pre- 
sented to  the  king  to  be  cured  in  this  way. 

5.  Edward  dying  without  heirs,  the  crown  was  conferred 
by  the  clergy  and  nobles  upon  Harold,  son  of  Earl  Godwin, 
the  most  powerful  nobleman  of  the  time,  whose 
daughter  Edward  had  married.     Harold  was  also. 


Harold. 


through  his  grandmother,  a  descendant  of  Sweyn  (sivane), 
the  Danish  king.  His  right  to  the  throne  was,  however,  dis- 
puted by  his  brother  Tos'tig,  who,  having  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  the  King  of  Norway,  was  en- 


Tostig. 


abled  to  raise  a  large  army;  but  he  was  defeated  by  the  Eng- 
lish forces  under  Harold,  after  a  severe  battle  fought  near  the 
Der'went  River,  in  the  northern  part  of  England  (September 
25,  1066). 

6.  Three  days  after  this  battle,  a  more  powerful  competi- 
tor-for  the  throne  landed  on  the  southeastern  shore  of  Eng- 
land, with  a  large  and  finely  equipped  army. 
This  was  William,  Duke  of  Normandy,  to  whom 
Edward  had  bequeathed  the  throne,  and  whose 


Norman 
conquest. 


claim  was  sanctioned  by  the  Pope;  while  Harold,  who,  it  was 
said,  had  sacredly  promised  not  to  dispute  William's  claim, 
was  viewed  by  many  as  guilty  of  usurpation  and  perjury. 
Harold,  notwithstanding  his  recent  conflict  with  the  Nor- 
wegians, marched  with  all  the  forces  he  could  collect  to 
oppose  the  Normans.  The  battle,  which  was  long  and  bloody, 
was  fought  near  Hastings,*  and  resulted  in  the  entire  defeat 
of  the  Saxons,  Harold  himself  being  slain  (October  14, 1066).  f 

*  On  the  site  of  the  to-wn  now  called  Battle,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  England. 
It  was  fought  on  the  hill  of  Senlac.    (See  Map  No.  XI.) 

+  "Toward  the  evening,  while  still  unweariedly  sustaining  his  army  with  his 
voice  and  hand,  Harold  was  struck  with  an  arrow  through  the  left  eye  into  the 
brain,  and  fell  dead  upon  the  field.  His  two  brothers,  Gurth  and  Leofwin,  were 
also  slain,  with  nearly  all  the  nobles  and  knights  in  the  battle.    The  old  .cVnglo- 


336  MedixB^al  History. 

This  ended  the  Saxon  dynasty,  and  gave  the  control  of  the 
kingdom  to  Willi ■:ti,  who,  two  months  afterward,  was  formally 
crowned  king  of  England  in  Westminster  Abbey  (Decembei 
25,  1066). 

Anglo-Saxon  Civilization. 

7.  The  great  council  of  the  nation  was  called  the  Witeju 

agemote  (meeting  of  the  witan,  or  wise  men),  and  was  com^ 

posed  of  representatives  of  the  nobles  and  clergy. 

The  churls,  or  common  people,  had  no  voice  in 


Witenagemote. 


it.  The  kings  were  chosen  by  it,  and  no  law  could  be  enacted 
without  its  consent.  Justice  was  administered  in  the  sliirc- 
mote,  or  county  court,  from  which  an  appeal  could  be  made 
to  the  king.  The  finding  of  a  verdict  was  assigned  to  twelve 
—  thanes  (lowest  order  of  nobles),  who  thus  bore 
some  resemblance  to  a  modern  jury.  The  accused 
cleared  himself  by  his  own  oath  or  those  of  others. 


Administration 
of  justice. 


called  compurgators,  who  swore  to  his  innocence.  Without 
these,  he  was  subjected  to  the  ordeal  (great  judgment);  that 
is,  he  was  compelled  to  thrust  his  arm  into  boiling  water, 
hold  a  piece  of  red-hot  iron  in  his  hand,  or  walk  over  burning 
plowshares;  and  if  at  the  end  of  tliree  days  no  signs  of  injury 
appeared  upon  him,  his  innocence  was  deemed  to  be  estab- 
lished. 

8.  The  dwellings  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  constructed  of 
wood,  having,  instead  of  a  cliimney,  an  aperture  in  the  roof. 
The   windows  were  of  lattice-work,   but  some- 
times were   covered  with  a  linen  blind;  in  tlu 


Dwellings. 


houses  of  the  rich  they  were  often  glazed.  The  floors  wore 
covered  with  rushes,  and  the  walls  often  hung  with  rich 
tapestry,  embroidered  with  gold  or  colored  thread,  the  women 


Saxon  herolBm,  worthy  of  a  better  fate,  set  In  that  dark  eclipse;  the  battle-ax  no 
longer  availed  against  the  Nonnan  spear.  Certain  It  is.  however,  that  there  wn« 
neither  rout  nc-  flight,  so  great  was  the  despairing  energy  with  wiiich  the  Kngiish 
fought.  King  Harold's  army  was  fxtertuinated  hut  not  ranquishe<l.  and  England  lay 
paralyzed  at  the  foot  of  th».'  conciueror. "—i?(WCOc'a  Utvt  of  t/tc  Kings  vf  Ewjland. 


Saxon  Period.  337 


of  this  period  being  skilled  in  needlework.     The  furniture 
was  very  rude  and  simple,  stools,  benches,  and 
settees  being  used  in  place  of  chairs;  and  these 


Furniture. 


were  made  of  wood,  often  curiously  carved.  Many  of  the 
vessels  employed  in  eating  and  drinking  were  of  silver  and 
gold  beautifully  wrought.  Drinking-horns  supplied  the  place 
of  glass  vessels. 

9.  The  Anglo-Saxons  were  hospitable,  and  fond  of  feast- 
ing and  merriment;  and  at  their  banquets,  the  harp  was 
passed  around,  that  each,  in  turn,  might  contrib- 
ute by  his  skill  to  the  entertainment.      Their 


Social  customs. 


amusements  were  active  and  exciting.  Among  the  higher 
classes,  hunting  and  hawking  were  favorite  sports;  while  the 
churl  delighted  in  bear-baiting,  in  the  feasts  of  jugglers  and 
tumblers,  and  in  the  songs  of  the  gleemarf,  or  minstrel.  Back- 
gammon, chess,  and  dice  were  also  resorted  to  for  more  quiet 
pastime.  The  ladies  were  much  occupied  in  spinning;  hence 
the  name  spinster  came  to  be  applied  to  a  young  unmarried 
woman. 

10.  Little  was  done  after  Alfred's  reign  to  encourage 
learning  and  science,  the  irruptions  of  the  Danes  preventing 
any  progressive  efforts  to  cultivate  the  arts  of 
peace.  There  were  no  means  of  diffusing  knowl- 
edge.     The  monasteries  were  almost   the   only 


Learning  and 
science. 


schools;  and  in  these  a  very  few  persons  received  instruction 
in  Greek,  Latin,  theology,  and  astronomy;  also  in  some  of 
the  fine  arts,  the  monks  being  often  skilled  in  painting, 
music,  and  sculpture.  They  also  spent  much  of  their  time 
in  copying  and  illuminating  books  on  vellum  or  parchment, 
which,  being  executed  Avith  so  much  labor,  were  very  costly,  a 
considerable  fortune  being  requisite  to  obtain  a  few  volumes. 

11.  The  foreign  commerce  of  England  during  this  period 
was  considerable,  London  being  the  great   em- 
porium of  the  nation.    "Wool  was  the  chief  article 


Commerce. 


of  export,  and  was  received  back  from  the  continent  in  fabrics 


338  MedicBval  History. 

of  various  kinds.  Mints  were  estiiblislicd  in  some  of  the 
cities  and  towns,  and  many  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  coins  still 
preserved  exhibit  remarkable  skill. 


SECTION  II. 
The  Norman^  Period. 


12.  "William  I,  surnamed  the  Conqiieror,  was  a  descendant 
of  the  famous  Duke  Rollo,  to  whom  Charles  the  Simi)le  liud 
ceded  Normandy  about  150  years  previously.    He 
was  not  only  a  brave  J'nd  skillful  general,  but  an 


Character. 


able  statesman;  and,  after  subduing  all  the  Anglo-Saxon  leaders 
who  opposed  his  rule,  he,  by  severe  but  judicious  regulations, 
firmly  established  the  government,  and  effectually  protected 
the  country  from  foreign  invasions.  The  Saxon  population 
was,  however,  reduced  to  a  condition  of  abject  bondage  to 
the  great  Norman  barons,  among  whom  most  of 
the  lands  Avere  divided  as  a  reward  for  their  ser- 


Measures. 


vices,  according  to  the  usages  of  the  feudal  system.  The  laws  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  were  not,  however,  abolished;  and 
some  of  the  Saxon  nobles  sat  in  council  with  the  Norman 
counts. 

13.  William  introduced  the  custom  of  ringing  the  curfcW' 
hell  in  the  evening,  as  a  signal  that  the  people  should  ex- 
tinguish their  lamps  and  fires,  either  to  prevent 
confiagrations  or  secret  assemblies  of  those  who 


Chi«f  events. 


were  hostile  to  his  government.*    One  of  his  most  useful  acts 

*  "  William,  knowing  how  ill  the  Enjclish  stood  affected  to  him,  resolved  to  take 
all  possible  measures  to  scre«>n  himself  from  their  roRentment;  for  that  purpoM 
he  took  two  precautions  which  were  equally  insupportahle  to  them.  The  first  WM 
to  take  away  their  arms,  the  se<*on(l  to  forbid  them  any  li)?hts  in  their  hoiwes  after 
eiffht  o'clock,  at  which  hour  a  bell  was  ruiijr  to  warn  them  to  put  out  their  fire  and 
candle,  tmder  the  penalty  of  a  groat  fine  for  every  offense."— /?op»V«  Huttoryof 
iMgland. 


Norman  Period. 


339 


was  to  cause  tlie  compilation  of  the  Domesday  BooJc,  which 
was  a  register  of  all  the  estates  in  the  kingdom.  Hunting 
was  his  favorite  amusement;  and  in  order  to  make  a  new 
forest  near  his  residence,  he  laid  waste  a  tract  of  country 


Geographical  Study. 
What  is  the  situation  of:  England?    Wales?    Scotland?    Ireland?    Londori  f 
Dover?    Hastings?    Portsmouth?    Canterbury?    Cornwall?    York?     Carlislo?    0^ 
cerbum?  Flodden Field?  Edinburgh?  Glasgow?  Inverness?  Pul^Up?  5^,  4IV»v^nat 
(^ftruet?  WftkefleWf  TQwtoar  Isl^  of  Wlufhtf 


340  Mediceval  History, 

extending  thirty  miles,  driving  out  the  inhabitants,  demolish- 
ing houses  and  even  churches,  but  making  no  compensation 
for  the  injury.  To  kill  game  in  any  of  the  forests  was  made 
a  crime  of  greater  enormity  than  murder.*  He 
died  during  an  invasion  of  France,  in  the  twenty- 


Death. 


third  year  of  his  reign  (1087). 

14.  William  II.,  surnamed  Ricfus,  the  Red,  from  the  color 
of  his  hair,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,  by  the  will 
of  his  father,  while  his  elder  brother  Robert  assumed  the 
government  of  Normandy.  William  inherited 
the  courage  and  much  of  the  ability  of  his  father. 


Character. 


but  was  more  cruel  and  unprincipled.  His  reign  was  much 
disturbed  by  quarrels  with  his  brothers  Robert  and  Henry, 
which  caused  him  to  invade  Normandy.  He  also  waged  war 
with  Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland.  During  this 
period  the  First  Crusade  occurred;  and  Robert, 


Events. 


wishing  to  join  it,  mortgaged  to  William  his  duchy  of  Nor- 
mandy (1095),  thp  latter  raising  the  money  to  ])ay  for  it  by 
forced  levies  upon  his  subjects,  even  compelling  the  convents 
to  melt  their  plate  in  order  to  furnish  their  quota.  After  a 
reign  of  thirteen  years,  he  was  shot  while  hunting 
in  the  New  Forest  (1100).     The  people  viewed 


Death. 


this  as  a  just  retribution;  for  where  the  Conqueror  had  de- 
stroyed the  homes  of  the  Saxons,  his  son  prematurely  and 
miserably  perished,  f 

♦  " '  Stark  he  was,'  says  the  English  chronicler,  *  to  men  that  withstood  him.  So 
harsh  and  cruel  was  he  that  none  dared  resist  his  will.  Earls  that  did  aii^ht  atrainst 
his  bidding  he  cast  into  bonds,  bishops  lie  stripped  of  their  bishoprics,  abbots  of  iheir 
abbacies.  He  spared  not  his  own  brotbcr;  first  he  was  in  the  land,  but  the  king 
cast  him  into  bondage.  If  a  man  would  live  and  hold  his  lands,  need  it  were  that 
he  followed  the  king's  will.'  But  stern  as  he  was,  he  gave  peace  to  the  land.  Even 
amid  the  suflferings  which  necessarily  sprang  from  the  circtunstanpcs  of  the  Con- 
quest itself,  from  the  erection  of  castles,  or  the  inclosure  of  forests,  or  the  exac- 
tions which  built  up  the  great  Hoard  at  Winchester.  Englishmen  were  unable  to 
forget '  the  good  peace  he  made  in  the  land,  so  thnt  a  man  miglit  fare  over  his  realm 
with  a  bosom  full  of  gold.'  "—Grt'e)i's  Ilistort/  of  the  En{/lisk  People. 

t  "  It  was  almost  night,  when  a  j»(»or  charcoal-burner,  pafwing  through  the  New 
Forest  with  his  cart,  came  upon  the  solit^r;  body  of  a  dead  man,  shot  with  an 
ftrrpw  in  the  breast,  and  still  bleeding.    He  got  It  Into  his  cart.    It  ww  tbe'hody  of 


Norman  Period.  341 


15.  Henry  I.  (surnamed  Beauclerk,  tbe  Scholar),  the 
younger  brother  of  William  11. ,  succeeded  him;  Kobert,  the 
elder  brother,  being  absent  in  the  Holy  Land. 
The  latter,  on  his  return,  again  received  Nor- 


Robert 


mandy;   but  some  time  afterward,  war  arising  between  the 
brothers,   Robert  was  made  prisoner,  sent  to  England,  and 
confined  in  a  castle  in  Wales  till  his  death.     The 
government  of  Henry  was  characterized  by  seve- 


Government. 


rity;  and  so  strict  and  impartial  was  he  in  administering  the 
laws,  that  he  was  styled  the  ''  Lion  of  Justice."     He  married 
Matilda,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Scotland,  and 
niece  of  Edgar  Atheling,  a  prince  of  the  old 


Matilda. 


Saxon  line.  Matilda  was  much  beloved  by  the  people,  who 
called  her  Maud  the  Good.  Henry's  private  life  was,  how- 
ever, very  immoral;  and  he  was  so  deceitful  and 
treacherous  that  even  his  greatest  favorites  dis- 


Private  life. 


trusted  him.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  saddened  by  the 
loss  of  his  only  son,  who  was  drowned  on  his  passage  from 
Normandy;  after  which  event,  it  is  said,  Henry  was  never 
seen  to  smile. 

16.  Stephen,  a  nephew  of  Henry,  succeeded  him,  although 
it  had  been  his  cherished  wish  that  his  daughter  Matilda 
should  have  the  throne.  This  princess,  whose 
first  husband  was  the  emperor  of  Germany,  and 


Matilda. 


who  afterward  married  Geoffrey  Plan-tag'e-net,  Earl  of 
Anjou,  raised  an  army,  and  having  defeated  Stephen  and 
made  him  a  prisoner,  was  declared  queen  of  England  (1141). 
She,  however,  soon  disgusted  all  her  English  friends  and  sup- 
porters by  her  despotic  and  arrogant  behavior;  and  Stephen 
was  enabled  to  regain  the  throne,  Matilda  being  compelled 
to  flee. 

Che  king.  Shaken  and  tumbled,  with  its  red  beard  all  whitened  with  lime  and  clotted 
with  blood,  it  was  driven  in  the  cart  by  the  charcoal-burner  next  day  to  Winchester 
Cathedral,  where  it  was  received  and  buried.  By  whose  hand  the  Red  King  really 
tell,  and  whether  that  hand  dispatched  the  arrow  to  his  breast  by  accident  or  de- 
sign, is  known  only  to  Qo^.''— Dickens. 


342  Mediceval  History. 

17.  Some  years  after  this,  Henry  Plantagenet,  her  son, 
made  another  effort  to  dethrone   Stephen,  but   was  finally 
reconciled  to  the  king,  being  adopted  by  him  as 
his  son  and  successor;  soon  after  which,  on  the 


Henry. 


death  of  Stephen,  he  became  king  (1154).  During  the  reign 
of  Stephen,  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  the  government, 
the  country  suffered  greatly  from  the  violence 
and  rapacity  of  the  feudal  barons,  each  of  whom 
occupied  a  fortified  castle,  from  which,  at  the 


Condition  of 
the  country. 


head  of  his  band  of  mercenary  ruffians,  he  sallied  forth  day 
and  night  to  plunder  and  oppress  the  inhabitants.  This 
reigu  terminates  the  Norman  period. 

Norman  Civilization.— The  Feudal  System. 

18.  The  !Norman  conquest  of  England  wrought  many  great 

changes  in  the  social  as  well  as  the  political  condition  of  the 

people.     Among  these  the  establishment  of  the 

Feudal  System  was  the  most  important.     This 


Feudal  system. 


was  a  system  by  which,  during  the  period  from  the  ninth  to 
the  thirteenth  century,  social  and  political  relations,  includ- 
ing the  rights  of  landed  property,  were  regulated  in  nearly 
all  the  countries  of  Europe.  A  feudal  proprietor  was  one 
who  held  his  lands  from  another,  on  condition  of  certain  ser- 
vices which  he,  as  a  vassal,  was  bound  to  perform  for  the 
other,  as  his  suzerain^  or  sicperior. 

19.  This  peculiar  relation   was  established  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  and  preserving  military  strength;  and  wjis 
admirably  adapted  to  that  end.     Thus,  when  the 
king  needed  an  army  he  summoned  his  barons, 
who  in  like  manner  called  upon  their  vassals. 


Object  of  the 
system. 


and  they  at  once  made  a  similar  demand  upon  their  depen- 
dents; so  that,  with  wonderful  promptitude,  the  whole  force 
of  the  nation  was  brought  into  the  field.  With 
the  exception  of  the  duty  of  milit^iry  service  to 


their  superiors,  the  vassals  of  a  king  practically  were  invested 


Norman  Period, 


343 


with  sovereign  power  within  their  own  dominions,  having 
vassals  in  various  degrees  beneath  them;  and  living  in  their 
fortified  castles,  often  by  means  of  pillage,  while  the  peasan- 
try were  bound  as  serfs,  or  slaves,  to  the  soil. 

20.  These  feudal  castles  soon  became  a  striking  feature 
in  England  and  other  parts  of  western  Europe, 
their  whole  appearance  indicating  that  the  only 


Feudal  castles. 


objects  of  their  construction  were  strength  and  security.  They 
were  surrounded  by  walls 
often  more  than  twelve  feet 
high,  within  which  was  a  lofty 
tower  called  the  donjon,  or 
Iceep,  whose  massive  walls, 
pierced  with  small  windows 
or  loop-holes,  defied  the  fierc- 
est assault.  Here  the  baron 
^ved,  and  here  was  stored  the 
property  of  the  castle.  Under 
it  was  a  gloomy  dungeon,  iii 
which  those  who  had  offended  a  feudal  castle. 

its  haughty  master  were  thrust,  and  often  left  to  starve.     The 
ruins  of  some  of  these  castles  still  exist. 

21.  The  feudal  nobles  and  gentlemen  fought  on  horseback, 
and  were  protected  by  a  close-fitting  armor  of  steel,  often 
ornamented  with  gold  and  silver.  Their  princi- 
pal weapons  of  offense  were  long  lances,  with 
which  they  rode  fiercely  against  each  other;  and 


Modes  of 
combat 


clubs,  maces,  or  swords  for  hand-to-hand  conflicts,  when  their 
lances  were  broken,  or  when  the  combatants  became  un- 
horsed. The  common  soldiers  fought  on  foot,  were  unpro- 
vided with  protective  armor,  and  used  bows  and  arrows — 
either  long-bows  or  cross-bows.  The  Normans  were  "Skilled 
in  the  use  of  every  species  of  arms,  but  particularly  in  the 
cross-bow;  and,  after  the  Norman  invasion,  the  English 
became  the  most  skillful  archers  in  the  world. 


844 


MediceGal  History. 


22.  The  most  numerous  class  in  England  at  this  time 
were  the  Saxon  churls,  or,  as  called  by  the  Normans,  villains. 
These  were  farmers,  and  were  obliged  to  place 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  some  noble, 
as  otherwise  they  might  be  seized  as  robbers.  They  were 
\)ound    to  reside  on 


Vitlaina. 


the  lands  which  they 
held  from  their  lords, 
unless  permitted  to 
leave  them.  Next 
below  these  were  the 
serfs,  who  were  in  all 
respects  bondsmen, 
being  at- 
tached to 


Serfs. 


the  soil,  and  subject 
to  the  will  of  their 
masters.  The  num- 
ber of  these  regis- 
tered in  Domesday 
Book  was  25,000. 

23.  The  dress  of 
the  Normans  was,  in 
many  respects,  pecu- 
culiar.  A  short  cloak, 
often  richly  furred 
and  ornamented  with 
gold  lace,  worn  over 
a  loose  doublet  reach- 
ing half  way  down  the 
leg,  formed  the  most 


A  NORMAH  CASTLB. 

1.  The  Donjon:  2.  Chapel;  3.  Stables:  4.  Inner  Bal 
liiim  (bailt'y,  or  court);  5.  Outer  Hallium ;  iV  Marba- 
can;  7.  Mount,  supposed  to  be  the  court-hill,  or 
tribunal,  and  also  the  place  where  Justice  waa 
executed;  K.  Soldiers'  Lodgings. 

consj)icuous  portion  of  a  gentleman's  costume. 

The  shoes  had  vpry  long  pointed  toes,  sometimes 
twisted  in  a  very  curious  manner,  and  occasionally  fastened 
by  gold  or  silver  ckaius  to  the  knees.    Long  hose,  fastened  to 


Costume. 


Norman  Period,  345 


the  doublet  by  strings,  called  'points,  and  a  velvet  bonnet, 
completed  the  costume.  The  Norman  ladies  wore  a  loose 
wide-sleeved  robe  reaching  to  the  ground,  and  covering  a 
kirtle  or  under-gown'of  silk.  Other  modes  of  costume  were 
peculiar  to  various  characters.  Thus  the  minstrel  was  dis- 
tinguished by  his  harp  strung  on  his  shoulder, 
a  plate  of  silver  on  his  arm,  and  a  chain  around 


M  nstrel. 


his  neck  bearing  the  tuning-key;  the  fool,  or  jester,  by  his 
cap  and  bells,  and  his  party-cMored  dress;  the  palmer,  or 
pilgrim,  by  his  sandals,  the  scallop-shells  border- 
ing his  hat,  and  his  iron-shod  staff.  The  Saxon 
serf  was  clothed  in  un  tanned  hide,  sandals  of 


Dress  of  the 
serf. 


hog-skin,  and  leather  hose,  and  wore  a  collar  of  braiss  en- 
graved with  his  master's  name. 

24.  Learning  at  this  period  was  almost  exclusively  con- 
fined to  the  cloister,  the  monks  and  priests  being  the  only 
scholars.  Every  monastery  had  its  writing- 
room,  where  the  copying  of  books  was  constantly 


Learning. 


carried  on  by  the  monks.  The  most  noted  among  the  English 
writers  of  this  time  were  William  of  Malmsbury,  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth,  and  Henry  of  Huntingdon.  These  were  the  au- 
thors of  several  interesting  chronicles. 

Chivaley  or  Knighthood. 

25.  Chivalry  or  knighthood,  like  feudalism,  was  an  insti- 
tution peculiar  to  this  age,  and  exerted  a  powerful  influence 

upon  the  social  customs  of  the  Normans.     While    i — 

the  feudal  system  constituted  the  basis  of  the    ! 


political  system  both  of  England  and  France  at  this  time, 
chivalry  controlled  the  moral  and  social  character  of  the 
people.  Though  pertaining  to  the  general  history  of  Europe, 
we  give  a  sketch  of  it  here,  because  of  its  prominence  among 
the  Normans,  both  in  Normandy  and  in  the  conquered  Anglo- 
Saxon  kingdom. 


346 


MedicBval  History, 


26.  It  was  a  singular  combination  of  religion,  military 
valor,   and   gallantry;   and   for  several   centuries   continued 
to  exercise  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  man- 
ners, customs,  and  opinions  of  all  classes.     Al- 


Development. 


Training  for 
knighthood. 


though  its  origin  can  be  faintly  discerned  in  the  institutions 

and  practices  of  the  German  and 

Gothic  nations,  its  full  develop- 
ment was  not  reached  till  the 

eleventh    or    twelfth     century, 

being  rapidly  matured  by  the 

Crusades,  from  which  it  received 

a    strong    religious     character. 

Those  destined  for  knighthood 
received,  from  their 
earliest  years,  a  pe- 
culiar training.  The 

first  degree  was   that  of  page 

(called  sometimes  child  or  var- 

let):  after  the  age  of  fourteen, 

the  page    might  be    made    an 

es^quire,  and  was  allowed  to  bear 

arms.  He  was  then  kept  in  con- 
stant service,  waiting  upon  the 

master  and  mistress  of  the  castle, 

and  acquiring  habits  of  perfect 

obedience  and  courtesy.     Every 

care  was  taken  to  impress  in- 
delibly upon  his  mind  a  love  of 

chivalry;  that  is,  a  devotion  to  feats  of  arms  in  behalf  of  the 

weak  and  oppressed,  or  in  vindication  of  religion,  and  of  the 

honor  and  virtue  of  the  female  sex.* 

•  **  The  young  man,  the  esquire,  who  asolred  to  the  title  of  knight,  was  first 
stripped  of  his  clothes  and  placed  in  a  hath,  which  was  symbolical  f»f  ptirifloation. 
On  leavinf;  the  bath  he  was  clothed  in  a  white  tunic,  symbolical  of  purity:  a  red 
robe,  symbolical  of  the  blood  he  was  bound  to  she<l  in  the  service  of  the  faith;  and 
%  blftck  close-fitting  coat,  of  the  death  which  awaited  him  aa  w^U  (^  Alt  men.  I'hub 


A  Kntqht  in  C'oMiTKTK  Armor. 


Norman  Period.  847 


27.  By  means  of  this  training,  he  was  prepared  to  receive 
his  golden  spurs,  and  to  take  the  vows  of  a  knight.  The 
candidate  for  this  honor  was  obliged,  the  night 
before  receiving  it,  to  hold  his  vigil;  that  is,  he 
kept  silent  watch  within  some  gloomy  chapel 


Mode  of 
admission. 


over  the  arms  Which  he  was  about  to  assume.  The  chief  of 
these  was  a  lance,  besides  which  he  had  a  two-handed  sword, 
the  "dagger  of  mercy,"  and  sometimes  a  battle-ax  or  mace. 
He  was  clad  from  head  to  foot  in  armor,  consisting  of  plates 
of  metal  riveted  together,  and  worn  over  a  dress  of  soft 
leather.  His  helmet  bore  a  crest,  ornamented  by  favors 
bestowed  by  the  lady  of  his  knightly  devotion,  and  on  his  tri- 
angular shield  was  a  coat  of  arms.  When  the  sword  and 
spurs  were  bound  upon  him,  he  was  struck  on  the  cheek  or 
shoulder,  this  being  the  last  personal  affront  which  he  was  to 
receive  unavenged.  He  then  took  a  solemn  oath  to  j^rotect 
the  distressed,  maintain  right  against  might,  and  never,  by 
word  or  deed,  to  disgrace  himself  as  a  knight  or  a  Christian.* 

purified  and  clothed,  the  candidate  observed  for  four-and-twenty  hours  a  strict  fast. 
When  evening  came  he  entered  the  church  and  there  passed  the  night  in  prayer. 
Next  day  his  fii-st  act  was  confession,  after  which  the  priest  gave  him  communion; 
and  then  he  attended  a  mass  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  listened  to  a  sermon  touching 
the  duties  of  knights.  The  sermon  over,  the  candidate  advanced  to  the  altar  with 
the  knight's  sword  hanging  from  his  neck.  This  ttie  priest  took  off,  blessed,  and 
replaced  upon  his  neck.  The  candidate  then  went  and  knelt  before  the  lord  who 
was  to  arm  him.  .  .  .  Then  drew  near  knights  and  sometimes  ladies  to  reclothe 
the  candidate  in  all  his  new  array.  He  was  then  called  adnhbed  (that  is.  adopted). 
The  lord  rose  up,  went  to  liim  and  gave  him  three  blows  with  the  flat  of  the  sword 
on  the  shoulder  or  nape  of  the  neck,  and  sometimes  a  slap  with  the  palm  of  the 
hand  on  the  cheek,  saying, '  In  the  name  of  Grod,  St.  Michael,  and  St.  George,  I  make 
thee  knight.'  "—GuizoVs  History  of  Cfinlization. 

*  "  No  man  could  approach  the  idea  of  chivalry  or  rank  himself  among  gentle- 
men and  men  of  honor  who  was  not  ready  to  contend,  when  occasion  arose,  against 
any  odds,  and  thus  to  encounter  death  rather  than  yield  one  inch  from  his  post 
He  must  feel  himself  absolutely  free  from  the  stain  of  a  single  lie,  or  even  of  an 
equivocation.  He  must  be  ever  ready  to  help  the  weak  and  the  distressed,  whether 
they  be  so  by  nature,  as  in  the  case  of  women  and  children,  or  by  circumstances,  as 
in  the  case  of  men  overpowered  by  numbers.  He  must  with  his  heart,  and  not  with 
mere  eye-service,  obey  God  and  the  king,  or  even  such  other  authority  as  he  volun- 
tarily pledged  himself  to  obey.  A  knight  who  violated  any  of  the.'ie  conditions, 
even  if  he  escaped  detection  at  the  hands  of  his  fellows,  felt  himself  degraded  and 
untrue  to  the  oath  taken  before  G ml.  and  the  obligation  which  he  had  boimd  him- 
self to  tvUmV—Mahaffy's  Social  Life.  « tr  etc. 


848 


Mediceval  History. 


28.  The  display  of  chivalry  was  not  confined  to  the  battle- 
field, but  found  a  frequent  occasion  in  the  tournament  or 
joust — the  highest  species  of  amusement  of  this 
period.     This  was  a  fierce  personal  contest  held 


Tournament. 


in  an  inclosed  space,  called  the  lists^  in  galleries  around 
which  sat  the  nobles  and  ladies  to  witness  the  sport,  the  out- 
side being  thronged   with  eager  spectators  from  the  lower 


KWIOHT  IN  THE  LI8T8.* 


orders.  At  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  the  combatants,  cov- 
ered with  steel  and  known  only  by  their  emblazoned  shields, 
dashed  at  full  gallop  from  the  o}>posilc  ends  of 
the  lists;  and  meeting  in  the  center  with  a  terrific 


Combat. 


shock,  one  or  the  other  was  generally  unhorsed,  their  lances 
often  being  shivered  to  pieces,  and  tlie  vanquished  thrown 
bruised  and  bleeding  to  the  ground.     The  victor  was  usually 


*  The  kniRht  is  h«^re  soen  In  his  hnuherk,  or  coat  of  mall.  A  sort  of  overcoat  was 
sometimes  worn  over  this  in  warm  roimtries  to  miti;?ate  the  heat  of  the  sim  on 
metal  armor.  This  wuh  nade  of  cloth  or  silk  stuff,  embroidered  Id  gold  and 
silver. 


Norman  Period.  349 


rewarded  by  receiving  his  horse  and  armor,  and  sometimes  by 
the  privilege  of  naming  some  lady,  who,  with  the  title  of 
Queen  of  Love,  presided  over  the  remainder  of  the  tourna- 
ment. In  other  cases,  he  received  a  scarf,  ribbon,  or  other 
favor  from  the  lady  in  whose  honor  the  tournament  was  held.* 
29.  These  combats  were  not  only  used  for  sport,  but  were 
resorted  to  in  order  to  discover  the  guilty;  it  being  the  pre- 
vailing belief  that  Providence  would  interpose,  in 
all  such  cases,  for  the  protection  of  the  innocent. 
In  this  conviction,  those  who  were  charged  with 


Judicial 
combat. 


crime  were  challenged  by  their  accusers,  and  were  compelled 
to  abide  the  issue  of  a  personal  combat  in  the  lists.  This 
appeal  of  the  Normans  to  the  justice  of  Heaven  closely 
resembled  the  ordeal  of  the  Saxons;  and  upon  it  was  based 
the  practice  of  the  duel  in  more  modern  times. 

30.  The  customs  and  practices  of  chivalry  varied  in  differ- 
ent countries,  being  modified  by  the  character  and  circum- 
stances of  the  people.  Being  a  Christian  institu- 
tion, it  was  a  very  general  object  to  fight  against 
the  infidel,  and  thus  uphold,  as  was  conceived,  the  cause  of 
true  religion.  Hence,  great  military  orders  of  knighthood 
were  formed  during  tlie  Crusades,  or  expeditions  in  protection 
of  the  Holy  Land,  of  which  we  shall  speak  here- 
after.     Knight-errantry    was    the    practice   as- 


Military  orders. 


Knight-errantry. 


sumed  by  certain  knights  in  wandering  about  in  quest  of 
persons  in  distress,  the  rescue  of  whom  conferred  special  glory 
upon  the  champion,  f 

*  The  tournament  differed  from  the-  joust  principally  in  the  greater  number  of 
the  combatants.  Both  were  held  in  the  open  air,  the  tournament  lasting  several 
days.  Outside  the  lists  were  pitched  the  tents  of  the  knights,  decorated  with  their 
coats  of  arms,  while  immediately  surrounding  the  lists,  seats  were  arranged  for 
spectators,  who  attended  in  large  numbers.  Special  canopies  of  silk  and  other  rich 
Stuffs  were  erected  for  the  ladies,  who  thronged  to  the  spectacle  arrayed  in  their 
costliest  dresses.  At  the  close  of  the  performance  the  victorious  knights  were  pub- 
licly crowned  by  the  ladies  of  their  choice. 

t  The  knight-errant  traveled  about  from  tournament  to  tournament,  everywhere 
receiving  hospitable  entertainment.    Out  of  chivalry  sprang  the  romance,  in  which 


350 


MedicBval  History. 


SECTION  III. 

The  Plantagei^ets. 

31.  Henry  XL,  the  first  of  the  Plantagenets,*  had  married 
Eleanor,  duchess  of  Guienne  (ghe-en'),  the  divorced  queen  of 
Louis  VII.,  king  of  France;  and  having  inherited 
Anjou     from 


Dominions. 


his  father,  and  Maine  and 
Normandy  from  liis  moth- 
er, at  his  accession  he  be- 
came the  ruler  not  only  of 
England  but  of  the  greater 
part  of  France.  His  first 
acts  were  to 
reduce  the  re- 


Acts. 


fractory  nobles  to  obedi- 
ence ;  and,  dispossessing 
them  of  their  strongholds, 
to  compel  them  to  discon- 
tinue their  lawless  violence 
and  pillage.  His  next  ob- 
ject was  to  diminish  the 
powers  and  privileges  of 
tlie  clergy,  who  were,  by 
the  institutions  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  amenable 
only  to  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  by  which,  if  found  guilty, 
they  were  delivered  up  to  the  secular  power  for  punishment. 

we  find  the  deeds  of  such  heroes  as  Arthur  aiid  Charlemagne  relnt^y!  and  em- 
bellished. These  were  sunfc  hy  the  trtrnvfres  of  Normandy,  the  troubadourt  of 
pTDvence,  and  the  minnesim/rm  of  Germany.    (See  pnn^e  484.) 

•  Plantagenet  means,  in  French,  hrnom-plaut;  and  was  given  to  this  family,  It 
Is  said,  because  one  of  their  ancestors  had  done  penance  by  scourpring  Idmself  with 
twigs  of  that  plant.  Henry  beinpr  Dulce  of  Anjou,  he  and  his  successors,  down 
to  and  including?  John,  are  called  the  Atujevins.  They  po8s«?ssod  a  large  part  of 
France.    (See  Map.) 


Dominions  of  thk  Anokvins. 


The  Plantagenets.  351 

32.  Ill  this  undertaking  he  met  with  determined  opposi- 
tion from  Thomas  a  Becket,  a  man  of  great  talent  and  fear- 
less courage,  who,  holding  the  highest  office  in 
the  Church  (that  of  Archbishop  of  Oan'ter- 
bu-ry),  considered  it  his  duty  to  defend  the  au- 


Thomas  a 
Becket 


thority  and  privileges  of  his  orders  notwithstanding  he  had 
been  elevated  to  this  great  dignity  by  the  friendship  and 
partiality  of  Henry  II.  At  a  grand  council  held  at  Claren- 
don (1164),  the  king  presented  sixteen  propositions,  called 
the  *'  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  one  of  which 
was  that  clergymen  accused  of  any  crime  should 
be  tried  by  the  civil  courts;    while  the  others 


Constitutions  of 
Clarendon. 


were  designed  to  define  and  regulate  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority, and  make  it  subservient  to  the  civil  power.  To  these 
propositions  Becket,  by  the  request  of  the  Pope,  reluctantly 
gave  his  assent;  but  afterward,  being  charged  with  evading 
them,  he  was  condemned  by  a  council  specially  called  by  the 
king  to  pass  judgment  upon  him. 

33.  He  then  secretly  departed  from  England,  and  took 
refuge  with  the  king  of  France,  by  whom,  as  well  as  by  the 
Pope,  he  was  encouraged  and  sustained.  Henry  at  last 
becoming  reconciled  to  him,  he  returned  to  England  and 
resumed  his  high  office.  But  he  again  opposed  the  royal  au- 
thority; and  the  king  was  at  last  provoked  into  exclaiming, 
'^  Is  there  no  one  of  my  subjects  who  will  rid  me 
of  this  insolent  priest?"  Four  knights,  constru- 
ing this  as  a  command,  immediately  proceeded 


Murder  of 
Becket 


to  the  residence  of  the  prelate,  and,  pursuing  him  into  the 
cathedral,  barbarously  slew  him  before  the  altar  (1170). 

34.  Henry  was  thrown  into  the  greatest  consternation  on 
hearing  of  this  event.  He  expressed  the  deepest  sorrow  for 
the  words  he  had  hastily  uttered,  and  evinced 
the  sincerity  of  his  repentance  by  acts  of  the 
severest  penance,  consenting  to  go  as  a  pilgrim 


Henry's 
penance. 


to  the  tomb  of  the  murdered  prelate,  now  canonized  as  a 


352  Mediceval  History, 

saint  and  martyr,  and  for  miles  of  the  way  walked  barefoot 
over  the  flinty  road,  marking  his  steps  with  blood.  Inde- 
pendently of  its  atrocity,  nothing  could  have  been  more  dis- 
astrous to  the  king's  cause  than  the  murder  of 
Becket;  for  the  Church  party  gained  more  by 
the  death  of  their  champion  th-an  all  his  best 


Effect  of 
Becket's  death 


efforts  could  have  won  for  them  if  he  had  lived,  talented  and 
determined  as  he  was;  and  Henry  only  obtained  pardon  from 
the  Roman  pontiff  on  condition  that  he  would  submit  entirely 
to  the  wishes  and  injunctions  of  the  holy  See. 

36.  One  of  the  most  important  events  of  this  reign  was 
the  conquest  of  Ireland,  which   Henry  completed  in  1172. 
Ireland,  anciently  called  Hibernia,  was  peopled 
by  a  race  similar  to  the  Britons,  but  little  is 


Ireland. 


known  of  them  before  the  fourth  century.*  Each  province 
had  its  separate  king,  but  was  dependent  upon  the  monarch 
who  held  his  court  at  Tara.  \  In  the  fifth  century  the  people 
were  converted  to  Christianity,  chiefly  through  the  efforts  of 
the  renowned  St.  Patrick.  From  the  sixth  to 
the  twelfth  century,  Ireland  became  famous  for 


History. 


its  progress  in  literature  and  art,  and  sent  forth  many  learned 
men  and  missionaries  from  the  monasteries  which  had  been 
established.];    For  three  centuries  it  was  much  harassed  by 

*  "  Many  years  before  Chrl.st,  a  race  of  men  inhabited  Ireland,  exactly  identical 
with  its  present  population,  yet  very  8uj)erIor  to  it  in  point  of  material  well-belnj? ; 
a  people  acquainted  with  the  use  of  the  precious  metals,  with  the  manufacture  of 
liim  tissues,  fotid  of  music  and  song,  enjoying  its  literature  and  books;  oft<Mi  dis- 
turbed, it  is  true,  ])y  feuds  and  contentions,  but,  on  the  whole,  living  happily  under 
the  patriarchal  rule  of  the  clan  system."— 77i<*/>awi'«  Iriah  Races. 

t  "The  ancient  Hall  or  Court  of  Tara,  in  which,  for  so  many  centuries,  the  Tri- 
ennial Councils  of  the  nation  had  l)een  held,  saw  for  the  last  time  (a.d.  .VH)  her 
kings  and  nobles  assembled  within  its  precincts.  Some  fugitive  criminal,  who  had 
fled  for  sanctuary  to  the  monast«rj'  of  St.  Ruan,  having  been  dragged  forcibly  from 
thence  ♦©  Tara,  and  there  put  to  death,  the  holy  abbot  and  his  monks  cried  aloud 
againot  the  sacrilegious  violation;  and  pronounce<l  i\  curse  tipon  its  walls.  'From 
that  day,'  says  the  annalist,  no  king  ever  sat  again  at  Tara.'  "— Jlfoore'*  History 
of  Ireland. 

t  "In  order  to  convey  to  the  rea<ler  any  adequate  notion  of  the  apostolical 
labors  of  that  crowd  of  learned  missionnHes  whom  Ireland  sent  forth  in  the  course 


The  Flantagenets.  353 

the  Northmen  or  Danes;  but  in  1014  the  latter  were  utterly 
defeated  in  a  great  battle  fought  at  Clon'tarf,  near  Dublin. 

36.  Some  years  before  the  death  of  Becket,  Henry  ob- 
tained permission  of  the  Pope  to  subdue  the  island;  but  it 
was  not  until  1169  that  an  actual  invasion  was 
made.  One  of  the  five  subordinate  kings  having 
been   expelled  from  his  province,   and   having 


Conquest  of 
Ireland. 


taken  refuge  in  England,  succeeded  in  enlisting  a  force  from 
the  Anglo-Norman  nobles  and  adventurers,  with  which  he 
regained  his  kingdom  (1170).  The  English  then  so  rapidly 
prosecuted  the  conquest  of  the  country,  that  the  next  year 
Henry  went  there,  and,  having  received  the  submission  of 
most  of  the  native  chiefs,  committed  the  government  of  the 
island  to  a  viceroy  whom  he  appointed. 

37.  The  last  sixteen  years  of  Henry's  life  were  embittered 
by  family  dissensions,  his  three  oldest  sons  combining  with 
Louis,  king  of  France,  to  deprive  him  of  his 
throne.    At  the  same  time  his  French  dominions 


Fanaily  troubles. 


were  threatened  by  a  revolt,  and  the  northern  part  of  Eng- 
land was  invaded  by  the  king  of  Scotland.  Henry,  however, 
triumphed  over  all  his  enemies.  But  these  troubles  were  no 
sooner  pacified  than  similar  family  discords  broke  out,  his 
sons  being  encouraged  in  their  disobedience  and  unnatural 
hostility  by  Queen  Eleanor,  their  mother,  who  had  become 

of  this  [the  sixth]  century  to  all  parts  of  Europe,  it  would  be  necessary  to  trans- 
port him  to  the  scenes  of  their  respective  missions;  to  point  out  the  difRculties 
they  had  to  encoimter,  and  the  admirable  patience  and  courage  -with,  which  they 
surmounted  them;  to  show  how  inestimable  was  the  service  they  rendered,  during 
that  dark  period,  by  keeping  the  dying  embers  of  learning  awake,  and  how  grate- 
fully their  names  are  enshrined  in  the  records  of  foreign  lands,  though  but  faintly, 
if  at  all,  remembered  in  their  own.  It  was,  indeed,  then,  as  it  has  been  ever  since, 
the  peculiar  fate  of  Ireland  that,  both  in  talent  and  in  the  fame  that  honorably  re- 
wards it,  her  sons  prospered  far  more  triumphantly  abroad  than  at  home;  for 
while,  of  the  many  who  confined  their  labors  to  their  native  land,  but  few  have  left 
those  remembrances  behind  which  constitute  fame,  those  who  carried  the  light  of 
their  talent  and  zeal  to  other  lands  not  only  founded  a  lasting  name  for  themselves, 
but  made  their  country  also  a  partaker  of  their  renown,  winning  for  her  that  noble 
title  of  the  Island  of  the  Holy  and  the  Learned,  which  throughout  the  night  that 
overhung  all  the  rest  of  Europe  she  so  long  and  proudly  wore."— Jfoore. 


354  MedicBval  History, 

enraged  against  the  king  for  his  licentiousness,  and  particu- 
larly on  account  of  his  attachment  to  Rosamond  Clifford, 
styled  in  the  ballads  of  the  time  the  **Fair  Kosamoiid." 
Eleanor,  attempting  to  flee  the  kingdom,  was  arrested  and 
kept  in  close  confinement.  The  king's  eldest  son,  Henry, 
died  of  a  fever;  his  second  son,  Geoffrey  {jef're),  was  killed 
in  a  tournament  in  France;  and  Richard,  the  third  son,  with 
John,  the  fourth  son,  joined  the  king  of  France  in  a  war 
against  England,  so  that  Henry  was  compelled  to  submit  to 
a  very  humiliating  treaty  of  peace. 

38.  Henry's  death  occurred  a  short  time  afterward  (1189).* 
He  was,  undoubtedly,  a  very  able  monarch,  and  did  much  to 
establish  the  royal  authority  in  opposition  to  tlie 
violence  of  the  feudal  barons,  and  to  tlie  exorbi- 


Character. 


tant  claims  and  privileges  of  the  clergy.  He  was  a  patron 
of  learning  and  art,  and  many  Gothic  edifices  of  great  splen- 
dor were  erected  during  his  reign.  The  simple  arts  of  civi- 
lized life  also  made  considerable  progress  during  the  same 
period.  Henry  was  succeeded  by  Ricliard,  who  was  after- 
ward styled,  on  account  of  his  martial  courage,  Cmur  de  Lion 
(kyur  dull  le-om/),  the  Lion-hearted, 

39.  Richard  I.     This  monarch,  being  ambitious  of  mili- 
tary glory,  embarked  in  the  Third  Crusade,  and  gained  several 
important  victories  in   the  Holy  Land  over  the 
renowned  Sahidin.     On  his  return  he  was  arrested 


Military  career. 


by  the  duke  of  Austria,  whom  he  had  offended  in  Palestine, 
and,  by  order  of  Henry  VI.,  emperor  of  Germany,  was  confined 

*  "When  the  French  ambassadors  were  ushered  Into  his  prt'sentM',  sick  and  Ixd 
ridden  as  he  was,  and  he  inquired  the  name  of  Riclianl's  supixirtors  (amnesty  for 
whom  was  a  condition  of  the  treaty),  the  first  name  on  tlie  list  was  that  «)f  ids  \w 
loved  Jolm.  On  hearing  his  name  he  was  seized  with  a  sort  of  convulsive  move 
ment;  he  sat  up  in  bed,  and  prazinj?  around  with  a  searching'  and  hajfjcard  lm>k,  he 
exclainjed,  *Can  it  be  true  that  Jolm,  my  heart,  the  son  of  my  choice,  he  whom  I 
have  doted  on  more  than  all  the  rest,  and  my  love  for  whom  has  brtmpht  on  me 
all  my  woes,  has  fallen  away  from  me?'  They  replied  that  it  was  even  so;  that 
nothing  could  be  more  true.  '  Well,  then,'  he  said,  falling  back  on  his  l>ed.  and 
turning  his  face  to  the  wall,  'henceforward  let  all  go  on  as  it  may;  I  no  lonjfer 
vatfe  for  myself  or  for  Che  world.'  "—Idirhrlrt. 


Philip  and 
John. 


The  Plantagenets.  355 

in  a  dungeon,  until  his  subjects  paid  a  large  sum  of  money 
for  his  deliverance  (1194).  During  his  absence,  Philip,  king 
of  France,  had  seduced  John,  Kichard's  brother, 
from  his  allegiance;  and  both  had  plotted  for 
the  destruction  of  Eichard,  with  the  design  of 
obtaining  possession  of  his  dominions;  but  this  scheme  was 
thwarted  by  the  king's  return.  The  rest  of  Richard's  reign 
was  occupied  in  contention  with  Philip;  and  after  much  petty 
and  indecisive  war,  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  attack 
upon  a  castle  in  France,  held  by  a  rebellious  vassal  (1199). 

40.  The  character  of  this  monarch  is  one  of  the  most 
romantic  to  be  found  in  history,  and  displays  a  love  of  adven- 
ture, a  militai-y  daring,  and  a  strength  and  skill 
in  feats  of  arms,  unsurpassed  in  ancient  or  modern 
times.     His  people,  oppressed  by  the  taxes  which 


Character  of 
Richard. 


were  ruthlessly  levied  to  carry  out  his  useless  projects,  were 
jet  proud  of  his  fame,  thougli  he  accomplished  nothing  for 
their  benefit,  nor  advanced  in  any  respect  the  prosperity  of 
the  country.  He,  indeed,  spent  but  fourteen  months  in  his 
kingdom  during  the  ten  years  of  his  reign. 

41.  John  {Lachland)y  the  brother  of  Richard,  succeeded 
him,  with  the  consent  of  the  people,  although  Arthur, 
Geoffrey's  son,  was  the  rightful  heir.  This  young 
prince,  having  fallen  into  the  power  of  his  uncle. 


Prince  Arthur. 


was  imprisoned,  and,  it  is  said,  cruelly  murdered  by  him. 
Philip,  king  of  France,  summoned  John,  his  vassal,  as  Duke 
of  Normandy  and  Aquitaine,  to  answer  for  this  offense  before 
a  court  of  peers;  but  he  refused  to  obey  the  sum- 
mons, and  was  accordingly  branded  as  a  murder- 
er, and  adjudged  to  lose  nearly  all  his  French 


Loss  of  French 
territory. 


territories,  which  in  a  few  years  Philip  succeeded  in  conquer- 
ing, and  annexed  them  to  his  own  dominions.  John  was 
called  Lackland,  because  his  father  left  him  no  possessions. 

42.   The   Pope    (Innocent  III.)    having    caused    Stephen 
Langton,  a  man  of  great  talent  and  unblemished  character, 


350  MedicBval  History. 

to  be  elected  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  John  refused  to  give 
his  consent;  whereupon  Innocent  placed  the  kingdom  under 
an  interdict,  in  consequence  of  which  the  churches 
were  closed,  the  dead  were  reiused  Christian  burial, 


Interdict 


and  all  other  religious  offices  ceased.  The  king,  still  resisting, 
was  formally  excommunicated  by  Pope  Innocent,  his  people 
were  absolved  from  their  allegiance  to  him,  and  a  solemn 
injunction  was  placed  upon  Philip  of  France  to  take  posses- 
sion  of  the  kingdom.  John  at  last  submitted,  and  solemnly 
surrendered  his  dominions  to  the  Pope,  promising  to  hold 
them  as  his  obedieut  vassal,  and  to  pay  to  him  an  annual  tri- 
bute (1^13).  Philip,  attempting  to  carry  out  his 
design  of  conquering  England,  sustained  a  great 


Defeat  of  Philip. 


disaster  in  the  loss  of  his  fleet,  which  was  attacked  by  the 

English  and  destroyed.     This  was  the  first  naval  action  of 

importance  between  the  English  and  French. 

43.  John's  next  contest  was  with  the  barons,  who,  under 

the  leadership  of  Langton,  determined  to  compel  his  assent 
to  a  series  of  propositions  designed  to  diminish 
the  royal  prerogatives  and  secure  the  liberties  of 
the  subjects  by  established  principles.    This  John 


Contest  with 
the  barons. 


jteadily  refused,  until  a  large  army  had  been  raised  by  the 
barons,  and  the  city  of  London  taken;  when  he  finally  sub- 
mitted, and  signed  the  famous  Magna  Charta  (the  Great 
Charter)  at  Run-ny-mcde'  (June  15,  1215).*  One  of  the 
most  important  articles  of  this  instrument  was 
that  *' no  delay  should  take  place  in  doing  jus- 


Magna  Charta. 


tice  to  every  one;  and  no  freeman  should  bo  taken  or  im- 
prisoned, dispossessed  of  his  free  tenement,  outlawed,  or  ban- 

♦  "  This  Holy  Land  of  English  liberty  is  about  half  way  from  Odiham  to  London, 
And  It  is  a  jjrassy  plain,  of  alwiit  one  hundred  and  sixty  acrt^s,  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Thames,  between  Staines  and  Windsor.  Various  derivations  are  given  for  the 
name;  that  of  the  antiquary  I^tland  afYlrms  it  to  liave  been  so  called  fn;)ni  tl»e 
Baxon  word  Rune,  or  council,  and  to  mean  tlie  Council  Meadow,  having  been  used 
in  the  old  Saxon  times  as  a  place  of  a8seml)Iy.  No  column  or  memorial  marks  the 
gpot  where  the  primary  triinnph  of  the  English  constitution  was  achieved,"— 
Creasf/^B  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  English  Constitution, 


The  Plantageriets.  357 

ished,  unless  ly  the  legal  judgment  of  his  peers"  This 
famous  charter,  although  granted  to  the  nobles  only,  pro- 
tected the  rights  of  all,  and  is  justly  regarded  as  the  palladium 
of  English  liberty.* 

44.  John  attempted  afterward  to  resist  the  execution  of 
this  instrument,  and  levied  an  army  of  foreign  mercenaries, 
by  means  of  which  he  perpetrated  the  most  atro- 
cious cruelties,  and  compelled  the  authors  and 
supporters  of  Magna  Charta  to  flee  the  country. 


John's 
resistance. 


In  the  midst  of  the  troubles  wliich  this  excited,  his  death 
fortunately  occurred,  and  thus  saved  the  people 
from  the  disaster  and  misery  of  a  prolonged  civil 
war  (1216).     The  character  of  John  was  despi- 


Death  and 
character. 


cable;  cruelty,  treachery,  and  cowardice  being  its  prominent 

*  "  How  is  it  possible  that  at  least  a  third  of  the  provisions  of  the  Charter  should 
have  related  to  promises  and  guaranties  made  in  behalf  of  the  people,  if  the  aris- 
tocracy had  only  aimed  at  obtaining  that  which  would  benefit  themselves  ?  We 
have  only  to  read  the  Great  Charter  in  order  to  be  convinced  that  the  rights  of  all 
three  orders  of  the  nation  (clergy,  nobles,  and  common  people)  are  equally  re- 
spected and  promoted."— Gwizof. 

The  following  is  a  paragraph  in  Magna  Charta,  as  written: 

The  same  in  Roman  letters. 
Nullus  liber  homo  capiatur,  vel  imprisonetur,  aut  dissaisiatur,  aut  utlagetvu", 
aut  exuletur,  aut  aliquo  modo  destruatur;  nee  super  eum  ibimus,  nee  super  eum 
mittemus,  nisi  per  legale  judicium  parium  suorum,  vel  per  legem  terrae. 

Translation. 
No  freeman  shall  be  taken,  or  imprisoned,  or  disseised,  or  outlawed,  or  ban- 
ished, or  any  ways  destroyed;  nor  will  we  pass  upon  him,  nor  will  we  send  upoH 
him.  unless  by  the  lawful  judgment  of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land. 


358  MedicBval  History. 

traits,  unrelieved  by  a  single  redeeming  virtue.     He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Henry,  then  only  nine  years  old. 

45.  Henry  HI     During  the  first  part  of  this  reign,  the 
country  was  governed  by  the  guardians  of  th«  young  king, 

and  was  much  disturbed  by  wars  with  France. 

After  attaining  the  age  of  majority,  Henry  had 


First  events. 


frequent  disputes  with  the  barons,  who  compelled  him  to  con- 
firm the  Great  Charter  in  the  most  solemn  ni  inner.  They 
nevertheless  continued  to  oppose  the  royal  autliority,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  unwise  exactions  of  Henry,  and  his  submis- 
sion to  the  influence  of  foreigners,  by  whom  the  offices  both 
of  church  and  state  were  filled. 

46.  Through  the  efforts  of  Simon  de  Mont'fort,  Earl  of 
Leicester  (les^ter),  twenty-four  barons  were  appointed  by  the 
great  council  to  regulate  the  kingdom;  and  to  this  arrange- 
ment the  king  gave  his  assent  (1258).     A  quarrel  afterward 

— j    arising  between  the  nobles  and  the  royalists,  civil 

. _J   war  ensued;  and  the  king's  forces  were  defeated 

at  Lew'es,  and  he  and  his  son.  Prince  Edward,  were  taken 
prisoners  (1264).  This  placed  the  government  mainly  under 
the  control  of  Leicester,  who,  in  order  to  strengthen  his  influ- 
ence, summoned  a  council  (now  styled  a  parlia- 
ment),  and  gave  seats  in  it  not  only  to  the  barons 


Parliament 


and  knights,  but  to  the  representatives  of  the  boroughs,  or 
toivns  (12C5).  This  is  considered  the  first  institution  of  the 
House  of  Commons — the  most  important  branch  of  the  Eng- 


lish legislature. 


47.  Prince  Edward,  having  escaped  from  the  confinement 
in  which  ho  had  been  kept  by  Leicester,  raised  an  army;  and, 
in  the  battle  of  Eves'ham,  entirely  defeated  the 
forces  of  Leicester,  who,  with  his  eldest  son,  was 
among  the  slain  (1205).*     This  placed   Henrv 


Defeat  of 
LeicMtet. 


♦  "  The  Earl  moved  to  a  place  on  the  Avon,  called  Evesham,  and  with  Kreat  glad- 
ness saw  his  own  banners  cominj?  ov«r  the  hills  from  Kt>niIworth.  These,  however, 
turned  out  to  be  the  captured  ^u^uUards  u(  hi^  99a;  aud  when  he  looked  to  ether 


The  Plantagenets,  ^S'*^ 

again  on  the  throne;  and  Prince  Edward  having  by  prudent 
measures  restored  general  tranquillity,  by  infusing  a  wiser  and 
more  popular  spirit  in  the  government,  went  on  a  crusade  to 
the  Holy  Land.  Before  his  return^  his  father  died  (1272), 
after  the  exceedingly  long  reign  of  fifty-six  years.  Henry 
was  mild  and  pacific  in  his  disposition,  but  pos- 
sessed neither  the  talents  nor  force  of  character 
required  to  cope  successfully  with  the  difficulties 


Character  of 
Henry. 


of  SO  disturbed  a  period.  England,  however,  increased  in 
wealth  and  influence  during  this  reign,  and  widely  extended 
her  commercial  relations  with  other  countries. 

48.  Edward  I.  The  first  important  event  of  this  reign 
was  the  conquest  of  Wales,  which  Edward  undertook  because 
Llew-el'lyn,  prince  of  that  country,  refused  to  do 
him  the  homage  which  he  owed  as  a  vassal.  The 
conquest  was  completed  in  1283;  Llewellyn  being 


Conquest  of 
Wales. 


defeated  and  slain,  and  the  principality  of  Wales  conferred 
upon  the  king's  eldest  son,  called  the  *'  Prince  of  Wales" — 
a  title  ever  afterward  borne  by  the  eldest  son  of  the  English 
sovereign.  The  wars  with  Scotland  occupy  nearly  all  the 
rest  of  this  reign.  Alexander  IIL,  king  of  that  country, 
having  died  without  a  male  heir,  several  competi- 
tors arose  for  the  throne,  the  most  noted  of  whom 
were  John  Ba'li-ol  and  Robert  Bruce,  the  former 


War  with 
Scotland 


being  the  grandson  of  a  second  daughter,   and  the  latter  a 

points  of  the  compass,  he  saw  glittering  files  of  spears  advancing  in  converging 
lines  toward  the  position  he  held.  Bitterly,  as  he  saw  this  sight,  did  he  cry,  '  It 
was  I  who  taught  them  the  art  of  war.'  But  bitter  words  were  of  little  use  at  such 
a  crisis.  Having  put  his  men  in  array  of  battle,  he  knelt  down  to  say  a  short  prayer, 
and  then  took  the  sacrament,  as  pious  knights  always  did  before  going  to  battle. 
The  fortunes  of  the  day  went  against  him  from  the  first,  but  he  resolved  to  sell  his 
life  dearly.  His  last  stand  was  made  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  where  he  gathered  round 
him  in  a  solid  circle  some  of  his  bravest  men.  When  his  horse  was  killed  he  fought 
on  foot:  but  the  circle  at  length  yielded  to  the  pressure  of  charges  from  every  side, 
and  brave  old  Leicester,  a  benefactor  of  the  English  people  second  to  none,  fell  on 
his  last  field.  His  head  and  limbs  were  brutally  chopi)ed  off,  and  the  horrible  frag- 
ments were  sent  as  a  present  to  %\\^  wife  of  bis  greatest  foe."— CoWier's  Pictw'tA 
»/  En^luih  History, 


360  Mediceval  History, 

son  of  a  third  daughter,  of  David,  the  brother  of  a  previous 
king.  A  furious  dispute  having  arisen  in  the  Scotch  parlia- 
ment, as  to  the  succession,  the  matter  was  referred  to  the 
arbitration  of  Edward,  who,  in  accordance  with  the  unani- 
mous opinion  of  all  the  great  lawyers  of  Europe,  decided  in 
favor  of  Baliol,  as  being  the  most  direct  descendant,  and  he 
was  accordingly  placed  upon  the  throne. 

49.  Edward,  however,  had  meanly  taken  advantage  of  the 
circumstances  to  compel  Baliol  to  take  an  oath  of  fealty  to 
him,  and  thus  to  acknowledge  himself  a  vassal  to  the  English 
crown;  and  he  subsequently  so  harassed  him  by  frequent  and 
degrading  commands,  that  Baliol  was  finally  provoked  into  a 
refusal  to  comply,  determining  to  make  a  stand  for  his  own 
and  his  people's  liberty.  He  was,  however,  unsuccessful;  for 
Edward,  invading  Scotland  with  a  large  army, 
defeated  Baliol  in  the  battle  of  Dunbar  (1296), 
after  which  the  latter  surrendered,  and  was  carried 


Battle  of 
Dunbar. 


captive  to  England.     He  was  afterward  released,  and  died  in 

obscurity,  in  France. 

60.  Scotland,  although  subdued  for  a  time,  soon  found  a 

noble  champion  in  the  renowned  William  Wallace,  who  de- 
feated an  English  army  of  40,000  men,  near 
Stirling,   and   committed    great  ravages  in   the 


Wallace. 


north  of  England  (1297).  The  next  year,  however,  Edward 
defeated  Wallace,  in  the  battle  of  Fal'kirk,  and  again  estab- 
lished his  government  in  Scotland.  Wallace  was  never  after- 
ward able  to  gain  a  decisive  victory  over  his  country's  enemies; 
although  he  fought  bravely  for  several  years,  until,  having 
been  betrayed  by  one  of  his  own  countrymen  into  the  power 
of  Edward,  that  remorseless  king  sent  him  to  London;  and, 
in  order  to  intimidate  the  Scottish  leaders,  caused  him  to  bo 
executed  (1305). 

51.  The  people  of  Scotland  made  still  another  effort  to 
regain  their  liberties,  under  tlie  leadership  of  Robert  Bruce, 
grandson  of  the  competitor  of  Baliol,  and  now  acknowledged 


The  Plantagenets.  361 

the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne.     The  attempt  was  successful, 
the  English  being  driven  from  the  country.     But 


Bruce  afterward  suffered  a  defeat  from  one  of   '    °  ^ 


Death  of 
Edward. 


Edward's  generals;   and  the  king  himself  marched  to  com- 
plete the  conquest,  but  was  suddenly  taken  ill, 
and  died,  at  Carlisle  (1307),  enjoining  with  his 
last  breath  his  son  Edward  to  prosecute  the  enter- 
prise, until  the  Scots  should  be  entirely  subdued. 

62.  Edward  I.  had  also  carried  on  war  with  Philip  IV.  of 
France,  who  had  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Scottish  king, 
Baliol.  He  confirmed,  but  with  great  reluctance, 
the   Great   Charter;    and   (in  1295)  caused  the 


Parliament. 


deputies  from  the  boroughs  to  meet  the  other  representatives 
in  Parliament,  stating  that  "  what  concerns  all  should  be 
approved  by  all," — a  principle  that  lies  at  the  foundation  of 
all  civil  and  political  freedom.  Edward  was  one 
of  the  ablest  and  most  successful  monarchs  that 
ever  reigned.     He  was  politic  and  warlike,  popu- 


Character  of 
Edward  I. 


lar  on  account  of  his  majestic  personal  appearance,  his  mili- 
tary success,  and  his  wise  measures.  His  efforts  to  reform 
and  establish  the  laws  gained  for  him  the  appellation  of  the 
English  Justinian. 

63.  Edward  II.,  unmindful  of  his  father's  dying  injunc- 
tion, withdrew  his  forces  from  Scotland,  and  the  people  of 
that  country  gradually  recovered  their  freedom. 
Having,  at  last,  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign, 


Bannockburn. 


invaded  the  country,  he  was  disastrously  defeated  by  Robert 
Bruce,  in  the  famous  battle  of  Bannockburn  (1314).  Of  a 
character  the  very  reverse  of  his  father,  Edward  soon  lost  the 
respect  of  his  people,  and  gave  great  offense  to  the  nobles  by 
surrendering  himself  to  the  influence  of  foreign  favorites. 
Civil  war  finally  broke  out,  in  which  Isabella, 
Edward's  queen,   took  part  against  him;   and 


Fate  of  the  king. 


being  deserted  by  his  subjects,  he  foil  into  the  hands  of  his 
enemies,  who  kept  him  for  some  time  in  prison,  but  at  last 


362  Mediceval  History, 

caused  hini  to  be  put  to  deatli  in  the  most  shocking  manner 
(1327).    His  son  Edward  bad  i)reviously  been  decbired  ting. 

64.  Edward  III.     In  consequence  of  the  youth  of   the 
king,  a  council  of  regency  was  appointed  to  administer  the 
government;  but  the  real  i)ower  was   possessed 
by  Isabella  and  her  paramour,  the  infamous  Mor'- 
ti-mer,  a  prominent  baron,  both  of  whom  had 


Isabella  and 
Mortimer. 


been  accessory  to  the  murder  of  the  late  king.  This  occa- 
sioned universal  disgust  and  abhorrence;  and  the  young  king 
soon  (1330)  found  means  to  punish  the  murderertj  of  his 
father,  Mortimer  being  seized  and  executed  as  a  common 
criminal,  and  Isabella  placed  in  confinement,  where  she  was 
kept  until  her  death.  The  Scots  were  defeated 
by  Edward  in  the  great  battle  of  Halidou  Hill 


Halidon  Hill. 


(1333),  and  thus  were  again  brought  into  subjection  to  the 
English  crown,  the  young  king  David  Bruce  fleeing  to  France. 
65.  Edward's  next  object  of  ambition  was  to  acquire  pos- 
session of  the  throne  of  France,  circumstances  Fceming  to 
favor  that  project;  for  Charles  IV.,  the  king  of  lliat  country, 
having  died  Avithout  heirs,  the  nation  had  ])laood  his  cousin 
Philip  VI.  on  the  throne.  But  Edward,  throngli  his  mother 
Isabella,  was  a  more  direct  descendant;  and  on  this  ground, 
notwithstanding  that  the  ancient  laws  of  Franco  (the  Salic 
law — i.e.f  law  of  the  Salian  Franks)  excluded  females  from 
the  throne,  he  claimed  his  right  to  the  succession., 
and  proceeded  to  vindicate  it  by  force  of  arms. 
Having  destroyed  the  French   fleet  in  a  great 


Attack  on 
France. 


naval  battle  (1340),  he  invaded  France,  and  with  forces  far 
inferior  to  those  of  Philip,  defeated  liim  in  the  memorabh 
battle  of  Crecy  {kres'e).  This  battle  is  made  par- 
ticularly interesting,  not  only  by  the  greatness  of 


Crecy. 


the  victory,  but  by  the  fact  thiit  in  it  cannon  were  for  tho 
first  time  employed  by  the  English,*  and  also  as  the  occasion 

•  Firearms  appear  to  have  been  used  by  the  Chinese  in  GlR  B.C.,  nearly  two  thou- 
sand years  before  the  ba(U9  9^  Qrvc^.    Tbey  were  also  iwed  io  different  forms  in 


The  Plantagenets,  363 

on  which  the  king's  son  Edward,  afterward  styled  the  Black 
Prince  (from  the  color  of  his  armor),  commenced  his  bril- 
liant military  career  (1346),* 

56.  Edward  next  took  Calais  {kaVis),  after  a  long  siege; 
and  expelling  all  the  inhabitants,  peopled  it  anew  with  Eng- 
lish. This  city,  regarded  as  the  key  of  France, 
the  English  retained  for  nearly  two  centuries. 


Calais. 


While  Edward  was  thus  engaged,  the  Scottish  people  had 
again  placed  David  Bruce  upon  the  throne,  who  invading 
England,  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of 
Neville's  Cross,  near  Dur'ham  (1346).  This  vic- 
tory was  due  to  the  activity  and  heroism  of  Phi- 


Nevitle's  Cross. 


lip'pa,  Edward's  queen,  who,  previous   to  the  action,  rode 
through  the  ranks  of  the  army,  encouraging  the 
soldiers.      A  dreadful  plague   that  swepb  av/ay 


Plague. 


many  thousands  of  the  people,  not  only  in  England  but  in 
other  parts  of  Europe,  caused  for  a  time  a  cessation  of  hostili- 
ties between  the  French  and  English. 

67.  Philip,  king  of  France,  having  been  succeeded  by 
John  (1350),  and  the  country  been  distracted  by  factious 
dissensions,  Edward  resolved  again  to  attack  it;  and  for  this 
purpose  dispatched  the  Black  Prince  with  an  army  to  Guienne, 
while  he  himself  was  to  make  an  incursion  by  way  of  Calais. 

India;  and,  as  early  as  the  eighth  century,  by  the  Saracens.  The  invention  of  gun- 
powder is  generally  attributed  to  Friar  Bacon,  who  in  1270  announced  its  composi- 
tion ;  but  it  was  not  till  1320  that  the  proper  mode  of  making  it  was  understood. 
King  Edward's  cannon  were  only  o..  .^P'^^.g  of  duck-guns. 

*  The  young  Prince  of  Wales  had  been  knigHt^t' j)pl v  a  month  before;  and  Ed- 
ward, who  was  watching  the  battle  from  a  windmill,  resolved  to'  leave  to  his  son 
the  glory  of  victory.  Although  the  prince  was  then  hard  pressed  "by  ib«  French, 
the  king  refused  to  send  succor  to  his  assistance,  saying, '  Let  the  child  win  his 
spurs,  and  let  the  day  be  his.'  .  .  .  The  whole  French  army  took  to  flight,  and 
was  followed  and  put  to  the  sword,  without  mercy,  till  the  darkness  of  the  night 
put  an  end  to  the  pursuit.  The  king,  on  his  return  to  the  camp,  flew  into  the  arms 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  exclaimed, '  My  brave  son !  persevere  in  your  honorable 
course;  you  are  my  son,  for  valiantly  have  you  acquitted  yourself  to-day,  and 
worthy  are  you  of  a  cro-wn.'  From  this  time  the  young  prince  became  the  terror 
of  the  French,  by  whom  be  was  called  the  Black  Princo,  from  the  color  of  tlxe 
armor  which  he  wore  on  that  day.''— /fume's  History  of  England. 


864 


MedicBval  History, 


The  former  penetrated  into  the  heart  of  France  witli  an  army 
of  12,000  men;  but  at  Poitiers  {poi-terz')  found 
himself  confronted  by  a  splendidly  equipped  force 

of  60,000  men,  commanded  by  John  in  person.      Desirous 


Poitiers. 


to  retreat,  the  Prince  offered  to  restore  all  his  conquests  and 
give  up  the  war;  but  John  declining  any  terms  but  uncon- 
ditional surrender,  a  battle  ensued,  which,  owing  to  the  skill 


MlUTAET  AOCODTSBMBMTS  OF  THE   BlAOK  PrINCK,   SuSPElTDKD  OVKR  Hlft  TOMB  AT 

Canterbury  Cathkdbal. 
1.'" 

and  valor  ot  the  Black  Prince,  resulted  in  the  entire  over- 
tnrow  M"  the  French,  John  himself  being  made  a  prisoner 
(135G).  The  Frencli  king  was  kept  in  captivity 
in  London  till  ransomed  by  his  subjects  (1360); 


Death  of  John. 


but  not  being  able  to  fulfill  the  terms  of  his  release,  he  re- 
turned to  London,  where  he  died  the  next  year  (1364). 

58.  Under  his  successor  war  was  renewed  between  the  two 
countries;  but  Edward  gained  no  permanent  advantage,  not- 


The  Plantagenets.  365 

withstanding   the    able  generalship    of    the   Black    Prince. 
This  renowned  leader  soon  after  died,  worn  out 
by  incessant  toil  and  exposure  (1376).     He  was 


Black  Prince. 


Death  of  the 
king. 


universally  esteemed,  not  only  for  his  heroism  and  military 
genius,  but  for  the  generosity,  moderation,  and 
amiability  which  shed  still  greater  luster  on  his 
character.  The  king  survived  him  only  a  year.  _ 
He  was  succeeded  by  Richard,  the  son  of  the  Black  Prince, 
then  only  eleven  years  old  (1377). 

59.  Edward  III.  was  a  wise  and  powerful  monarch,  popu- 
lar not  only  for  his  military  success  and  prudent  administra- 
tion, but  for  his  many  personal  accomplishments. 
Although  nearly  all  his  time  was  spent  in  war,  he 


Character. 


was  comparatively  quite  a  learned  man.  His  familiarity  with 
the  Latin  and  German  languages  was  of  great  service  to  him 
in  his  foreign  wars  and  negotiations.  He  took  no  important 
steps  without  consulting  his  parliament,  and  so  greatly  en- 
couraged trade  that  he  has  been  called  the  "  Father 
of  English  commerce."     Wool  was  the  chief  arti- 


Trade. 


cle  of  export,  and  an  extensive  trade  was  carried  on  with  the 
ports  of  the  Baltic.  He  kept  up  a  close  connection  with  the 
Flemings,  then  noted  for  their  extensive  woolen  manufactures, 
and  thus  increased  the  English  trade. 

60.  Richard  II.  The  first  part  of  this  reign  is  noted  for 
an  insurrection  of  the  lower  orders  of  the  people,  occasioned 
by  the  condition  of  serfdom  in  which  they  were 
kept,  and  the  miseries  to  which  they  were  subjected 


Serfdom. 


by  the  unjust  laws  of  the  period,  and  by  the  oppressions  of 
the  wealthier  classes.  The  immediate  occasion  of  the  out- 
break was  the  imposition  of  a  tax  on  every  person  above 
fifteen  years  of  age,  and  the  indignity  with  which  a  young 
maiden,  the  daughter  of  one  Wat  Tyler  (or  Wat, 

'       Wat  Tyler. 


[ 


the  tiler),  was  treated  by  a  brutal  tax-gatherer. 

This  so  incensed  her  father  that  he  struck  the  officer  dead 

with   his  hammer;   and,   being  joined  by  his  friends  and 


366  MediGbnal  History, 

neighbors,  raised  a  revolt,  and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  insurgents. 

61.  The  populace,  to  the  number  of  100,000  men,  assem- 
bled  at  Blackheath,  near  London,  broke  into  the  city,  burned 
the  palaces  and  mansions  of  the  nobles,  plundered  the  ware- 
houses, and  murdered  the  archbishop  and  many  otlier  persons 
of  distinction.  The  king  having  entered  upon  a  conference 
with  Wat  Tyler,  tlie  latter,  it  is  said,  acted  with  so  much 
insolence  that  Wal'worth,  the  Mayor  of  London,  struck  him 
I  with  his  sword;  whereupon  Tyler  was  imme- 
^'  I  diately  dispatched  by  others  of  the  king's  retinue. 
Richard,  to  quell  the  mutiny,  acceded  to  the  demands  of  the 
insurgents,  and  the  latter  dispersed;  but  the  nobility  having 
raised  a  large  army,  the  ringleaders  were  apprehended  and 
executed,  and  the  concessions  of  the  king  were  annulled 
(1381).  This  made  Richard  very  unpopular  with  the  com- 
mon people,  for  their  demands  had  been  reasonable  and  just; 
the  most  important  being  that  vilhnage  and  serf- 
dom should  be  abolished,  the  people  jiaying  a 
fixed  rent  for  their  lands,  instead  of  being  bound 


Villenage  and 
serfdom. 


to  do  such  services  as  their  feudal  lords  might  recjuire.  Serf- 
dom, however,  did  not  entirely  cease  in  England  until  more 
than  four  centuries  after  the  date  of  these  events. 

62.  The  subsequent  conduct  of  this  king  was  characterized 
by  indolence  and  inefficiency.  He  quarreled  with  the  great 
officers  and  distinguished  nobles  of  his  court,  and 
gave  his  entire  confidence  to  unworthy  favorites. 
He  had  banished  his  cousin  Henry,  son  of  Jolin 
of  Gaunt.  Duke  of  Lancaster,  for  being  concerned  in  a  duel; 
and,  on  the  death  of  the  duke,  proceeded  to  dispossess  Henry 
of  his  estates  and  annex  them  to  those  of  the  crown.  Henry, 
however,  taking  advantage  of  Richard's  absence  in  Ireland, 
lauded  with  a  small  force  in  England;  and  so 
unpopular  was  the  king,  that  the  invader  was 


Deposition. 


Boon  joined  by  a  force  of  60,000  men.     Richard  was  accord- 


Tlie  Plantagenets.  367 

inglydepooed  (1399),  and,  it  is  said,  was  soon  afterward  mur- 
dered.     During  this  reign  Wickliffe,  called  by 
some  the  "morning  star  of  the  Keformation," 
translated  the  Bible.     He  and  his  doctrines  were 


Wickliffe  and 
Chaucer. 


much  favored  by  John  of  Gaunt.*  Chaucer,  styled  the 
"  Father  of  English  poetry,"  also  wrote  his  celebrated  poem, 
"The  Canterbury  Tales." 

63.  Henry  IV.,  the  first  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  had  no 
legal  right  to  the  throne,  being  a  descendant  of  the  fourth 
son  of  Edward  III.,  while  Edmund  Mortimer 
was  living,  who  was  descended  from  the  third 
son  of  the  same  monarch;  hence  this  reign  was 


Right  to  the 
throne. 


little  else  than  a  series  of  insurrections.  The  most  formidable 
was  th^  excited  by  the  Earl  of  Northumberland  and  his  son, 
Harry  Percy,  surnamed  Hotspur,  on  account  of 
his  fiery  temper.     This  young  nobleman  was  dis- 


Hotspur. 


tinguished  for  the  battle  which,  in  the  previous  reign,  he  had 
fought  with  the  Scots  at  Otterburn  (1388),  and  on  which  was 
founded  the  famous  ballad  of  "  Chevy  Chase."  He  had  also 
greatly  aided  Henry  i^^  his  efforts  to  obtain  possession  of  the 
kingdom;  but,  afterward  quarreling  with  him,  joined  his 
forces  to  those  of  the  Scots  under  Douglas  and  the  Welsh 
under  Owen  Glen'dower,  with  the  object  of  placing  Morti- 
mer on  the  throne.  A  terrific  battle  was  fought 
near    Shrewsbury   (1403);    but  the  rebels  were 


Shrewsbury. 


defeated,  and  their  brave  leader,  Percy,  was  slain.  The 
king  and  his  son  took  part  in  the  battle,  and  signalized 
themselves  by  their  feats  of  strength  and  daring.  Henry 
IV.,  after  his  death  in  1413,  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Henry  V. 

64.  Henry  V.,  during  his  father's  life,  had  been  notorious 
for  his  riotous  and  disorderly  conduct;  and  had,  on  one  occa- 

*  WicklifiFe  advocated  many  of  the  reforms  and  doctrines  afterward  preached 
by  Luther  and  his  followers  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  followers  of  Wickliffe 
were  called  Lollards,  a  name  first  used  in  th«»  Netherlands  about  1300. 


368  Medlceval  History. 

sion,  been  committed  to  prison  by  the  chief -justice,  whom  he 
had  insulted  for  indicting  one  of  his  dissohite  companions. 
On  his  accession,  however,  he  dismissed  his 
profligate  associates  and  thorouglily  reformed 
his  life,  retaining  in  office  the  wise  ministers  of 


Change  in 
character. 


his  father,  including  the  chief-justice  by  whom  he  had  been 
so  fearlessly  punished.  Soon  afterward  he  invaded  France; 
Und  having  taken  Harfleur,  after  a  long  siege,  he  engaged  the 
French  army,  four  times  as  numerous  as  his  own,  and  totally 
routed  it  in  the  memorable  battle  of  Ag'in-court 
(1415),  10,000  of  the  French   being  slain   and 


Agincourt. 


14,000  taken  prisoners;  while,  it  is  said,  the  English  lost 
only  40.  Henry  then  returned  to  England;  but,  two  years 
later,  he  again  crossed  to  France,  and,  after  some  successes,  a 
treaty  was  concluded  (1420)  at  Troyes  (trwah),  by 
which  Henry  was  to  marry  the  king's  daughter 
Catharine,  and  to  succeed  to  the  French  throne 


Treaty  of 
Troyes. 


on  the  death  of  Charles,  and  the  two  kingdoms  were  to  be 
united.  This  treaty  was  carried  into  effect,  and  Henry,  as 
regent  of  France,  entered  Paris  in  triumph.  But,  in  a  few 
months,  death  stopped  short  his  triumphant  oai*eer,  and  put 
an  end  to  all  his  schemes  of  vainglory  and  ambition  (1422). 

-[   He  left  one  son,  Henry,  less  than  a  year  old.    The 

!   persecution  of  the  Lollards,  commenced  in  the 


previous  reign,  was  continued  in  this. 

65.  Henry  VI.,  at  his  accession,  was  proclaimed  by  the 
Parliament  king  of  France  as  well  as  of  England;  and  his 
uncle,  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  the  most  accomplished  j^rince  of 
his  age,  was  appointed  Protector  of  the  kingdom 
and  guardian  of  the  infant  king.     On  arriving 


Protectorate. 


at  the  age  of  majority,  he  showed  neither  the  capacity  nor  the 
disposition  to  take  control  of  the  government.  He  married 
Margaret  of  Anjou,  a  ])rinco?s  whose  accomplish- 
ments and  masculine  energy  of  character  were 


Marriage. 


well  suited  to  supply  the  defects  and  weaknesses  of  lier  bus- 


Tlie  Plantagenets.  869 


band.*  But  the  incapacity  of  the  king  encouraged  the  rival 
house  of  York  to  lay  claim  to  the  throne,  in  behalf  of  Kichard, 
Duke  of  York,  the  descendant  of  Edward's  tliird  son,  who 
was  a  man  of  ability  and  valor,  as  well  as  immense  wealth. 
In  this  pretension  Kichard  was  upheld  by  the  greatest  noble- 
man of  the  kingdom,  the  renowned  Earl  of  Warwick  {war'' 
rick),  afterward  called  the  King-maker,  whose 
means  and  possessions  were  so   extensive   that 


Warwick. 


30,000  retainers  were  constantly  supported  by  him  in  his 
various  castles  and   manors,  f      An   insurrection 
of  the  lower  orders,  under  a  leader  named  Jack 


Jack  Cade. 


Cade,  broke  out  about  this  time,  but  was  soon  put  down. 
Cade  being  slain  (1450). 

66.  The  king's  government  being  very  unpopular,  Richard 
raised   an   army,  ostensibly  for  the   redress  of 
grievances;  and  in  the  battle  of  St.  Albans  {atvV- 
hans)  defeated  the  royalists  (1455),  and  took  the 


War  of  the 
Roses. 


king  prisoner.    This  was  the  first  battle  in  that  great  civil  war 

*  *'  When  Henry  was  twenty-three  years  old,  his  council  suggested  that  it  was 
time  he  should  marry  ;  and  every  one  foresaw  that  the  queen,  whoever  she  might 
be,  would  possess  the  control  over  the  weak  mind  of  her  husband.  Tlie  choice  of 
Henry  was  directed  toward  Mai^aret  the  daughter  of  R6n6,  King  of  Sicily  and 
Duke  of  Anjou.  In  personal  beauty  she  was  thought  superior  to  most  women,  in 
mental  capacity  equal  to  most  men  of  the  age.  The  marriage  was  agreed  on. 
Margaret  landed  at  Portchester,  was  married  to  Henry  at  Tichfield,  and  crowned 
May  30,  1444."— Lm(/ard's  History  of  England. 

t  "  During  the  whole  extent  of  England's  history,  under  the  Saxon,  Dane,  or 
Norman,  the  mightiest  of  her  barons  was  the  king-maker,  Warwick.  It  was  his 
power  that  made  Edward  king,  and  his  that  unmade  him.  It  was  his  power  that 
lethroned  King  Henry,  and  it  was  his  that  restored  him.  Each  monarch  in  turn 
became  the  captive  and  prisoner  of  this  great  earl.  With  princely  revenues  and 
estates,  Warwick's  vassals  were  an  army  ;  and  some  notion  may  be  formed  of  the 
force  he  could,  at  will,  bring  armed  into  the  field,  from  the  fact  that  he  is  said  to 
have  daily  feasted,  at  his  numerous  manors  and  castles,  upward  of  thirty  thousand 
persons.  The  other  nobles  possessed,  in  their  degree,  the  power  of  an  armed  feu- 
dal retinue,  ready  to  follow  their  lord  to  battle  in  any  cause  of  his  choosing  ;  and 
thus  there  was  a  baronial  power  of  which  modem  England  shows  only  the  shadow. 
As  the  traveler  now  beholds  the  stately  walls  of  W^arwick  Castle,  he  can  scarce, 
with  all  the  impulse  given  to  his  imagination,  call  up  the  vision  of  the  armed  hosts 
which,  some  three  hundred  years  ago.  could,  at  a  moment's  summons,  be  gathered 
there  in  battle  array." — Reed's  Lectures  on  English  History, 


370  Mediceval  History, 

-  —  -  '  < 

styled  the  "  War  of  the  Eoses"  (from  the  badges  of  the  por- 
tJes,  the  Lancastrians  wearing  a  red  rose  and  the  Yorkists  a 
white  rose).  This  war  lasted  thirty  years,  was  signalized  by 
twelve  pitched  battles,  and  almost  annihilated  the  ancient 
nobility  of  England.  The  next  year  after  the  battle  of  St. 
Albans,  the  king  was  restored  to  his  authority;  but  the  con- 
test soon  broke  out  with  increased  fury,  and  in  the  battle  of 
Northampton  the  king  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Earl  of  Warwick  (1460),  after  which  the  Duke  of  York 
was  proclaimed  the  lawful  successor  of  Henry,  and  Edward, 
the  son  of  Henry  and  Margaret,  was  excluded  from  the  throne. 
The  queen,  however,  fled  to  Scotland,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
northern  barons  raised  a  large  army,  with  which,  in  the  battle 
of  Wakefield,  she  defeated  the  Duke  of  York,  who  was  taken 
prisoner  and  put  to  death  (1460).  A  few  weeks  after  this 
Margaret  defeated  the  Earl  of  Warwick  and  regained  posses- 
sion of  the  king;  but  Edward,  son  of  the  late 
Duke  of  York,  joining  his  forces  with  those  of 


Edward  IV. 


Warwick,  compelled  her  to  retreat,  and,  triumphantly  enter- 
ing London,  was  proclaimed  king,  under  the  title  of  Edward 
IV.  (1461). 

67.  Edward  IV.  Queen  Margaret,  however,  was  not  sub- 
dued. She  succeeded  in  collecting  an  army  of  60,000  men  in 
the  northern  counties,  with  which  she  encountered  the  forces 
of  Edward  and  Warwick  in  the  terrific  battle  of  Tow'ton; 
but  was  totally  defeated  (1461),  and  comj)ellod, 
with  her  husband,  to  take  refuge  in  Scotland. 
During  the  next  throe  years  ^largaret  made  but 


Defeat  of 
Margaret 


one  effort  to  recover  the  lost  kingdom,  but  was  defeated  and 
compelled  to  flee  to  France;  a  short  time  after  which  Henry 
fell  into  the  possession  of  the  king,  and  was  confined  in  the 
Tower  at  London.  Edward's  vices,  however, 
and  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth  Gray,  a  Lan- 
castrian  knight's  widow,  upon   whose  relatives 


vices  of  th« 
king. 


the  infatuated  monarch   Bhowered  all    his  favors,   so  dis- 


The  Plantagenets.  371 

gusted  the  brave  and  high-spirited  Warwick  that  he  de- 
serted the  cause  of  Edward,  and  formed  an  alliance  with 
Margaret.  So  popular  was  this  nobleman  that  in  a  few  days 
he  raised  an  army  of  60,000  men,  compelled  Edward  to  flee, 
and  placed  Henry  again  on  the  throne  (1470).  Disaster  soon 
followed  this  great  victory;  for  Edward  landing 
in  England  with  a  small  force,  was  soon  joined 
by  an  immense  army,  and  regaining  possession  of 


Henry  again 
king. 


London,  once  more  made  prisoner  the  hapless  Henry,  and 
marched  against  Warwick,  who  had  taken  a  position  at  Bar'- 
net,  near  London. 

68.  The  king-maker,  deserted  by  his  son-in-law,  the  Duke 
of  Clarence,  brother  to  Edward,  who  with  a  hirge  force  went 
over  to  the  Yorkists,  was  defeated  in  the  battle 
of  Barnet,  and  slain  (1471);  and,  a  fortnight 
afterward,  Edward  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  forces  of  Margaret  at  Tewks'bury,  the  latter,  with  her 
son  Edward,  being  among  the  prisoners.  The  young  prince 
was  cruelly  put  to  death  by  the  Dukes  of  Clarence  and  Glos- 
ter,  brothers  of  Edward  IV.,  and  Margaret  was  imprisoned  in 
the  Tower.  A  few  days  after  this  battle  Henry 
expired  in  the  Tower,  according  to  general  be- 


Defeat  of 
Warwick. 


Death  of  Henry. 


lief,  by  the  murderous  hand  of  the  cruel  and  wicked  Duke  of 
Gloster.  Queen  Margaret  afterward  found  a  refuge  in  France, 
where  she  died  (1482).  Edward,  being  now  secure  on  the 
throne,  gave  himself  up  to  every  species  of  vice  and  debauch- 
ery. He  caused  his  brother,  Duke  of  Clarence, 
to  be  put  to  death  on  a  charge  of  treason,  being 
probably  instigated  to  this  crime  by  his  younger 


Murder  of 
Clarence. 


brother,  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloster,  who  was  noted  for  his 
designing  character  and  unrelenting  ambition.  Edward  was 
about  to  engage  in  a  war  with  France,  when  ho  was  seized 
with  a  distemper,  of  which  he  expired  (1483). 

69.  Edward  V.,  the  eldest  son  of  Edward  IV.,  a  youth  of 
twelve  years,  was  proclaimed  king;  and  his  uncle,  the  Duko 


372  Mediceval  History. 

of  Gloster,  was  appointed  Erotector.  This  artful  and  wicked 
prince,  obtaining  possession  of  the  young  king 
and   his  brother   Richard,  placed   them   in   the 


Duke  of  Gloster. 


Tower;  and  caused  Lord  Rivers,  their  maternal  uncle,  and 
Lord  Hastings,  with  several  other  distinguished  persons,  to 
be  executed  on  a  charge  of  treason.  He  then  gave  out  that 
the  young  princes  were  illegitimate;  and  contrived  that  some 
of  his  friends  should  solicit  him  to  take  the  crown,  which, 
with  pretended  reluctance,  he  accepted,  and  held  under  the 
title  of  Richard  III  (1483). 

70.  Eichard  III.     The  first  act  of  this  wicked  usurper 
was  to  destroy  the  two  young  princes,  who  are  supposed  to 
have  been  smothered  in  their  beds  in  the  Tower 
by  his  orders.     But  he  was  not  permitted  quietly 
to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  crimes.     A  conspiracy 


Murder  of  the 
princes. 


was  formed  against  him  by  his  former  friend,  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham;  but  it  failed,  and  Buckingham  was  seized  and 
executed.  The  nation,  however,  soon  found  a  deliverer  in 
Henry  Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond,  tlie  last  heir 
of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  wlio,  landing  at  Mil'- 


Henry  Tudor. 


fonl  Haven,  in  Wales,  was  soon  joined  by  sufficient  forces  to 
cope  with  those  of  the  usurper.  An  engagement  took  place 
at  Bosworth  Field;  and  Ricliard,  being  deserted 
by  Lord  Stanley  and  a  large  jiart  of  his  army,  was 


Bosworth. 


defeated,  and  he  himself,  figliting  desperately  in  tlie  confiict, 
was  slain.  Richmond  was  proclaimed  king  on  the  battle-lSeld, 
with  the  title  of  Henry  VII.,  by  Sir  William  Stanley,  brother 
of  Lord  Stanley  (1485).* 

♦  "  The  battle  which  brought  to  a  close  the  famous  War  of  the  Roses  was  foufrht 
on  Redmore  Plain,  about  a  mile  to  the  south  of  Market-Bosworth  In  I^icestersliin  . 
From  this  town  It  received  the  name  by  which  It  Is  most  generally  calle(i-the  Imi 
tie  of  Bosworth.  The  loaders  of  th«^  war  were  Richanl  Plantu^enot.  a  little  sharp- 
faced  man,  with  one  slioulder  somewhat  higher  than  the  other,  fn»in  which  slight 
deformity  he  was  branded  by  his  enemies  with  the  name  of  Htmchback;  and  Henry 
Tudor,  or  Tydder.  a  gray-eyed  cautious  man,  with  long  yellow  hair.  The  former 
represented  the  House  of  York;  the  latter,  the  House  of  Lancaster."— CoMicr'« 
Pictures  from  English  History. 


TTie  Plantagenets.  ^^^ 


State  of  Societt  in  ENOLAin), 

During  the  Period  of  the  Plantageneis  (1154-1485). 

71.  The  institution  of  the  House  of  Commons,  the  grant- 
ing of  Magna  Charta,  and  the  decadence  of  serfdom  were  the 
most  important  events  in"  the  political  and  social 
progress  of  England  during  this  period.  The 
English  kings  constantly  souglit  to  evade  the 


Political  and 
social  progress, 


provisions  of  the  great  charter,  but  without  success,  for  no 
less  than  thirty-eight  times  were  they  compelled  to  ratify  it. 
Trial  by  jury  took  the  place  of  the  **  judicial 
combat"  of  the  Normans,  the  charter  prescribing 


Trial  by  jury. 


**  the  legal  judgment  of  his  peers"  as  necessary  for  the  con- 
demnation of  every  one  charged  with  committing  crime. 

72.  In  the  earlier  reigns,  although  so  much  had  been  ac- 
complished toward  laying  the  foundation  of  English  liberty,  the 
condition  of  the  common  people  was  very  little 
improved.     A  degrading  system  of  serfdom  con- 


Serfdom, 


tinned  to  exist.  Slaves  were  bought  and  sold  at  the  fairs, 
and  it  is  said  that  the  price  of  a  man  was  less  than  that  of  a 
horse.*  But  in  the  Lancastrian  period,  the  result  of  the  great 
civil  commotions  was  to  introduce  considerable  changes  in 
the  social  condition  of  the  people.  One  of  the 
most  important  of  these  was  the  extinction  of 


Abolition. 


villanage,  or  serfdom.     The  nobles  being  compelled  to  arm 
their  serfs  in  the  Wars  of  the  Eoses,  could  never  afterward 


*  "  Of  the  two  millions  of  human  beings  who  inhabited  England  in  the  reign  of 
John,  a  very  large  number,  probably  nearly  half,  were  in  a  state  of  slavery.  Those 
who  are  disposed  to  listen  to  tales  about  '  Merrie  England '  and  '  the  good  old 
times '  should  remember  this  fact.  At  the  commencement  of  true  English  history, 
we  start  with  the  laborers  in  abject  wretchedness.  The  narrative  of  the  changes 
in  their  social  and  political  positions  thenceforward  to  modern  tunes  is  certainly  a 
history  of  progressive  amelioration,  though  lamentably  slow  and  imperfect,"— 
Creasy. 


374 


MedicBval  History, 


reduce  them  to  servitude.  The  ancient  nobility  having  nearly 
all  perished  in  these  long  wars,  feudalism  in 
England  was  destroyed,   and    a   better    system 


Feudalism. 


took  its  place. 

73.  The  great  staple  of  commerce  was  wool,  which,  with 

other  commodities — tin,  lead,  leather,  etc. — was  sold  princi- 
pally tc  the  German 
merchants,    who    ex- 


Commerce. 


ported  into  England  gold,  silver, 
silks,  wines,  spices,  and  other  lux- 
uries for  exchange.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  period  silk -making 
was  introduced,  and  a  law  was 
passed  to  protect  those  engaged 
in  it  from  the  competition  of  the  _ 
Lombard  merchants  (1455).  Agri-  i,  knight  of  gartkr;  2.  Gmm* 
culture  continued  to  be  very  rude;  **^'  ^-  citizen. 

and  large  tracts  of  tilled  land  were  converted  into 
sheep-pastures,  in  order  that  the  grain  of  foreign 


Agriculture. 


countries  might  be  purchased  with  the  wool  thus  obtained. 


74.  The  modes  of  living  gradually  became  more  refined. 
Glass  windows,  vessels  of  earthenware,  the  use  of  coal  for  fuel 

— I   and  of  candles  for  lighting  purposes  enlarged  the 

"""''  I  comforts  of  the  people.  The  costume  of  this 
period  was  curious  and  fantastic.  Long-pointed  shoes,  with 
the  toes  fastened  to  the  knees  or  the  girdle;  stockings  of 
different  colorsj  a  coat  half  blue  or  black,  half  white,  with 


The  Plantagenets, 


87i 


trousers  reaching   scarcely  to  the  knees,  were  some  of  the 
most  prominent  peculiarities  in  the  dress  of  the 
fine  gentlemen.     The  ladies  wore  party-colored 


Costume. 


tunics,  very  short  tippets,  small  caps,  and  girdles  orna- 
mented with  gold  and  silver,  in  which  they  carried  two 
small  swords.     Their  trains  were  very  long;  and  their  head- 


liADiEs'  Head-Dresses.    {Froissart.) 

dresses  towered  sometimes  two  feet  above  their  heads,  and 
were  decked  at  the  summit  with  waving  ribbons  of  various 
colors. 

75.  Science  made  some  progress,  particularly  through  the 
researches  of  Roger  Bacon  (1314-1292),  who  applied  the 
learning  which  he  had  acquired  at  Oxford  to  the 
making  of  useful  inventions.  He  discovered  the 
composition  of  gunpowder  and  the  use  of  the 


Science  and 
learning. 


magnifying-glass,  and  devised  various  mathematical  and  philo- 
sophical instruments.  This  wonderful  knowledge  caused 
him  to  lie  regarded  by  the  people  as  a  magician,  and  he  was 
confined  in  prison  for  many  years.  Astrology  and  alchemy 
were  favorite  subjects  of  research;  but  though 
the  alchemists  failed  in  their  laborious  search 
for  the  *' philosopher's  stone"  and  the  *' elixir  of 
life,"  they  laid,  by  their  experiments,   the  foundation  of 


Astrology  and 
alchemy. 


376 


3fedicdval  History, 


modern  chemistry,  as  the  astrologers,  by  their  constant  obser- 
vations, contributed  to  the  progress  of  astronomy. 

76.  The  great  event  of  this  period  was  the  introduction  of 
printing  by  William  Caxton,  who,  after  acquiring  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  art  in  Holland  and  Germany,  set  up 
a  press  at  Westminster,  during  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward IV.  Previous  to  this  there  were  no  books  except  such 
as  had  been  prepared  with  great  expense  of  time  and  labor 


Printing. 


in  the  "writing-rooms"  of  the  monasteries,  for  learning  was 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  clergy.  The 
first  book  printed  in  England  by  Caxton  was 


Caxton. 


English 
literature. 


The  Game  and  Flaye  of  Chease 
(1474).  The  types  used  by  him 
were  like  those  used  by  the  Ger^ 
mans  (blach-leiter),  which  was  the 
common  style  of  print  till  the 
reign  of  James  I. 

77.  The  first  era  of  English 
literature  may  be  i)laccd  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  III., 
when  the  Travels  of 
Sir  John  Mandeville 
were  published  (1360).     This  is  u^i'Oi^ 

the  earliest  known  work  in  English  prose.  The  famous 
John  Wickliffe  (1324-1384),  who  translated  the  Bible,  and 
the  poet  Geoffrey  Chaucer  (1328-1400)  flourished  during 
the  same  reign.  Tlie  language  of  these  writers  is  called 
"Middle  English,"  because  it  comes  between  the 
"  semi -Saxon,"  which  preceded  it,  and  modern 
English,  which  commenced  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Dra- 
matic literature  included  only  such  compositions 
as  tlie  Mysteries  or  Miracle  Plays,  the  subjects 
selected  being  of  a  religious  character.  They  were  succeeded 
by  the  Moral  Plays,  tliC  object  of  which  was  to  give  moral 
lessons  by  presenting  on  the  stage  ingenious  allegories. 


Middle  English. 


The  drama. 


Principal  Events  and  Dates. 


377 


Kings  of  England, 

From  Egbert  (827)  to  Henry  VU.  (1485). 


I) 


Line.  Name. 

Egbert 

Four  reigns 

Alfred  the  Great 

Edward  the  Elder 

Eight  reigns  

Canute 

Harold  I.  (Harefoot). . 

Hardicanute 

Edward  the  Confessor. 

Harold  H 

William  I 

William  U 

Henry  I 

Stephen 


Date  of  reign. 

827-836 

830-871 

871-901 

901-925 

925-1016 

loifr-iass 

1035-1040 

1040-1012 

1042-1066 
1006-1066 
1066-1087 
1087-1100 
1100-1135 
1135-1154 


Line.  Name. 

Henry  H.... 

Richard  I... 

John . . . 

Henry  m... 

Edward  I... 

Edward  H.. 

Edward  HI. 

Richard  H 

Henry  IV... 

Henry#V.... 
I  Henry  VI... 
I  Edward  IV.. 
I  Edward  v.. , 
L  Richard  UI. 


Date 


of  reign. 
1154-1189 
1189-1199 
1199-1216 
1216-1272 
127rJ-lS07 
1307-1327 
1327-1377 
1377-1399 
139ft-1413 
1413-1422 
1422-1461 
1461-1483 
1483-1483 
1483-1485 


Summary  of  Peincipal  Events  and  Dates. 


Union  of  the  Saxon  kingdoms  under  Egbert 827 

Battle  of  Hastings.    Hai-old  defeated  by  the  Normans 1066 

Assassination  of  Thomas  a  Becket 1170 

Conquest  of  Ireland 1172 

Magna  Charta  signed  by  King  John 1215 

Battle  of  Lewes.    Defeat  of  Henry  III.  by  Leicester 1264 

House  of  Commons  instituted  by  Leicester....  1265 

Conquest  of  Wales  by  Edward  1 1283 

The  Scots  defeated  at  Dunbar  by  Edward  1 1296 

William  Wallace  defeated  at  Falkirk 1298 

Wallace  taken  prisoner  and  executed 1305 

Edward  II.  defeated  by  Robert  Bi  uce  at  Bannockbum 1314 

The  Scots  defeated  at  Halidon  Hill 1333 

The  French  defeated  at  Crecy  by  Edward  IH 1346 

The  French  defeated  at  Poitiers  by  the  Black  Prince 1356 

Death  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince 1376 

Insurrection  under  Wat  Tyler 1381 

Battle  of  Otterburn  between  Percy  (Hotspur)  and  Douglas 1388 

A  Lollard  clergyman  burnt  at  the  stake 1401 

Battle  of  Shrewsbury.    Percy  defeated  and  slain 1403 

The  French  defeated  at  Agincourt  by  Henry  V 1415 

Jack  Cade's  rebellion 1450 

The  royalists  defeated  at  St.  Albans 1455 

Battle  of  Northampton.     Henry  VI.  taken  prisoner 1460 

Queen  Margaret  defeated  at  Towton 1461 

Warwick  defeated  by  Edward  IV.  at  Barnet 1471 

Art  of  P*rinting  mtroduced  into  England ..' 1474 

Death  of  Queen  Margaret  in  France 1482 

Battle  of  Bosworth.    Henry  VTI.  proclaimed  king ,.,,.,, 1485 


878 


MedicBval  History. 


Topical  Eeview. 


CONQUERING   RACES. 

Who  were  they? 

What  conquests  did  they  make?   p^gj. 

Biirgundians 297,  316 

Lombards 299,  304 

Avars £99,  303 

Bulgarians 803,  304,  306 

Slavonians 303,  306 

Sueves 297,  298 

Magyars 307 

Seljuks .]...  807,  330 

Mongols  and  Ottomans 309 

Franks 315 

Alemanni 316 

Normans 320 

Saxons 822,  323 

Saracens 805,  324,  826,  827,  828 

EMINENT    PERSONAGES. 

Who  were  they? 

In  what  period  did  they  live? 

With  what  events  connected? 

Theodoric 301,  302 

Belisarius 302,  303 

Alboin 304 

Khosru 305 

Genghis  Khan,  Anavirath 809 

Timour 310 

Clovis 816 

Charles  Martel 817,  828 

Pepin  the  Short 818 

Charlemagne 818 

Alcuin 819 

RoUo 821 

Mohammed,  Egbert 824 

Omar 827 

Haroun  al  Raschid 829 

Alfred  the  Great 834 

Harold,  Sweyn 836 

William  the  Conqueror 886,  888 

Matilda,  Geoffrey  Plantagenet. 841 

William  of  Malmsbury 846 

Henry  of  Huntingdon 846 

Geoffrey  Monmouth 346 

Eleanor  of  Guienne 830 

Thomas  &  Becket 861 

St. Patrick ,.,..  95« 


PAOK 

Prince  Arthur 855 

Robert  Bruce 359,360 

Edward  the  Black  Prince..  863,  864,  365 

Wat  Tyler 365,  366 

Harry  Percy  (Hotspur) 367 

Earl  of  Warwick 369,  370,  371 

Margaret  of  Anjou 868,  370,  371 

Jack  Cade 369 

Elizabeth  Gray 370 

Richard,  Duke  of  Gloster 371,  3^^ 

Henry  Tudor 37? 

Roger  Bacon 875 

William  Caxton 376 

Sir  John  Mand-ville 876 

Geoffrey  Chaucer 867,  876 

John  Wickliffe 867,  376 

IMPORTANT    EVENTS. 

When  did  tliey  occur? 

What  led  to  them? 

What  resulted  tlierefrom? 

Conquest  of  Italy  by  the  Goths 808 

Lombard  conquest  of  Italy 804 

Fall  of  the  Sassanides 805 

Taking  of  Constantinople 808,  810 

Foundation  of  the  French  monarchy  816 

Defeat  of  the  Saracens 817,  818 

Hegira 825 

Saracenic  conquest  of  Spain SSS 

Taking  of  Bagdad 880 

Danish  invasion  of  England 831 

Battle  of  Hastings 885 

Conquest  of  Ireland 858,  868 

Signing  of  Magna  Charta 856 

Institution  of  the  House  of  Commons  858 

Battle  of  Evesham »« 

Conquest  of  Wales 859 

Conquest  of  Scotland 860 

Battle  of  Bannockbum 861 

Battle  of  Crecy . . .  . . . , 862 

Battle  of  Poitiers 864 

Battle  of  Shrewsbury 867 

Battle  of  Agincourt 868 

Treaty  of  Troyes 868 

Battle  of  Towton 870 

Battle  of  Bamet 871 

E»d  of  the  PlantagenetQ 872 


No.  12. 


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CHAPTEB  V. 
France  in  the  Middle  Ages, 


SECTION  I. 

The  Capetiak  Dynasty. 

1.  During  the  period  of  nearly  two  centuries  (814-987) 
that  elapsed  from  the  death  of  Charlemagne  to  the  termina- 
tion of  the  reign  of  his  successors,  called  the 
Carlovingian  dynasty,  the  throne  of  France 
was  occupied  mostly  by  weak  princes.    Toward 


Carlovingian 
princes. 


the  close  of  this  period,  the  feudal  lords  had  shorn  the  king 
of  most  of  his  power,  and  the  kingdom  consisted  of  a  loose 
collection  of  provinces  over  which  they  held 
sway.     At  length  Hugh  Capet  {kali-pa'),  son  of 


Hugh  Capet. 


Hugh  the  Great,  the  most  powerful  of  these  vassals,  seized 
the  throne,  and  inaugurated  a  new  line  of  kings,  named  after 
him  the  Capet i an  dynasty, 

2.  Hugh  Capet.  During  the  early  reigns  of  this  dynasty 
the  actual  dominions  of  the  French  king  were  of  but  small 
extent,  a  large  part  of  the  territory  having  been  p 
usurped  by  the  ambitious  nobles  and  held  only  by 
the  feudal  tie.    The  most  important  of  these  pro- 


French 

dominions. 


vinces  were  Brittany,  in  the   northwest;  Normandy,  in  the 
north ;    Aquitaine,   or    Guienne    {ghe-en%    and 
Anjou  (ahnyoo),  in  the  west;   Gascony  and  Na- 


Provinces. 


varre,  in  the  southwest;  Provence  (pro-vahns'),  in  the  south- 
east; Burgundy  and  Champagne  {shong-pahn^),  in  the  east; 

Geographical  Study,  Map  No.  Xn. 

What  xvas  the  sitxuition  of :  Francia  (France)?  Aquitania?  Buroundy?  Aus- 
tria? Nkustria?  Bavaria?  Emirate  op  Cordova?  Bulgaria?  Bagdad? 

Where  toas  the  territory  of:  The  Avars?  Turks  or  Magyars?  Who  held  the 
northern  part  of  Africa?  The  territory  between  th<=!  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the 
E  iphrates  River?  What  did  the  Eastern  Empire  embrace? 


880 


MedicBval  History. 


and  Flanders,  in  the  northeast.     The  history  of  this  period 
is  mainly  occupied  with  the  wars  which  were  waged  to  bring 


Geooraphioal  Study. 
What^was  the  situation  of:  Normandy?  Brittany?  Picardy?  MAXinB?  Anjoc? 

POITOU?    GUIENNK?     GaSCONY?     LANaCEDOC  ?    PrOVENCE?    DaUPHINY  ?    AUVERONE? 

Burgundy?  Champaone?  Ix)Rrainb?  Alsace?  Flanders?  Netherlands?  Savoy? 
Paris?  Aix  la  Chapelle?  Metz?  Rheims?  Troyea?  Lyons?  Avignon?  Toulouse?  Bor- 
deaux? Nantes?  Orleans?  Crecy?  Calais?  Rouen?  Brest? 

about  a  consolidation  of  the  kingdom.  Hugh  Capet  was 
an  active  and  prudent  monarch;  and,  during 
his  reign  of  nearly  ten  years,  he  succeeded  iu 
overcoming  all  opposition  to  his  authority,  and 


Character  of 
Cap«t 


in  enlarging  his  dominions.     At  his  death  he  left  the  throne 
to  his  son  Robert  (99G). 


The  CapeUan  Dynasty.  381 

3.  Robert  succeeded  in  annexing  Burgundy  to  his  do- 
miuions.  During  this  reign  the  year  1000  arrived,  which,  as 
the  date  of  the  millennium,  had  been  very  gener- 
ally predicted  as  the  ''  end  of  the  world."  *    This 


Year  looo. 


belief  occasioned  general  neglect  and  idleness;  and  a  dreadful 
famine  and  pestilence  was  the  result,  which  swept  away  vast 
multitudes  of  people,  and  caused  the  most  frightful  miseries 
and  crimes.  The  superstition  and  ignorance  of  the  people, 
and  the  oppression  and  vices  of  the  nobles,  made  this  one  of 
the  darkest  periods  in  human  history.  Robert  died  in  1031, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Henry. 

4.  Henry  I.  Tliis  reign  is  noted  for  the  repeated  wars 
which  Henry  waged  with  the  Duke  of  Normandy — William, 
afterward  the  Conqueror  of  England — who  suc- 
cessfully defended  his  dominions  against  the  at- 
tacks of  the  French  king.     Thus  was  produced 


Wars  with 
Normandy. 


that  aversion  between  the  English  and  French  monarchs 
that  occasioned  so  many  wars  during  the  following  reigns. 
The  power  of  the  Church  was  exercised  during  this  reign  to 
put  a  check  to  the  unceasing  warfare  of  the  nobles,  and  to 
procure  some  respite  for  the  unfortunate  peasantry,  so  that 
they  might  cultivate  the  lands,  and  thus  prevent  famine 
and  pestilence.  This  was  effected  by  establishing  what  was 
called  the  Truce  of  God  —  a  religious  injunc- 
tion   against   all    military   operations,    dueling, 


Truce  of  God. 


and  other  acts  of  violence,  from  Wednesday,  at  sunset,  till 
sunrise  on  Monday,  and  on  all  feast  and  holy  days.  This 
regulation  did  much,   eventually,   to  soften  the  ferocity  of 

*  "  Toward  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  a  false  interpretation  of  a  passage  in 
the  Gospels,  according  to  which  the  end  of  the  world  and  the  second  coming  of 
Jesus  Christ  in  Judea  had  been  fixed  for  the  year  1000,  had  struck  all  Christendom 
with  stupor  and  affright.  'The  end  of  the  world  being  at  hand.'  were  the  opening 
words  of  all  deeds  and  contracts;  and  the  vanities  of  the  world  being  forgotten  in 
the  near  approach  of  the  '  supreme  and  inevitable  catastrophe,'  every  one  was 
anxio?is  to  start  for  the  Holy  Land,  in  the  hope  of  being  present  at  the  coming  of 
the  Saviour,  and  of  finding  there  pardon  for  his  sins,  a  peaceful  death,  and  the  .sal« 
vation  of  the  soul."— Lacroix's  Military  and  Religious  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages. 


382  MedicBval  History, 

these  terrible  tijnes.     Henry  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Philip 

(1060). 

6.  Philip  L  and  Louis  VL     Philip's  reign  is  noted  for  the 

conquest  of  England  by  Duke  William  of  Normandy  (106G), 
and  the  preaching  of  the  First  Crusade  (1095), 
an  account  of  which  is  given  further  on  (see 


Chief  events. 


page  407).  Philip  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis  (1108). 
This  king,  surnamed  the  Faty  was  wise  and  ener- 
getic.     He  did  important  service  to  France  by 


Louis  the  Fat. 


keeping  the  great  vassals  of  the  crown  under  control,  and 
gave  to  the  towns  their  first  charters,  thus  relieving  large 
numbers  of  the  lower  orders  from  the  wretched  condition  of 
serfdom,  in  which  they  had  been  kept  by  the  iron  hand  of 
the  aristocracy.  These  early  municipalities  were  called  Co7n- 
munes,  or  commons  (afterward  the  Third  Estate)^ 
and  consisted   of  citizens  leagued   together  for 


Communes. 


mutual  interest  and  defense.     Louis  VI.  was  succeeded  by  his 

son  Louis  (1137). 

6.  Louis  Vn.,  by  marrying  Eleanor,  became  possessed  of 

Guienne  and  Poitou  {pwah-too')',  but  during  the  expedition 
which  he  undertook  to  the  Holy  Land  (see  page 
411),  and  in  which  he  was  accompanied  by  his 


Eleanor. 


queen,  he  was  so  provoked  by  the  freedom  and  levity  of  her 
conduct  that  he  divorced  her,  and  thus  lost  her  great  posses- 
sions. These  he  had  the  mortification  of  seeing  annexed  to 
the  dominions  of  Henry,  Duke  of  Normandy, 
Count  of  Anjou  and  Maine,  and  afterward  king 


Loss  of  territory. 


of  England  (Henry  XL),  whom  Eleanor  married  after  her 
divorce  from  the  French  king.  In  this  way  the  English 
monarch  came  into  possession  of  more  extensive  territories  in 
France  than  those  of  the  French  king  himself.  Louis  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Philip  (1180). 

7.  Philip  XL  (Augustus).  During  this  reign  the  authority 
of  the  monarch  was  more  generally  acknowledged  than  it  had 
been  since  the  accession  of  Hugh  Capet,  and  the  country 


The  Capetian  Dynasty. 


383 


became  more  united  and  powerful.     This  was  partly  due  to 
the  great  abihty  and  prudence  of  Philip,  who 
knew  how  to  make  himself  respected  and  feared. 
He  engaged  in  the  Third  Crusade  with  Eichard  I. 


Power  of  the 
king. 


of  England;  but,  becoming  jealous  of  the  English  monarch's 
fame,  he   deserted   him,  and,  returning    home, 

basely  plotted 


Crusade. 


with  Kichard's  brother 
John  to  seize  his  domin- 
ions. Failing  in  this, 
he  afterward  obtained 
the  English  provinces  in 
France  by  means  of  the 
wickedness  and  cowardice 
of  John  (1204).  He  thus 
added  to  his  dominions 
Normandy,  Maine,  An- 
jou,  Poitou,  and  Lou- 
vain  ;  and 
gradually  ex- 
tended his 
sway  to  the  Pyrenees. 
He  greatly  improved  the 
discipline  of  the  army, 
encouraged  learning,  and 
walled  and  paved  Paris 
and  several  other  towns. 

A-fter  a  reign  of  forty-three  years,  he  left  his  kingdom  in  a 

state  of  tranquillity  to  his  son  Louis  (1223). 

8.  This  reign  is  memorable  for  the  rise  of  the  Al-bi-gen'- 

ses,  a  numerous  sect  of  dissenters  from  the  Catholic  Church, 

who  became  prominent  at  the  commencement  of 


Measures  of  the 
king. 


CJrttsadixo  Knioht. 


Albigente*. 


the  thirteenth  century,  in  Langnedoc  (lan'ghe- 

doc),  and  were  supported  by  Rpyraond  VL,  Count  of  that 

province.     They  received  their  name  from  Albigeois  (al-h^ 


384  MedicBval  History. 

zhwali),  the  district  in  which  they  first  appeared.  During 
the  reign  of  Phihp  Augustus  (1208),  Pope  Innocent  III. 
caused  a  crusade  to  be  preached  against  lliem,  excommuni- 
cating both  them  and  Count  Raymond;  and,  in  the  war  which 
ensued,  many  of  their  towns  were  taken,  and  the  most  dread- 
ful massacres  perpetrated.  Raymond  was  at  hist  ol  hged  to 
submit  to  the  authority  of  the  Pope.  During  the  war  Simon 
de  Montfort,  the  elder,*  took  an  active  part  against  the  Al- 
bigenses,  and  was  conspicuous  for  his  cruelty  and  perfidy. 
He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Toulouse  (1218). 

9.  Louis  VIIL  was  a  feeble  monarch,  but  the  wise  policy  of 
his  father  had  given  such  an  impulse  to  affairs,  that  France 
continued  to  be  triumphant  over  the  English, 
who,  during  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  made  re- 


English  attacks. 


peated  attacks  upon  tlio  Fiencli  territories  (see  page  358). 
Another  crusade  was  undertaken  {igainst  the  Al- 
bigenses  by  Louis  YIII.  by  request  of  the  Pope. 
With  a  large  army  he  laid  siege  to  Avignon  {ah- 


War  against  th« 
Albigenses. 


ven'yong),  but  was  kept  so  long  under  its  walls  that  20,000 
men  perished  by  disease  and  famine;  and  Louis  himself  died 
a  short  time  after  lie  had  received  the  submission  of  the  con- 
quered inhabitants  (1226). 

10.  Louis  IX.  (Saint  Louis),  son  and  successor  of  Louis 
VIIL,  was  but  a  youth  at  the  time  of  his  accession,  and  the 
government  was  administered  by  his  mother,  Blanche  of  Cas- 
tile (has-tecV),  during  whose  regency  the  war  against  the  Al- 
bigenses was  closed  by  the  com])lete  submission 
of  Count  Raymond,  and  the  cession,  by  formal 
treaty,  of  Languedoc  to  tlie  crown  of  Fmnce 


Close  of  th« 
war. 


(1229).     The  remnant  of  this  people  emigrated  to  the  east, 

■ — ; 1   and  are  lost  sight  of  in  history  a  century  later. 

log  tcharacf f.  |   j^^^-g^  though  uninstructcd  m  letters,  had  im- 
bibed  the  most  excellent   principles  of  conduct  from   Ins 


♦  Father  of  the  famous  Karl  of  Leicester,  who  founded  the  English  House  o( 
Commons.    (See  page  8&8.) 

5    • 


-The  Capetian  Dynasty.  ^b 

motlier,  and  he  strictly  observed  them  after  he  attained  the 
age  of  majority.  He  engaged  in  a  crusade  (1249)  against  the 
sultan  of  Egypt,  but  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
ransomed  by  his  subjects  for  an  immense  sum 


Other  events. 


($1,500,000).  Returning  after  an  absence  of  five  years,  he 
ruled  with  so  much  candor  and  moderation,  and  with  such  a 
conscientious  regard  for  justice  and  rectitude,  that  he  was 
universally  esteemed,  and  was  enabled  to  promote  the  true 
progress  and  happiness  of  his  people.  In  another  crusade, 
undertaken  to  check  the  Mohammedans  in  Syria,  he  died 
while  on  his  way  thither,  near  Tunis  (1270).  Some  years 
after  his  death,  he  was  canonized  by  Pope  Boniface  VIIL* 

11.  Philip  IIL,  called  the  Hardy  (because  his  constitution 
had  proved  strong  enough  to  resist  the  pestilence  that  carried 
off  his  father),  continued  the  war  against  the  Moors;  and, 
with  the  aid  of  his  uncle.  Chai'les  of  Anjou,  king 
of  Sicily,  reduced  the  king  of  Tunis  to  submis- 
sion.     Charles,  who  had  but  recently  acquired 


War  against 
Tunis. 


possession  of  Sicily,  became  very  odious  to  the  people  by  his 
arbitrary  government  and  the  excesses  of  his  followers;  and 
this  discontent  was  encouraged  by  Peter,  king  of  Aragon,t 
who  claimed  the  island.  The  result  was  that  on  Easter-day 
(1282),  when  the  church-bells  sounded  for  vespers,  the  Sicil- 
ians rushed  on  all  the  French  inhabitants  they   i 

met,  and  massacred  them  without  mercy.  About  I  '^"'^"  ^^^p^^- 
8000  perished  by  this  dreadful  event,  which  is  known  in  his- 
tory as  the  Massacre  of  the  Siciliaji  Vespers.     Peter  of  Ara- 

*  *'  The  character  of  St.  Louis  is  one  of  the  noblest  that  occurs  In  modem  his 
tory.  He  possessed  all  the  virtues  of  his  age,  untarnished  by  its  vices;  he  was 
brave  without  cruelty  or  violence,  pious  without  bigotry  or  weakness.  Although 
more  the  hero  of  the  legend  than  of  romance,  he  commands  our  admiration  by  his 
rare  disinterestedness,  his  bold  attempt  to  rule  his  actions  as  a  monarch  by  the 
rigid  maxims  of  private  honor,  and  by  the  great  good  sense  that  tempered  his  de- 
votion, and  that  never  allowed  him  to  sacrifice  humanity  or  justice  to  the  interests 
even  of  that  Chiu-ch  which  he  revered."— Crowe's  Histoid)  of  France. 

t  Aragon  was  at  this  time  an  important  kingdom  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
Spain;  and  Peter  rested  his  claim  to  Sicily  on  his  marriage  with  Constance,  daugh* 
Ver  of  a  previous  king  of  that  island. 


386  Medieval  History, 

gon,  by  this  moans,  succeeded  in  expelling  Charles  of  Anjou 
from  Sicily;  and  Philip  III.,  taking  np  the  cause  of  his  uncle, 
made  an  unsuccessful  invasion  of  Aragon,  and  died  a  short 
time  afterward  of  a  fever,  resulting  from  disappointment  and 
fatigue  (1285). 

12.  Philip  IV.  {le  Bel— the  Fair)  succeeded  at  the  age  of 
seventeen.     His  reign  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  French 
history.      He  carried  on  a  war  of  seven  years 
with  Edward  I.  of  England,  in  order  to  obtain 
Guienne;  but  finally  consented  to  a  treaty  relin- 


War  wfth 
England. 


quishing  his  chiims  to  that  duchy.  He  obtained  possession 
of  Flanders,  but  governed  it  so  oppressively  that  the  people 
(called  Flemings)  rose  in  revolt  and  massacred  the  French  to 
the  number  of  3000.  Philip  endeavored  to  re- 
duce the  Flemings  to  submission,  but  this  brave 


Flemish  war. 


people  successfully  defended  their  liberties  against  his  assaults. 
The  Flemings  were,  at  this  period,  greatly  distinguished  for 
tneir  skill  in  weaving  and  in  other  industrial  arts.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  events  of  this  reign  was  the 
suppression  of  the  famous  order  of  Knights  Tem- 
plars.     Philip's  measures  were  harsh  and  sum- 


Knights 
Tenriplars. 


mary.  He  ordered  all  the  Templars  in  France  to  bo  arrested 
on  the  same  day;  and  the  Grand  Master  and  others,  having 
been  condemned  for  sacrilege  and  immorality,  were  burnt  to 
death.*  This  order  of  knights  w\as  also  prosecuted  and  con- 
demned in  other  parts  of  Europe,  f     Philip  died  in  1314. 

♦  The  king,  Philip  IV.,  ordered  two  Templars,  one  of  them  the  Qrand  Master,  to 
bo  burned.  "It  was  probably  owing  to  the  last  words  of  the  Master— *  God  will 
avenge  our  death  *— that  there  arose  a  popular  rutnor  tiiat  the  Master,  at  his  death, 
had  cited  the  Pope  and  the  king  to  appear  with  liiin,  the  former  at  the  end  of  forty 
days,  and  the  latter  witliin  a  year,  before  the  judgmont-soat  of  Gml.  Events  gave 
a  sanction  to  the  legend;"  for  both  Clement  and  Philip  actually  died  within  the 
time  named. 

t  This  celebrated  religious  and  military  order  was  founded  at  Jerusalem  in  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth  cantury,  for  the  protection  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher,  and  the 
pilgrims  who  journeyed  thither.  It  afterward  spread  all  over  Europe,  and  became 
noted  for  its  vast  possessions.  It  was  stippresstMl  in  England  by  Edward  II.  (1309), 
and  the  general  council  that  met  at  Vienna  in  1311,  nronoimced  a  decree  annulling 


The  Capetian  Dynasty.  387 

13.  The  most  important  act  in  the  reign  of  Philip  was  his 
creation  of  the  Third  Estate  {Tiers  Etat),  Up  to  this  time 
there  had  been  only  two  recognized  orders  in 
France,  the   nobles  and  the   clergy.     In   1302, 


Third  Estate. 


however,  Philip  being  then  at  the  height  of  his  quarrel  with 
the  Pope,  and  feeling  his  need  of  the  suppori  of  the  whole 
people  of  France,  permitted  the  burghers,  or  common  people, 
to  send  representatives  to  the  States- General  which  he  had 
called.  In  this  general  council,  these  representatives  sat  on 
equal  terms  with  those  of  the  nobles  and  the  clergy;  and  thus 
one  of  the  most  despotic  kings  of  France  was  the  means  of 
bringing  about  a  great  political  advance  in  the  condition  of 
the  people.  From  that  time  three  estates  were  known  i£i 
France:  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  and  the  people,  or,  as  the 
latter  were  called,  the  Third  Estate, 

14.  Louis  X.  was  surnamed  Hutin  (disorder,  or  tumult), 
from  the  tumultuous  conduct  of  the  nobles  and  clergy,  who  at- 
tempted to  regain  from  Louis  the  powers  and 
privileges  of  which  they  had  been  deprived  by  his 
artful  and  despotic  father.     He  yielded  to  most 


Nobles  and 
clergy. 


of  their  demands,  and  issued  an  ordinance  enfranchising  the 
serfs  within  the  royal  domains.  During  his  short  reign, 
he  was  under  the  influence  of  his  uncle,  Charles  of  Valois 
{iml-ioah'),  who  employed  it  to  destroy  Marigny 
(mah-reen'ye),  the  former  prime  minister  of  Philip 


Marigny. 


the  Fair;  and  this  distinguished  man  was  condemned  and 
put  to  death  upon  a  malicious  and  absurd  charge  of  sorcery. 
On  the  death  of  the  king  (1316),  the  government  was  admin- 
istered by  his  brother  Philip,  as  regent;  and,  the  infant  son 
of  Louis  X.  having  died,  Philip  became  king  (1317). 

and  abolishing  the  order,  and  bestowed  its  privileges  on  the  Knights  of  St.  John. 
At  the  time  of  its  suppression  in  France,  the  number  of  the  knights  in  that  country 
was  about  1.5,000.  Their  treasury  contained  150,000  gold  florins,  besides  large  quan- 
tities of  silver,  precious  stones,  rich  vases,  etc.  It  is  believed  by  many  that  Philip's 
persecution  was  instigated  by  the  desire  to  obtain  this  vast  hoard  in  orde»'  to  satisfy 
his  cupidity. 


388  MedicBval  History. 

15.  Philip  V.  (Je  Long — the  Tall)  assembled  the  States- 
General  to  pronounce  upon  his  right  to  the  throne,  which 
was  disputed  by  the  daughter  of  Louis  X.;  and  a  decree  was 
issued  declaring  that  females  are  incapable  of  inheriting  the 
crown  of  France.  This  decree,  being  based,  as  it 
was  said,  upon  the  barbarous  code  of  tlie  Salian 


Salic  law. 


Franks,  was  called  the  SaVic  Law.  During  this  reign, 
France  was  the  scene  of  dreadful  religious  persecutions,  par- 
ticularly of  the  Jews,  who  were  put  to  death 
in  Tou-raine'  with  the  most  dreadful  barbarity. 


Jews. 


Philip,  after  a  brief  reign  of  five  years,  was  succeeded  by  his 

brother  Charles  (1322). 

16.  Charles  IV.  became  king  by  the  operation  of  the  Salic 

law,  for  Philip  V.  had  left  daughters  but  no  sons.  His  reign 
is  almost  a  blank,  being  only  noted  for  his  inva- 
sion of  Guienne,  to  which  he  was  invited  by  the 


Guienne. 


troubles  of  Edward  II.  of  England.  It  was  in  France  that 
the  wicked  Queen  Isabella,  sister  of  Charles  IV.,  plotted  with 
Mortimer  for  the  destruction  of  her  unfortunate  husband. 

1   Charles  afterward  restored  Guienne  to  Ed.rard 

III.      On.  the  death  of  Charles  without   male 
heirs  (1328),  the  direct  line  became  extinct,  and 


End  of  the 
Capets 


Philip  of  Valois,  nepliew  of  Philip  the  Fair,  succeeded  to 
the  throne.  This  introduces  a  collateral  line  of  kings,  called 
the  Branch  of  Valois. 

State  of  Society  Dimmo  the  Capetian  Period. 

17.    The   most  important   changes  which   took   place  in 
France  during  the  Capetian  period  were  the  firm  csUihlish- 
ment  cf  the  monarchy  and  the  elevation  of  tlio 
common  people.     A  result  of  this  was  the  slow 


Changes. 


decay  of  feudalism.     Attacked  from  above  by  the  king  and 
from  below  by  the  people,  it  yielded  gradually  in  the  contest.* 

♦  "  The  Introduction  of  standin^c  armies  was  unquestionably  the  most  important 
political  cbanKe  In  the  histoiy  of  modern  Kiu-ope.    Wbea  introduced  in  one  nation 


The  Capetian  Dynasty, 


389 


A  new  power  rose  into  prominence  during  this  period — the 

power  of  the  people.     The  working-man  became  a  soldier, 

and  the  tradesmen  of  the  cities,  whose  friendship 

^he  king  had  found  useful  to  him  in  his  struggle 

frith  the  lords,  were  granted   special  charters, 

which  protected  them  in  their  industries.     At  first  the  king 


Power  of  the 
people. 


left  to  each  city  the  conduct  of  its  affairs,  being  satisfied  with 
appointing  a  royal  superintendent.      This  was  followed  by 


Bauparts  of  a  Town  nr  thb  Middle  Ages. 

other  claims,  from  time  to  time,  till,  finally,  each  man,  in- 
stead of  boasting  as  before  that  he  was  the  inhabitant  of  a 
particular  city,  came  to  pride  himself  upon  being  the  king's 
yeoman. 

18.  The  purchase  of  their  freedom  by  the  serfs,  after  it 
had  begun,  went  on  with  great  rapidity.     A  large  middle 

all  were  obliged  to  follow  the  example.  This  at  once  made  it  impossible  to  continue 
the  system  of  government  which  prevailed  everywhere  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
On  the  Continent  it  led  to  despotic  government,  in  England  to  the  supremacy  of 
Parliament."— TFi76£T/orce'5  Church  and  th"  Empires. 


390  '       Mediceval  History. 

class  of  citizens  was  thus  formed,  the  existence  of  which  sup- 
plied a  condition  favorable  to  the  existence  of 
trade  and    commerce.      The  danger,   however. 


Trade. 


which  attended  all  communication  between  different  parts  of 
the  country  checked  their  growth.  Kobbery  and  crime  on 
the  public  highway  were  common,  and  only  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  towns  and  cities  was  property  secure.  This 
state  of  affairs  was  gradually  amended  by  strict  laws  passed 
by  the  king  as  his  power  increased.  The  estab- 
lishment also  of  a  uniform  currency,  and  a  system 


Currency. 


of  regulations  for  the  government  of  the  different  kinds  of 

trades  which  existed,  aided  greatly  in  making  them  permanent. 

19.  Trade  centers  soon  came  to  be  established,  which,  by 

means  of  annual  fairs,  attracted  merchants  from  all  parts  of 

Europe.     The  wines  of  southern  France  found  a 

ready  market  in  England  and  the  Netherlands, 


Trade  centers. 


and  were  exchanged  in  Spain  for  arms,  and  leather  fabjics  of 
many  kinds.  The  fisheries  of  the  southern  ports  also  yielded 
a  large  revenue.  Some  of  the  j)rodncts  intro- 
duced by  the  Crusaders  gave  rise  to  entirely  new 


Wuiustries. 


industries.  Among  these  were  the  glass  of  Tyro  and  the 
tissues  of  Damascus.  The  use  of  flax  and  silk,  and  the  em- 
ployment of  windmills,  is  also  ascribed  to  them;  and  the  intro- 
duction of  the  sugar-cane,  the  plum-tree,  as  well  as  the  culti- 
vation of  the  mulberry.  Enameling  of  various  kinds,  seal- 
engraving,  and  the  art  of  the  goldsmith  had  also  reached  a 
high  degree  of  perfection. 

20.  In  all  parts  of  France,  at  the  end  of  this  period,  schools 
existed  in  connection  with  the  Church.      There  was,  how- 
ever, a  great  want  of  books.      Five  universities 
afforded  a  higher  education,  of  which  the  most 


Educction. 


noted  was  that  of  Paris,  the  independence  of  which  wjis  recog- 
nized by  Philip  Augustus  in  1203.  This  was  attended  by 
between  15,000  and  20,000  students.  Latin  was  the  lan- 
guage employed  in  instruction,  and  all  civilized  countries 


The  Capetian  Dynasty,  ^^i 

sent  students  to  be  educated  there.  In  1250  Kobert  de  Sor- 
bon,  chaplain  of  Louis  IX.,  founded  a  school  of  theology, 
afterward  called  the  Sorbonne  (sor-ion'). 

21.  Down  to  the  thirteenth  century,  people  of  the  lower 
classes  were  not  permitted  to  wear  the  dress  or  ornaments 
peculiar  to  the  nobility.  An  edict  of  Philip  the 
Fair  prescribes  minutely  the  number  and  cost  of 


Dress. 


the  dresses  the  tradeswomen  may  wear.  The  dress  of  the 
villain  consisted  of  a  blouse  of  cloth  or  skin,  fastened  at  the 
waist  by  a  leather  belt,  a  mantle  of  woolen  stuff,  trousers  of 
the  same,  and  shoes  or  large  boots.  Fastened  to  his  belt  was 
a  wallet  or  purse,  and  a  sheath  for  his  knife.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  hard  condition  of  the  laboring  classes,  they  had  many 
holidays,  nearly  all  the  festival  days  of  the  Church 
being  devoted  partly  to  amusement.      On  these 


Holidays. 


occasions  they  drank,  sang,  danced,  practiced  archery,  played 
athletic  games,  and  passed  most  of  the  day  in  merriment. 
Nearly  all  the  occupations  now  pursued  in  the  rural  districts 
were  in  use  in  the  earliest  times. 

22.  At  this  time  the  French  language  began  to  take  defi- 
nite form,  and  the  laws  which  heretofore  had  been  written  in 
Latin  now  were  issued  in  French.  The  literature 
of  the  period  embraces  history,  poetry,  and  ro- 
mance.    In  the  middle  and  north  of  France  the 


Language  ana 
literature. 


Trouveres  (troo-vare'),  like  the  Troubadours*  of  the  south, 
produced  a  series  of  poems  that  became  models 
for  other  countries.      Among  the  eminent  men 


Trouveres. 


of  this  period  may  be  mentioned  Ab'el-ard  (1079-1142),  illus- 
trious for  his  genius  as  a  philosopher  and  lectur- 
er; St.  Bernard  (1091-1153),  the  famous  preacher 


Eminent  men. 


of  the  Second  Crusade,  and  celebrated  not  only  for  his  piety 


*  The  Troubadours  were  accompanied  in  their  wanderings  by  minstrels  and 
jugglers,  the  latter  displaying  their  skill  at  the  close  of  the  poem  or  recitation. 
Sometimes  the  minstrels  were  formed  into  an  orchestra,  to  the  music  of  which 
dancing  took  place. 


392  MedicBval  History. 

but  for  his  extensive  learning;  Jehan  de  Joinville  (1223-1317), 
who  wrote  a  biography  of  St.  Louis,  noted  for  its  graphic  de- 
scription of  all  the  minute  events  of  that  famous  reign;  and 
the  Abbe  Suger  (soo-zha')  (1085-1152),  the  most  eminent  of 
politicians  during  the  reign  of  Louis  VI.  and  Louis  VIL 


SECTION  IL 
Branch  of  Valois. 


23.  Philip  VI.     The  claim  set  up  by  Edward  III.  of  Eng- 
land to  the  throne  of  France,  in  opposition  to  the  right  of 
Philip  of  Valois,  has  already  been  referred  to. 
The  victories  gained  by  Edward  in  the  war  that 


English  claim. 


followed  did  not  give  him  the  object  of  his  desires;  and,  a 
truce  being  agreed  on,  he  returned  to  England. 
Dau'phiny  was  about  this  time  ceded  to  the  gnmd- 


Dauphiny. 


son  of  Philip,  afterward  King  Charles  V.,  and  later  was  an- 
nexed to  France.  The  king's  eldest  son  there- 
after bore  the   title   of  Danphin.     The   Black 


Plague. 


Plague  raged  throughout  France  during  this  reign,  and  car- 
ried off  vast  multitudes  of  peo])le — 50,000  in  Paris  alone.* 
Philip  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John  (1350). 

Qbooraphical  Study,  Maps  Nos.  XIII.  and  XIV. 
What  was  the  extent  of  the  Royal  Domain  in  987  ?  What  in  1398  ?  WTiat  did  it 
embrace  at  the  latter  date?  What  were  tho  limits  of  Aquitaine  at  the  former  dntcf 
What  at  the  latter?  Mention  the  chief  provinces  at  the  time  of  Huph  the  Great:- 
At  the  time  of  Valois?  What  was  the  ntuation  of:  Bruges?  (ihent?  KOIn 
(Cologne)?  Mainz?  Strasburg?  Basel?  Metz?  Nanoy?  Chalons?  Lyons?  Avignon  1 
Aries?  Narbonne?  Bayonne?  Poitiers?  Harfleur?  Rouen?  Soissons?  Rheims? 
Amiens?    Boulogne?    Calais? 

*  "  Many  died  in  the  streets;  others  were  left  alone  in  their  houses— but  the  fact 
of  their  death  was  known  by  the  smoU.  Often,  husband  and  wife,  son  and  father, 
were  laid  on  the  same  bier.  Largo  dltohcs  had  hocn  dug,  in  which  the  corpses  were 
heaped  by  hundreds,  like  balos  U\  a  ship's  hold.  Every  one  carrit'd  in  his  hand 
strong-smelling  herbs.  The  air  stank  with  the  doad  and  dying,  or  witli  infectious 
drugs.    Alas!  how  many  fine  hoMses  remained  empty!    How  many  forUmcs  with- 


Nos.  13  &  14. 


rffi^ 


SBT  cha 


-^ir>  io .         )        /Je  V^ 

oAmieng  /""— -j^ 

loueiXjn     ^»^^'^    ,•' 
XoTJanso    ^    Ortean 


)Caen« 


UKDEB 

HUGH  CAPET 

A.D.987. 


lulouse 


larseilles       A ' 


PortsHK 


ll-l 


Boulpgnoy    BoTing  0  "oTo-'^yVNamur 

BRITTANY    >    j,    ,j^„3        > Or^^ W^'' "V^-^ 

-J     (^-^'""'"^V  Tours  \'.      ^Ci<""3/'    o^^"^     . 

S    Poitiers    '"^-^^       «Oa/»„    \|* vlYchalons^^v«->,'J!'^*?5 

IT 


FRANCE  -^:;^r^"f:S^ 

AT  THE  TIME  OP  W^i?'^  ^Y  Lf        Wfe 

vALois      A  /:^',^#i.Ji 


VALOIS 

A.D.1328 


ne 


i^KojIpj         Grenoble 
•bateau  R&ndbu 
,  >Cahors  ^'^0%^L      \  Avignon    ^  »^( 

GASCON Y'\\\?*     S>     Kimeso    <  >■ 
^^   Montpelier 


w 


^t 


,       I  I       Jezlers  o 
Tarbe»;bf"j.^>'      ? 

%  %--''N^rbonne  -^^-E 


,z,x*J5'' 


Branch  of  Valois. 


893 


24.  John  {le  Bon — the  Good).  During  this  reign  the  Erc-^- 
lish,  under  the  Black  Prince,  again  invaded  Erance,  and  the 
memorable  battle  of  Poitiers  was  fought,  in  which 
John  was  taken  prisoner,  and  no  less  than  2500 
of  the  French  nobility  and  chivalry  were  slain, 
being  carried  to  England,  his  eldest  son,  Charles,  became 


Poitiers. 


The  king 


regent,  and  during  his  administration  the  people,  under  Mar- 
cel', head  of  the  municipality  of  Paris,  made  a  desperate  strug- 
gle to  curb  the  despotic  power  of  the  monarch  and  obtain  a 


Caitnon  of  the  FouBTBBaiTH  Ckntttbt. 


share  in  the  government.    The  States-G  eneral  were  assembled, 
and  granted  the  privileges  demanded;  but  these 
being  afterward  annulled,  an  insurrection  broke 
out  which  raged  for  some  time,  but  was  termin- 


PopuI?.r 
insurrection. 


ated  by  the  death  of  Marcel,  and  the  defeat  of  the  popular 
cause.     Cannon  commenced  to  be  used  about  this  time. 

25.  At  the  same  time  a  frightful  insurrection  of  the  peas- 
antry burst  forth,  caused  by  the  hopeless  misery  m  which 


out  heirs  1  How  many  lovely  ladies,  how  many  amiable  yoimg  persons,  dintd  in  the 
morning  with  their  friends,  who,  when  evening  came,  supped  with  their  ancestors!" 
—Boccaccio. 

This  terrible  epidemic  broke  out  in  China,  and  carrie;!  off.  it  is  said.  twe»^*'-four 
millions  of  the  inhabitants.  It  appeared  in  Italy  in  1346,  and  spread  theuct*  into 
France,  Spain.  Germany,  and  England,  also,  later,  into  Swedfen  and  Norwfcj  ,  »wid, 
iri  la")!,  It  frightfully  desolated  T/assia  and  Poland. 


394  MedicBval  History. 


they  had  been  so  long  kept  by  the  nobles.  This  revolt  is 
called  the  Jacquerie  {zhak-re'),  from  Jacques 
Bonhomme  {zhak  bon-om'),  the  name  derisively 


Jacquerie. 


applied  to  a  French  peasant.  The  feudal  castles  were  sacked 
and  destroyed  by  the  insurgents,  and  their  inmates,  of  every 
age  and  sex,  put  to  death  with  shocking  barbarity.  Being  at 
last  defeated  in  an  attack  upon  one  of  the  towns,  the  peasants 
were  hunted  down  on  all  sides  like  wild  beasts,  and  massacred 
by  thousands;  so  that  some  of  the  rural  districts  were  almost 
depopulated,  and  presented  a  ghastly  scene  of  ruin  and  deso- 
lation (1358).* 

26.  In  the  mean  time,  John,  being  a  prisoner  in  England, 
in  order  to  obtain  his  release,  consented  to  surrender  a  large 
part  of  his  territories;   but  to  this  tlie  States- 
General  Avould   not   submit;    and   Edward   III. 


John, 


again  invaded  France,  but  finally  made  i)eace,  consenting  to 
release  John  upon  more  reasonable  terms.  The  latter,  after 
four  years'  captivity,  finally  returned  to  liis  kingdom,  and 
was  greeted  with  universal  transports  of  joy  and  gratitude  b^ 
his  people;  but  his  son  Louis,  who  had  been  delivered  to  the 
king  of  England  as  a  hostage,  having  escaped,  John  was  so 
conscientious  that  he  surrendered  himself  again  to  his  English 
captors,  and  died  a  short  time  after  his  arrival  in  England 
(1364).  Ho  had  previously  (1363)  given  to  his 
favorite  son   Philip  the  duchy  of   Burgundy  in 


Burgundy. 


reward  for  his  bravery  at  Poitiers;  and  thus  was  founded  that 


*  ••  Not  only  did  the  peasants  butcher  their  lords,  but  they  tried  toexterminate  the 
fnmilies  of  their  lortis,  munleritiK  their  heirs.  And  tiien  would  these  savages  tuclc 
out  themselves  and  their  wives  in  rich  habiliments,  and  bedeck  themselves  with 
glittering  but  bloo<ly  spoils.  Yet  were  they  not  so  savage  as  not  to  march  with  a 
kind  of  order,  under  banners,  and  led  by  a  captam  chosen  from  amon^  tliemselves. 
a  crafty  peasant,  called  Guillaume  Callet,  These  bands  consisted  mostly  of  the 
m«'aner  sort,  with  a  few  rich  burges.ses  and  others.  '  When  they  w»'re  asked,'  says 
Froissart,  '  for  what  reason  they  acte<l  so  wickedly,  tliey  repliinl.  thoy  knew  not.  but 
they  did  so  because  they  .saw  others  do  it;  and  they  thought  by  thi.s  means  they 
should  destroy  all  thtf  nobles  and  gentlemen  in  tho  world.'  "—MieheleVt  titatory  of 
France. 


Branch  of  Valois.  395 

famous  ducal  line  of  Burgundy  which  continued  more  than  a 
century,  and  played  so  important  a  part  in  French  history. 

27.  Charles  V.,  surnamed  the  Wise,  succeeded  his  father, 
and,  by  means  of  his  pradent  measures,  did  much  to  restore 
peace  and  prosperity  to  his  kingdom.  He  was  himself  of  an 
unwarlike  disposition,  being  fond  of  study,  and  having  a 
talent  for  statesmanship  rather  than  for  the  conduct  of  mili- 
tary affairs.  He  raised  to  the  office  of  Constable  of  France 
the  famous  Du  Guesclin  {ga-klatig'),  one  of  the 
greatest  generals  of  his  age.     Altliough  defeated 


Du  Guescli 


and  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Nav-ar-re'te  by  the  Black 
Prince,  Du  Guesclin,  after  the  death  of  that  great  leader, 
pursued  an  almost  uninterrupted  career  of  victory  against  the 
English,  depriving  them  of  nearly  all  their  possessions  in 
France.  Charles  founded  the  Royal  Library  at 
Paris,  and  was  a  generous  patron  of  literature 


Royal  Library. 


and  art.     He  died  in  1380,  two  months  after  the  death  of  the 
Constable  Du  Guesclin. 

28.  Charles  VL,  son  and  successor  of  Charles  V.,  was  about 
twelve  years  of  age  at  his  father's  death;  and  accordingly  his 
uncle,  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  was  made  regent. 
Disturbances  were  occasioned  by  the  efforts  of 


Regency. 


the  people  to  release  themselves  from  the  unjust  and  oppres- 
sive taxes  which  had  been  imposed  by  Philip  the  Fair  and 
his  successors;  and  at  Paris  an  insurrection  occurred,  which 
was  with  much  difficulty  subdued.  An  expedition  was  under- 
taken to  reduce  the  Flemings,  who  had  revolted 
against  their  ruler.  Count   Louis   of  Flanders; 


Flemings. 


and  the  terrible  battle  of  Rosebecque  (rose'beh)  was  fought, 
in  which  the  celebrated  Flemish  leader  Philip  Van  Artevelde 
(ar'te-veld)  was  defeated  and  slain,  and  no  less  than  25,000 
of  the  brave  Flemings  perished  (1382).  The  French  king 
himself  was  present  in  this  battle,  but  his  army  was  com- 
manded by  Oliver  Clisson  (klees'song),  Constable  of  France, 
a  man  of  great  talents  and  distinction.     This  great  victory 


396 


MedicBval  History. 


strengthened  the  power  of  the  king;  and  the  French  towns, 
which  had  made  resistance  to  the  royal  exactions,  being" 
obliged  to  submit,  all  their  citizens  who  had  been  prominent 
in  the  popular  movement  were  put  to  death  without  mercy. 
In  Paris  alone  300  were  led  to  the  scaffold,  martyrs  to  the 
cause  of  popular  freedom  (1382). 

29.  Some  years  after  this,  Charles  VI.  became  afflicted 
with  insanity,  from  which  he  never  entirely  recovered;  and 
while  France,  in  consequence  of  this  calamity,  was  a  prey  to 
every  species  of  disorder,  Henry  V.  invaded  it, 
took  Har'fleur,  and  penetrated  into  the  country. 


Harfleur. 


On  his  retreat,  ho  was  sur- 
prised at  Agincourt;  but, 
though  obliged  to  give  bat- 
tle at  great  disadvantage,  he 
gained  a  decided  victory 
(1415).  This  was  followed 
by  the  taking  of  Rouen  and 
the  conquest  of  Normandy; 

when,  finally,  the   treaty  of  fortifikd  Qatk  of  a  French  Tow-jT^ 
Troyes  was  made,  according  Middle  Aoics. 

to  which  Henry  married  Catharine,  daughter  of 
Charles  VI.,  and  was,  on  the  death  of  the  latter, 
to  become  king  of  France  (1420).     This  shame- 


Treaty  of 

Troyes. 


ful  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  States-General,  but  was  never 
carried  into  effect,  for  Henry  died  some  months  before  the 
death  of  Charles  VI.  (1422). 

30.  Charles  VII.,  surnamed  the  Vicforioifs,  was  crowncil 
at  Poitiers;  but  Henry  VI.  of  England  had  already  been  pro- 
claimed king  of  France,  in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of 
Troyes.  The  Duke  of  Bedford,  the  English  regent,  gained  a 
great  victory  over  the  army  of  Charles,  consisting 
partly  of  Scotch  and  other  auxiliaries  (1424). 
This  dreadful  disaster  to  Charles  was  followed 


Defeat  of 
Charles. 


(1428)  by  the  siege  of  Or'lcans,  the  last  stronghold  of  his 


Branch  of  Valois. 


397 


pai'ty,  while  no  hope  was  entertained  by  the  French  of  being 
able  to  repel  its  assailants.  The  deliverance  of  Charles  was, 
however,  effected  by  one  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary occurrences  recorded  in  history.     Joan  of 


Joan  of  Arc. 


Arc,  a  simple  peasant  girl,  had  been  told  of  a  prophecy,  to  the 
effect  that  France  could  be  delivered  from  its  enemies  only  by 

a  virgin;  and  she 
became  impressed 
with  the  idea  that 
to  her  had  been 
divinely  commit- 
ted the  task  of  ef- 
fecting this  great 
object.  She  also 
said  she  heard 
voices  that  told 
her  this.  She  soon 
induced  others  to 
believe  in  the 
truth  of  her  mis- 
sion, among  them 
the  king  and  his 
chief  officers,  and 
was  admitted  into 
Orleans,  arrayed 
in  armor,  and 
provided  with  a 
train  of  attend- 
ants (1429). 

31.  Under  her  leadership,  the  French  attacked  the  English 
with  renewed  courage,  and  soon  compelled  them  to  raise  the 
siege.  She  next  urged  the  king  to  march  to 
Rheims  (reemz),  in  order  to  assume  the  crown  of 
his  ancestors  according  to  the  accustomed  rites; 


Cathwt)W.ati  of  Rhkims— (Completed  m  thk  Fifteenth 
Centuby). 


French 
successes. 


and,  partly  under  her  leadership,  the  French,  after  sGveral  vie- 


398 


MedicBval  History. 


torious  battles,  reached  the  city,  which  the  English  were  com- 
pelled to  surrender;  and  the  king  was  crowned  in  the  great 
cathedral  (1429).  Joan  then  declared  her  mission  ended,  and 
wished  to  be  dismissed;  but  her  services  being  still  demanded, 
she  remained  in  the  army;  and  a  short  time  afterward  fell  into 
the  power  of  the  English,  and  was  burnt  to  death 
at  Rouen  on  a  charge  of  sorcery  (1431).  *  Nothing, 


Fate  of  Joan. 


however,  was  gained  by  the  English  from  this  cruel  execution 
of  the  '*  Maid  of  Orleans;"  for  they  continued  to 
suffer  defeat  until  they  finally  lost  all  their  French 
possessions  except  Calais;  while  the  Duke  of  Bur- 


Defeat  of  the 

English. 


Character. 


gundy,  who  had  previously  sup- 
ported them,  became  reconciled 
to  Charles  VII.  The  latter  reigned 
till  his  death  (1461). 

32.  Louis  XL,  who  succeeded 
his  father,  has  been  called  the  Ti- 
herius  of  France  on  account  of  his 
deceitf  ulness  and  cru- 
elty. The  last  years 
of  his  father's  life  had  been  em- 
bittered by  his  unnatural  conduct, 
for  Louis  Avas  repeatedly  found 
plotting  against  him.  With  such 
terror  was  the  king  inspired  on  this  account,  that  he  was  even 
afraid  to  take  food  lest  he  might  be  poisoned;  and,  it  is  said, 
he  died  for  want  of  sustenance.  The  great  object  which  the 
new  king  set  about  to  accomplish  was  the  enlargement  of  the 
royal  authority  by  weakening  the  great  feudal  vassals.     This 


Feudal  Carti^  in  Fuanck  in  the 
Fifteenth  Century. 


•  *'  When  she  felt  the  flames  rtslnpr  around  her,  she  besoufrht  the  priest  who  At< 
tended  her  to  leave  her.  The  Cardinal  of  Winchester,  and  even  the  Bishop  of  Beau* 
vals,  who  had  been  her  bitterest  enemy,  could  not  conceal  tlieir «  motion.  After  her 
death  two  of  the  judges  who  had  condemned  her  exclaimed,  *  Would  that  our  souls 
were  where  we  believe  hers  isl '  and  Fressart,  the  secretary  of  Henry  VI.,  said,  as 
he  left  the  place  of  execution,  *  We  are  all  lost;  we  have  burned  a  saint  I  *  ^'—OuizoVi 
History  of  France. 


Branch  of  Valois.  390 

soon  excited  their  determined  resistance;  and  a  coalition  was 
formed  against    him,   called  the  League  of  the 
Public  Good  (1465),  of  which  the  ruling  spirit 
was  Charles  the  Bold,  afterward  Duke  of  Bur- 


League  of  the 

Public  Good. 


gundy.  A  war  ensued,  in  which  Louis  was  defeated,  and 
thus  was  compelled  to  grant  the  concessions  demanded  by  the 
nobles.  These,  however,  he  afterward  revoked,  and,  one  by 
one,  at  last  succeeded  in  reducing  the  vassals  to  submission. 

33.  The  greater  part  of  this  reign  is  occupied  with  dark 
intrigues  against  his  enemies,  particularly  against  Charles 
the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  The  latter  was 
utterly  defeated,  in  two  great  battles,  by  the 
Swiss,  whose  country  he  had  invaded;   and  the 


Charles  the 
Bold. 


next  year  he  suffered  another  defeat  from  the  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine', at  Nan'cy,  where  he  was  slain  (1477).  Louis  took 
advantage  of  these  circumstances  to  re-annex  Burgundy  to  his 
dominions.  The  death  of  Charles  the  Bold  ended  the  long 
resistance  of  the  great  French  vassals  to  the  central  power  ot 
the  monarchy.  Mary  of  Burgundy,  the  daughter 
and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold,  still  remained 
mistress  of  Flanders,  and  Louis  desired  to  marry 


Mary  of 
Burgundy. 


her  to  the  Dauphin  (the  eldest  son  of  the  ki:iir):  but  she 
refused  her  consent,  and  accepted  the  hand  of  Maximil'ian, 
son  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  Archduke  of  Austria 
(1477).  This  marriage  increased  the  influence  of  the  house 
of  Austria,  and  led  to  a  rivalry  between  France  and  the 
empire  which  lasted  nearly  two  centuries.  As  Louis  grew 
old,  he  became  very  superstitious  and  cruel; 
and,  at  last,  conscious  of  being  universally  ab- 


Death  of  Louis. 


horred,  he  shut  himself  up  in  a  castle,  which  he  kept  con- 
stantly defended  by  armed  troops.  His  death  occurred  in 
1483.* 


*  "  As  he  felt  his  disorder  increasing,  he  shut  himself  np  in  a  palace  near  Tours, 
to  hide  from  the  world  the  knowledge  of  his  decline.  His  solitude  was,  like  that  of 
Tiberius  at  Capreae,  full  of  terror  and  suspicion,  and  deep  consciousness  of  univer- 


400  MedicBval  History. 

34.  Charles  VlIL  was  a  mere  boy  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  a  meeting  of  the  States-General  was  called  to 
decide  upon  his  guardianship.  In  this  meeting  the  Third 
Estate  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  obtain 
some  influence  in  the  government.     By  the  mar- 


Third  Estate. 


riage  of  Anne,  Duchess  of  Brittany,  Charles  annexed  that 
-j   country  to  France,  and  thus  destroyed  the  last 
stronghold  of  feudal  power.     The  French  also 
for  a  time  obtained  Naples  by  the  enforced  abdi- 


Anne  of 
Brittany. 


cation  of  Alfonso  II.  of  Aragon  (1495);  a:id  Charles  gained 
a  victory  over  the  allied  forces  of  Venice,  Milan, 
and  other  states  of  northern  Italy;  but  these  suc- 


Naples. 


cesses  were  in  the  end  fruitless,  and  Charles  afterward  gave 
himself  up  to  vicious  excesses,  which  ruined  his  health.  His 
death  occurred  in  1498.  His  reign  was  the  last  of  the  house 
of  Valois,  and  marks  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Louis, 
Duke  of  Orleans,  succeeded  to  the  French  throne. 

State  of  Society  dueing  the  Valois  Peeiod. 

35.   France  was  virtually  an  absolute   monarchy,  unlike 
England,  in  which  the  Commons  represented  in  Parliament 
exercised    considerable    control   over    tlie    royal 
power.      In  the  States-General   of  France — the 


Government. 


grand  council  of  the  nation — there  was  a  representation  of 
the  three  orders,  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  and  the  Commons, 
the  latter  being  called  the  THers  Etat  (Third  Estate).     This 

sal  hatred.  All  ranks,  he  well  knew,  had  their  several  injuries  to  remember:  the 
clersry,  whose  liberties  he  hod  sacrificed  to  the  See  of  Rome;  the  princes,  whose 
blood  he  had  poured  upon  the  scaffold ;  the  parliament,  whose  course  of  Justice  he 
had  turned  aside;  the  commons,  who  groaned  under  his  extortions,  and  were 
plundered  by  his  soldiery.  The  palace.  f»*nced  with  portcullises  and  spikes  of  iron, 
was  guarded  by  archers  and  crossbow  men,  who  sliot  .it  any  that  approached  by 
night.  Few  ent«'red  his  den;  but  to  tliem  he  sliowed  himself  in  ruacniflcent  ap- 
parel, contrary  to  his  former  custom,  hoping  thus  to  disgiiise  ih»' change  of  his 
cneager  body.  He  distnist*(d  his  friends  and  kindred,  his  (laughter  and  his  son.  the 
last  of  whom  he  had  not  suffered  even  to  reatl  or  write,  lest  he  should  too  soon 
t>ec(>me  his  rival.  No  man  ever  so  muck  feared  death,  to  avert  which  ho  stooped  to 
every  meancess,  and  sought  every  remedy  "-i/aMam'«  Middle  Ayeti 


Branch  of  Valoi$.  401 

assembly,  liowever,  did  not  regularly  meet,  and  was  entirely 
subordinate  to  the  royal  authority.  The  first  convocation 
of  this  body  took  place  during  the  reign  of  Philip 
IV.  (1302),  this  event  serving  to  mark  the  pre- 


Tiers  Etat. 


vailing  influence  of  civil  institutions  over  the  military  forms 
of  feudalism. 

36.  In  the  assembly  of  1357,  the  Third  Estate  came  into 
conflict  with  the  royal  authority;  and,  at  every  subsequent 
convention,  the  proceedings  showed  a  spirit  of 
resistance  to  the  corruptions  and  tyranny  of  the 
court,  from  which  resulted   measures   of  great 


Contests  with 
the  Commons. 


advantage  to  the  people.  The  States-General  of  1484  de- 
manded that  these  assemblies  should  be  called  at  regular 
periods,  and  that  taxes  should  be  levied  equally  upon  all 
classes.  The  effect  of  these  measures,  however,  was  not  last- 
ing; the  king  .only  convoked  the  States- General  when  he 
pleased,  and  the  nobles  and  clergy  together  could  always  out- 
vote the  Commons.  Hence  the  people,  during  the  troubled 
period  of  the  English  wars,  made  but  little  improvement  in 
their  political  condition. 

37.  At  the  opening  of  the  States-General,  it  was  the  custom 
for  the  king  to  be  present,  and  to  make  a  short  speech,  after 
which  the  Chancellor  of  France  explained  at 
length  the  purposes  of  the  session.     The  nobles 


States-General. 


and  clergy  remained  seated  and  covered,  while  the  Com- 
mons stood  with  bare  heads.  After  a  reply  to  the  Chancellor, 
from  the  president  of  each  order,  the  three  orders  retired  to 
their  several  rooms.  When  the  deliberations  were  complete, 
they  again  convened,  and  presented  to  the  king  their  wishes, 
demands,  or  complaints,  in  the  form  of  suggestions.  The 
king  made  no  reply;  and  the  assembly,  after  voting  a  pecu- 
niary tax,  separated.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  States- 
General  was  not  a  legislative  body,  all  laws  being  made  by 
the  king,  who  could  listen  or  not  to  the  demands  of  his 
people. 


402  Medicevat  History. 

38.  Schools  scarcely  existed  at  this  time.     Scholars  wan- 
dered about,  giving  instruction  to  such  pupils  as  they  could 
collect.     The  methods  of  teaching  were  of  the 
rudest  description,  and  the  discipline  was  brutal 


Education. 


in  the  extreme.  The  University  of  Paris  was  one  of  the  most 
noted  seats  of  learning  in  the  world,  being  attended  by  stu- 
dents from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Astrology  was  a  favorite 
science  at  this  period,  the  influence  of  the  stars 
upon  human  affairs  being  almost  universally  be- 


Learning. 


lieved.  The  Koyal  Library  of  Paris  was  founded  by  Charles 
the  Wise,  who  was  a  generous  patron  of  litera- 
ture and  art.     The  fine  arts  had  made  little  or 


Art 


no  progress  beyond  the  barbarism  of  the  dark  ages. 

39.  The  drama  was  confined  to  the  Mysteries  and  Morali- 

ties,  the  former  representing  incidents  in  sacred  history.  In 
1385,  at  the  marriage  of  Charles  VI.  and  Isabel 
of  Bavaria,  a  play  was  acted  before  the  royal  pair, 


The  drama. 


entitled  *'  The  History  of  the  Death  of  our  Saviour,"  which 
lasted  eight  days,  having  eighty-seven  characters,  the  chief  of 
whom  was  St.  John.  A  similar  Passion  Play  is  still  per- 
formed in  Bavaria.  In  1402,  the  king  granted  letters-patent 
to  some  of  the  citizens  of  Paris  to  form  an  association  to  rep- 
resent the  Mystery  of  the  Passion.  This  is  the  origin  of  the 
modern  tragedy  in  France;  as  the  performance  of  the  Moral- 
ities  or  Moral  Plays  is  of  the  comedy. 

40.  At  the  siege  of  Arras,  in  1414,  use  was  made  for  the 
first  time  of  muskets,  then  called  hand-cannons.  Playing- 
cards  were  improved,  games  of  cards  having  boon  introduced 
to  amuse  the  unfortunate  Charles  VI.  during  his 
lucid  intervals.     The  figures  on  the  cards  were 


Inventions. 


the  same  as  now  used.  The  hearts  signified  the  churchmen; 
the  spades  (pike-heads),  the  nobles  or  military;  the  diamonds 
(tiles),  the  working-class;  and  the  clubs  (clover-leaves),  the 
peasantry.  About  1420,  painting  in  oils  was  introduced,  before 
which   time  all  pictures  were  in  water-colors.      Louis  XL 


Branch  of  Valois,  403 

faYored  trade  and  commerce  of  every  kind,  encouraged  the 
new  art  of  printing,  endowed  a  school  of  medi- 
cine at  Paris,  and  inaugurated  a  postal  system. 


An  attempt  was  also  made  to  light  the  streets  of  the  capital. 

41.  Various  changes  occurred  in  the  style  of  dress  during 

this  period.     Charles  VII.  revived  the  fashion  of  long  and 

loose  garments;  but,  during  the  reign  of  Louis 


XI.,  a  total  revolution  took  place,  the  ladies  lay- 


[ 


ing  aside  their  long  trains  and  sleeves,  and  assuming  in  their 
place  broad  borders  of  fur,  velvet,  or  silk.  In  the  reign  of 
Charles  VI.  the  head-dress  was  of  extraordinary  breadth; 
subsequently  it  was  very  high — sometimes  more  than  three 
feet.  Peaked  shoes  of  great  length  were  also  a  singular  fea- 
ture of  the  costume. 

42.  The  dwellings  of  the  rich  were  sometimes  furnished 
with  great  splendor.  We  read  of  the  **  fine  linen  of  Kheims," 
which  was  sold  at  an  extravagant  price;  and 
of    fabrics    made   of   "silk   and  silver   tissue." 


Houses. 


Rich  carpets  and  tapestry,  and  other  articles  of  furniture 
spoken  of,  give  evidence  that  means  were  not  wanting  for 
luxurious  living  and  for  the  gratification  of  expensive  tastes. 
Stone  was  used  in  constructing  the  basements  of  houses,  the 
upper  portions  being  constructed  of  wood.  In  the  richer 
kind  of  houses,  the  front  was  adorned  with  projecting  cor- 
ner-posts, covered  with  carvings  of  figures — foliage,  animals, 
heads  of  angels,  etc.  The  castle  had  its  cellar,  wine-vault, 
bakery,  fruitery,  laundry,  special  rooms  for  glass,  salt,  furs, 
and  tapestry;  while  near  the  guard-room  and  beyond  were  the 
porters'  lodges  and  various  other  buildings,  used  by  servants 
and  retainers. 

43.  During  this  period,  Paris  was  often  the  scene  of  dread- 
ful tumult;,  and  at  times  the  mortality  was  fearful.  In 
1438,  there  were  45,000  deaths  in  the  city.  Wolves 
prowled  through  the  streets,  and  often  carried  off 


Paris. 


children.     Famine  aad  pestilence  were  frequent  visitants  and 


404 


Mediceval  History. 


committed  dreadful  ravages.  In  1466,  the  malefactors  and 
vagrants  of  all  countries  were  invited  to  come  to  the  city,  in 
order  to  fill  up  the  broken  ranks  of  the  population.  At  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XL,  the  city  probably  contained 
about  300,000  inhabitants.* 

44.  The  most  noted  writers  of  the  time  are  Jean  Froissart 
(1337-1410),  who  wrote  the  Chron- 
ides,    or    annals    of 

France     during     the 

part    of    the    fourteenth 


Noted  writers. 


greater 

century;  and  Philippe  de  Comines 
(1445-1509),  for  a  time  the  favor- 
ite of  Charles  the  Bold.  He  wrote 
the  Memoires,  giving  a  complete 
view  of  the  affairs  of  his  time,  in- 
cluding a  vivid  picture  of  the 
character  of  Louis  XL  To  these 
should  be  added  Jean  do  Gerson 
(zhdr-song)  (1363-1429),  surnamed 
"The  most  Christian  Doctor,"^ 
who  became  Chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris.  He  wrote  a  treat- 
ise 071  the  Consolation  of  Theology,  and  is  supposed  by  some 
to  have  been  the  author  of  the  celebrated  religious  work 
entitled  The  Imitation  of  Christ,  which  is  usually  ascribed  to 
Thomas  a  Kempis.f 


Fkoissarx 


♦The  following  is  a  description  of  scenes  in  Paris  during  this  period:  "At  the 
early  day.rn  the  death-criers,  pereons  clothed  in  block,  and  announcinfr  tlu'ms«'lves 
by  the  tinkling  of  small  bells,  gave  notice  of  the  death  of  such  pt'rsnns  as  ha<l  died 
during  the  night,  and  called  upon  all  gootl  Christians  to  pray  for  their  souls.  These 
were  follow  d  by  the  people  who  called  aloud  that  the  hot  baths  were  ready  for 
use;  and  after  these  came  the  tradespeople  hawking  th»'ir  wares— butchers, 
millers,  fishmongers,  fruit-sellers,  etc.,  besides  menders  of  old  clothes,  who  stood 
ready  to  repair  any  accidental  rent  in  the  garments  of  passers-by." 

t  A  German  writer  who  Nourished  during  the  fifteenth  century  (died  1471).  The 
weight  of  evidence  seems  to  favor  his  claim  to  the  authorship  of  the  work  referred 
to,  of  which  It  has  been  said  that  it  is  "  the  nearest  approach  to  the  divine  hpirit  of 
Christ  wblcb  has  ever  emanated  from  the  human  mind." 


Principal  Events  and  Dates. 


405 


Kings  of  France, 

From  Clovis  (511)  to  Louis  XII.  (1498). 


lAne.       Name.                  Date  of  reign. 

a  r  Clovis 486-  511 

•3,  J  Descendants  of  Clovis 511-742 

•^  I  ChUperic  in.    Deposed  by 

2[     Pepin 742-752 

PepinleBref 752-768 

Charlemagne 768-814 

Louisl.. 814-843 

Charles  the  Bold 843-877 

Louisn 877-879 

Louis  III.  and  Carloman  . .  879-  884 

Charles  the  Fat 884-878 

Charles  the  Simple 898-  929 

LouisIV 929-954 

Lothaire  and  Louis  V 954-  987 

,  f  Hugh  Capet .987-996 

IJ  Robert 996-1031 

I]  Henry  1 1031-1060 

o  [  Philipl 1060-1103 


Line.       Name.  Date  of  reign. 

Louis  VI 1103-1137 

Louis  VII 1137-1180 

PhilipH 1180-1223 

Louis  Vm 1223-1226 

Louis  IX 1226-1270 

Philip  in 1270-1285 

PhUip  IV 1285-1314 

LouisX 1314-1316 

Philip  V 1316-1322 

Charles  IV 1322-1328 

PhiUpVI 1328-1350 

John 1350-1364 

Charles  V 1364-1380 

Charles  VI 1380-1422 

Charles  Vn 1422-1461 

Louis  XI 1461-1483 

Charles  vm i48a-1498 


Summary  of  Principal  Events  and  Dates. 

A.D. 

Pepin  d'Heristal  virtually  becomes  king 687 

Defeat  of  the  Saracens  by  Charles  Martel 732 

Lombardy  subjugated  by  Charlemagne  775 

Charlemagne  crowned  Emperor  of  the  West 800 

Treaty  of  Verdun.    France  divided 843 

Normandy  given  to  the  Normans 911 

Conquest  of  England  by  Willia-n  of  Normandy 1066 

Enfranchisement  of  the  Com.munes  by  Louis  VI 1108 

English  territories  in  France  acquired  by  Philip  U 1204 

Crusade  against  the  Albigenses  1209 

The  Albigenses  entirely  subdued  by  Louis  IX 1229 

The  States-General  convoked  by  Philip  IV 1302 

The  peasant  insurrection  called  the  Jacquerie  suppressed 1358 

The  duchy  of  Burgundy  conferred  by  John  upon  Philip 1363 

Death  of  the  Constable  du  Guesclin 1380 

The  battle  of  Rosebecque.    Death  of  Philip  van  Artevelde 1382 

The  French  defeated  at  Agincourt  by  Henry  V 1415 

The  treaty  of  Troyes 1420 

Joan  of  Arc,  Maid  of  Orleans,  commenced  her  mission 1429 

The  Maid  of  Orleans  burnt  as  a  sorceress  at  Rouen 1431 

The  League  of  the  Public  Good  formed  against  Louis  XI . .  -. 1465 

Charles  the  Bold  defeated  and  killed  at  Nancy 1477 

Mary  of  Bui^undy  married  to  Maximilian. 1477 

Capture  of  Naples  by  the  French 1495 

Death  of  Charles  Vlil.    End  of  the  Valois  period 1498 


406 


MedicBval  History. 


Topical  Review. 


•ejMINENT    PERSONAGES. 
Who  toere  theyf 
At  what  period  did  they  livef 
With  what  events  connected?        pxoK 

Hugh  the  Great 879 

Robert 881 

Henryl 881 

Philip  I 882 

Louis  VI..... 882 

Eleanor  of  Guienne 882 

Henry  of  Normandy 382 

Philip  Augustus 882,383,384 

Raymond  of  Languedoc 383,  381 

Simon  de  Montfort 884 

Blanche  of  Castile...  884 

Saint  Louis 884,  385 

Charles  of  An jou 385 

Peter  of  Aragon 885,  386 

PhUip  the  Fair 886,387 

Marigny 387 

Charles  of  Valois 387 

Queen  Isabella. 888 

Philip  of  Valois 888 

Robert  de  Sorbonne 891 

Ab61ard 891 

St.  Bernard ...  891 

Jehan  de  JoinviUe 398 

AbbfiSuger 892 

Marcel 893 

John  the  Good 894 

Charles  the  Wise 895,402 

DuGuesclin 895 

Philip  Van  Artevelde 896 

Oliver  Clisson 895 

Charles  VII 895,402 

Duke  of  Bedford 896 

Charles  the  Victorious 896 

Joan  of  Arc  897 

The  Tiberius  of  France 898,  899,  402 

Charles  the  Bold 899,  404 

Mary  of  Burgundy 890 

Maximilian 899 

Anne  of  Brittany 400 

Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans! 400 

Jean  Froissart  404 

Philippe  de  Comines 404 

Jean  de  Gerson 4(V1 

Thomas  &  Kempis 4(M 


GREAT   EVENTS. 

When  did  they  occur  f 

What  led  to  thenif 

What  resulted  tlierefromf  PAOS 

Truce  of  God 881 

Establishment  of  the  Conmiunes.. . .  882 
Suppression  of  the  Albigenses..  883,  384 

Sicilian  Vespers 885 

Revolt  of  the  Flemings 386,  895 

Suppression  of  the  Templars 886 

Creation  of  the  Third  Estate 887 

Persecution  of  the  Jeves ;..  888 

Proclamation  of  the  Salic  Law. .....  888 

Foundation  of  the  Sorbonne 891 

Cession  of  Dauphiny 892 

Introduction  of  cannon 893,  402 

The  Jacquerie 894 

Captivity  of  King  John 394 

Foundation  of  the  Royal  Library. ...  895 

Battle  of  Navarreto 895 

Battle  of  Rosebecque 895 

Conquest  of  Normandy 896 

Burning  of  the  Maid  of  Orleans 398 

League  of  the  Public  Good 899 

Battieof  Nancy 899 

INSTITUTIONS,  Etc, 

Give  a  description  of  it. 

Period  of  its  establishment. 

Chivalry  or  Knighthood 845 

Writing-rooms 845 

Tournament 848 

Judicial  Combat 5M9 

Knight-errantry 849 

Feudalism WS.  888 

Feudal  Castles »18 

Serfs  and  Serfdom. »M,  «5,  889 

Trade 890 

Trouvfires  or  Troubadours 891 

States-General 887,  400,  401 

ThlrdEstate 887,401 

SchooU  and  •'-Iversitles 890,  408 

Astrology 408 

The  Drama 402 

Playing-cards 408 

Oil-painting 408 

Architecture 408 

Paris  in  the  Middle  A^es «* 


Europe 

^urinj^  the  time  of 

THE  CRUSADES 


Xn^Iisli  Mil** 
0  »P IPO 


^3/aJt» 


JJtfftish  TfTTxtfry  b^Trnrfrm 
at  tuns.  oTJkmry  it  Cpt^M.^ 


10 


15. 


CHAPTER  VL 

The   Crusades. 

1.  The  Crusades  were  religious  wars  which,  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  were   waged  by  the  Christian  nations  of  the 

West  against   the   Mohammedans   of   the   East,    i — 

From  an  early  period,  it  had  been  deemed  by  the    i 

Church  an  act  of  piety  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  to 

visit  the  various  places  which  Christ  had  hallowed  by  his 


Crusaders. 

presence,  and  to  pay  devotion  to  the  sepulcher  in  which  his 
body  had  been  entombed.  The  Saracens,  who  conquered 
Palestine  in  the  seventh  century,  had  respected  these  Chris- 
tian pilgrimages,  and  rather  assisted  than  opposed  those  who 
made  them,  allowing  them  to  build  a  church  and  a  hospital 
at  Jerusalem. 

2.  But  when  the  Seljuk  Turks  took  possession  of  Syria 
and  captured  Jerusalem  (1076),  the  pilgrims  were  treated 
with  the  most  shocking  cruelty  and  insult;  and  the  news  of 

Geographical  Study,  Map  No.  XV. 
What  was  the  situation  of :  Iconium  or  RouM?   Edessa?   Armenia?  Syria?  An- 
TiocH?    Jerusalem?    Cyprus?    Nice?    Edessa?  Antioch?   Aleppo?    Tripolis?   Da- 
naascus?    Jerusalem?    Pescribe  King  Richard's  rout©  to  Jerusalem  i '  tJ91. 


408 


Mediwval  History. 


these  atrocities  excited  the  deepest  indignation  throughout 
Christendom.  The  Byzantine  emperors,  first  tak- 
ing alarm,  appealed  to  the  Christian  monarchs 


Seljuks. 


of  the  West;  and  Pope  Gregory  VII.  had  entertained  the  idea 
of  sending  aid  to  the  Emperor  Manuel,  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  earnest  supplication,  as  early 
as  1073.     It  was  not,  however,  until  Peter  the 


Peter  the 
Hermit 


Hermit,  on  returning  from  Palestine,  depicted  the  dreadful 
sufferings  of  the  Christians  in  that  country,  that  any  effective 
measures  for  relief  were  taken. 

3.  This  religious  enthusiast  was  a  native  of  Am'i-ens,  in 
France,  and  animated  all  who  listened  to  his  preaching  witli 
the  same  burning  zeal  against  the  infi- 
dels as  had  filled  his  own  soul  on  witness- 
hig  their  atrocities.    Pope  Urban  II.  soon 

took  up  the  cause;  and  two 

councils  were   held,  at   the 


Urban. 


second  of  which,  at  Cler-mont',  in  France 
(1095),  the  Pope  himself  delivered  an  im- 
passioned address  to  a  vast  multitude  of 
both  clergy  and  laymen.  His  exhorta- 
tion was  greeted  with  the  cry  of  "God 
wills  it!"  which  burst  simultaneously  from 
every  one  present.  The  war  was,  accordingly,  agreed  upon; 
and  all  who  entered  into  it  were  directed  to  wear,  as  a  badge, 
a  cross  of  red  stuff  attached  to  the  shoulder.  Hence  these 
wars  were  called  Crusades. 


Peter  the  Hermit. 


FiBST  Gbxtsade. 

4.  From  all  parts  of  Europe  thousands  hurried,  at  the 

summons  of  the  Pope,  to  take  part  in  wliat  was  regarded  as 

1    the  holy  war;  and,  in  the  spring  of  1096,  no  lees 

J   than  275,000  men,  consisting  in  groat  part  of  the 


Firtt  Crusade. 


dregs  of  the  population,  were   on  their  way  to   Palestine. 
Peter  himself  commanded  a  great  multitude;  but  the  first 


The  Crusades, 


409 


detachment,  under  Walter  the  Penniless,  was  cut  to  pieces  by 
the  Bulgarians,  only  a  small  band  reaching  Constantinople, 
where  it  was  joined  by  the  forces  of  Peter.* 
This  undisciplined  multitude  engaged  the  army 
of  the  Turkish  sultan  on  the  plains  of  Nice,  but 
were  defeated  with  great  slaughter.  A  third  and  fourth  ex- 
pedition of  the  same  kind  shared  a  similar  fate. 

5.  But  the  real  Crusaders  soon  arrived  at  Constantinople. 


Walter  the 
Penniless. 


These  consisted  of  six  armies  of  veteran  soldiers,  commanded 
by  tlie  most  skillful  and 
experienced    generals  of 
the  age :  Godfrey  of  Bou- 


Crusading 
armies. 


illon  {hoo-yong'),  Duke  of  Lorraine; 
Hugh  the  Great,  brother  of  Philip  I., 
king  of  France;  Robert,  son  of  William 
the  Conqueror  of  England;  Count  Ro- 
bert of  Flanders;  Bo'he-mond,  Count 
of  Tarentum,  with  his  cousin,  the  no- 
ble and  illustrious  Tancred;  and  Count 
Raymond  of  Toulouse.  The  number 
of  their  forces  was  about  600,000  men. 
6.  Having  defeated  Sultan  Sol'y- 
man,  and  captured  Nice,  his  capital 
(1097),  they  proceeded  to  Syria,  and  took  Antioch  (1098),  after 
a  siege  of  seven  months.  During  this  siege,  thousands  per- 
ished, and  Peter  the  Hermit  and  multitudes  of  others  deserted 
the  ranks  of  the  Crusaders  and  returned  home.  After  rout- 
ing an  immense  army  of  Mohammedans,  sent  by  the  Persian 


Knights  Templars. 


*  "  On  reaching  a  plain  at  the  base  of  a  mountain,  the  peasant-pilgrims  found 
themselves  face  to  face  with  countless  foes.  Walter  halted,  formed  his  men,  and 
did  all  that  a  brave  and  sagacious  leader  could  do  under  the  circumstances;  but 
his  skill  was  exerted  in  vain.  Surrounded  on  all  sides  by  superior  numbers,  and 
shrinking  from  the  perils  they  had  defied,  the  Cmsaders  lost  heart;  and  energy. 
At  first,  indeed,  the  conflict  was  fierce,  and  the  camaere  fearful;  but  ere  long  every 
hope  expired,  and,  with  Christian  blood  flowing  around  him  like  water,  Walter  fell  in 
the  midst  of  his  foes,  transfixed  with  arrows  and  covered  with  wounds."— £!dyar'« 
Crusades  and  Crusaders. 


410 


MedicBval  History, 


sultan  to  the  assistance  of  the  sultan  of  Roum,  the  Crusaders 
marched  to  Jerusalem,  on  reaching  which  they  found  their 
army  reduced,  by  war,  famine,  and  pestilence,  to 
40,000  men.  *  After  a  siege  of  six  weeks,  this  city 
surrendered  (1099),  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  was 


Jerusalem 
taken. 


Succeeding 
events. 


unanimously  elected  king.f     A  short  time  afterward,  he  de- 
feated the  sultan  of  Egypt,  with  a 
vast  army,  at  Ascalon. 

7.   The    kingdom    of    Jerusalem 
thus  founded  was  gradually  extended 

till  it  embraced  the  whole 

of  Palestine.    The  greater 

part  of  Asia  Minor  was 
restored  to  the  Eastern  Empire.  Bo- 
hemond  was  made  Prince  of  Antioch, 
and  Baldwin,  the  brother  of  Godfrey, 
was  made  Prince  of  Edessa.  At  Jeru- 
salem were  founded  the  two  famous 
orders  of  the  Knights  Hospitallers  of 
St.  John  and  the  Knights  Templars, 
for  the  defense  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher. 
the  three  Latin  principalities  in  the  East  maintained  them- 
selves against  the  Mohammedan  power,  and  increased  in  influ- 
ence and  wealth.  Thus  Jerusalem  became  the  capital  of  an 
important  Christian  state. 


KuiQHT  Hospitaller. 


For  nearly  fifty  years, 


*  When  the  Crusaders  first  came  in  sight  of  the  Holy  City,  their  emotion  was 
intense.  Some  leaped  and  shouted ;  some  threw  themselves  on  the  earth  anil  kissed 
it;  some  gazed  and  wept.  Their  dreadful  tolls  and  sufferings  were  all  forgotten  m 
the  supreme  joy  of  that  moment,  in  which  their  fondest  wishes  were  realized. 

t  "  When  the  chiefs  met  to  choose  a  king  for  the  realm  which  they  had  won  with 
their  swords,  one  man  only,  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  appeared,  to  whom  the  crown 
could  fitly  be  offered.  But  in  the  city  where  his  Ix)ni  had  woni  the  thorny  cn>wn. 
the  veteran  leader,  who  had  looked  on  ruthless  slaughter  witliout  tiint-hing  and  had 
borne  his  share  In  swelling  the  stream  of  hloml.  would  wear  no  earthly  dla«lem,nor 
tnke  the  tif  le  o,  king.  He  would  watch  over  his  M.nster's  grave  and  the  Interest  of 
his  wci-shiiM'rs.  tuider  tlje  hunihle  giuse  of  Baron  and  Defender  of  the  Holy  Sepul 
Cher:  and  as  such,  a  fortnight  after  his  election.  Ckxlfrey  departed  to  do  battle  with 
the  hosts  of  the  Fatimite  Calipb  of  Egypt."— Co;4;'«  Cn4«n4e«. 


Tlie  Crusades, 


411 


Second  Gbusade. 

8.  The  Second  Crusade  was  excited  by  the  dangers  to 
which  the  Christians  of  Syria  were  exposed  from  the  conquer- 
ing arms  of  a  Turkish  Emir,  named  Nou-red-din', 
who,  having  been  appointed  governor  of  Aleppo, 


Cause. 


had  so  increased  his  power,  that  he  became  master  of  all  the  ter- 
ritory between  the  Tigris  and 
the  Nile.  He  had  defeated 
the  Franks  at  Antioch,  and 
taken  Edessa,  and  now  threat- 
ened the  destruction  of  all 
the  Christian  kingdoms  in 
Syria.  This  crusade  was 
preached  by  the  celebrated 
St.  Ber'nard,  Abbot  of  Clair- 
vaux  (dare-vo')f  in  Cham- 
pagne, who  was  distinguished 
for  his  learning 
and      devotion. 


CHRISTIAN-  KINGDOMS 

SYRIA 

AND 

PALESTINE 

A.D.  1142 


Two  immense  armies,  num- 
bering over  a  million  of  men, 
under  Louis  VII.,  king  of 
France,  and  Conrad  III., 
emperor  of  Germany,  the 
most  powerful  monarchs  of 
Europe,  marched  for  the 
Holy  Land  (1147).  But, 
owing  to  the  base  treachery 
of  Manuel  Com-ne'nus,  the  Greek  emperor,  the  armies  met 
with  a  long  series  of  disasters;  and,  after  a  fruit- 
less attempt  to  take  Damascus,  the  expedition 


Result 


was  abandoned,  only  a  small  remnant  of  the  numerous  host 
returning  to  Europe,  the  greater  part  being  slain,  and  the 
rest  left  captives  among  the  TurV^ 


412  MedicBval  History, 

9.  After  this  defeat  of  the  Christians,  Noureddin  found 
himself  more  powerful  than  ever.     He  continued  his  attacks 
upon  Jerusalem,  but  they  were  successfully  re- 
pulsed.    He  next  turned  his  attention  to  the 


Noureddin. 


Fatimite  caliph  of  Egypt,  sending  to  the  court  of  Cairo  two 
emissaries,  one  of  whom  was  the  renowned  Saladin,  more 
properly  8alah-Eddin,  who  succeeded  in  getting 
possession  of  the  viziership  of  Egypt,  when,  find- 


Saladin. 


ing  himself  really  master  of  the  government,  he  abolished  the 
Fatimite  dynasty,  and  declared  the  reunion  of  Egypt  with 
the  orthodox  caliphate  of  Bagdad.  This  was  intended  as  a 
step  to  the  government  of  the  whole  Mohammedan  world, 
to  which  he  aspired;  and,  as  leading  to  that,  he  resolved  to 
inibdue  the  Christian  kingdoms  of  Palestine. 

Thibd  Cbusade. 

10.  Saladin  invaded  Palestine  with  a  large  army,  defeated 

the  Christians  in  a  great  battle,  captured  the  smaller  towns, 

and  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  which  surrendered 

after  a  resistance  of  two  weeks  (1187).    This  event 

created  a  great  sensation  in  Europe,  and  led  to  the 


Christian 
defeat 


Third  Crusade,  preached  by  William,  archbishop  of  Tyre, 
who  left  Palestine  to  carry  the  news  of  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  Christians  to  the  people  of  the 


Third  Crusade. 


West.  Frederick  Bar-ba-ros'sa,  emperor  of  Germany,  Philip 
Augustus  of  France,  and  Richard  I.  of  England  promptly  an- 
nounced themselves  leaders  in  the  great  expedition.  Others 
followed  their  example.  The  emperor  set  out  first 
(1189),  but  was  drowned  while  crossing  on  horse- 


Events. 


back  the  river  Calycad'nus,  in  Cilicia.  His  army  joined  the 
forces  of  the  other  two  monarchs  at  Acre,  which  city,  after  a 
long  siege  of  nearly  two  years,  was  compelled  to  surrender, 
though  Saladin  made  every  effort  to  relieve  the  defenders 
(1191).  No  less  than  nine  battles  were  fought,  and  more 
Pian  100,000  Christians  perished  during  this  siege 


The  Crusades.  413 


11.  Kichard  and  Philip  having  quarreled,  the  latter  xe- 
tumed  to  Europe;  but  the  former  led  his  forces  to  Ascalon, 
and  defeated  Saladin,  but  was  compelled  to  retire 
from  Jerusalem.     After  accomplishing  prodigies 


Richard. 


of  valor,  which  excited  the  admiration  of  the  Saracens,  he 
made  a  treaty  with  Saladin,  to  protect  the  pilgrims  from  in- 
jury and  oppression,  and  set  out  for  Europe 
(1192).  Saladin  dying  the  next  year,  the  unity 
of  his  empire  was  destroyed.      The  sultans  of 


Death  of 
Saladin. 


Egypt,  Aleppo,  and  Damascus  became  hostile  to  each  other; 
and  the  Christians  of  Syria  were  left  secure  in  their  possessions. 

FoTJETH  Crusade. 
12.  The  Fourth  Crusade  was  enjoined  by  Pope  Innocent 
III.,  without  any  special  exigency  such  as  had  brought  about 
the  preceding  ones,  but  as  a  matter  of  general 
policy  to  stimulate  Christian  feeling,  and  to  foster 


Cause. 


the  opposition  to  Mohammedan  encroachments.  Several 
French  and  Italian  nobles,  among  whom  were  Simon  de 
Montfort  of  France  and  Count  Baldwin  of  Flan- 
ders,  offered  themselves  as  leaders;  while  the 


Participants. 


Venetians  supplied  most  of  the  means  for  equipment,  and 
directed  their  doge,  the  aged  and  valiant  Dan'- 
dolo,   to  accompany  the   expedition.      An   im- 


Armament. 


mense  armament  was  fitted   out  at  Venice;   but  before  it 
sailed,  circumstances  occurred  to  change  its  destination. 

13.  Ever  since  the  First  Crusade,  the  Greek  emperors  had 
excited  the  suspicion  and  hostility  of  the  Western  Crusaders 
by  their  selfishness  and  perfidy;  and  at  this  time  the  son  of  a 
former  emperor,  who  had  been  deposed,  arrived  at  Venice  to 
solicit  assistance  in  the  recovery  of  the  throne. 
The  Crusaders,  embracing  the  opportunity  to  re- 
dress former  grievances,  and  urged  also  by  the 


Attack  on 
Constantinople. 


Venetians,  who  desired  to  establish  Western  influence  in  the 
Greek  Empire,  as  well  as  to  unite  the  Koman  and  Greek 


414 


MedicBval  History. 


churches,  agreed  to  direct  their  forces  against  Constantinople, 
thus  changing  the  expedition  from  a  crusade  to  an  attack  on 
a  Christian  power.  Constantinople  was  besieged, 
and  given  up  to  pillage,  and  the  Greek  dynasty 
was  set  aside  (1204).  The  Latin  dynasty  then  founded  occu- 
pied the  throne  for  fifty-six  years.     The  effect  of  this  Crusade 


Latin  dynasty. 


was  entirely  adverse  to  the  general  object  of  these  expeditions. 


WaH-ShIPS  of  TH«  THIBTBBlfTH   C»NTURY. 

since  it  tended,  by  weakening  the  Greek  Empire,  to  destroy 
the  greatest  barrier  in  Europe  to  the  progress  of  Islamism 
westward.  The  subsequent  fall  of  Constantin()])lc  i)r()ved  this. 
A  little  after  this,  occurred  the  remarkable  expedition  culled 
the  Children's  Crusade.  It  was  preached  by  a  French  peasant- 
boy  (1212);  and,  though  the  king  of  France  issued  an  edict 
against  it,  thousands  of  boys  embarked  for  Palestine,  all  of 
whom  either  perished,  or  were  sold  into  slavery  on  reaching 
Alexandria. 


Tlie  Crusades,  415 


Subsequent  Ceusades. 
14.  The  Fifth  Crusade  was  incited  by  Pope  Innocent  III., 
in  1216,  and  was  joined  by  people  of  various  nationalities  in 
Europe.  They  at  first  kd  their  forces  into  Egypt,  took  Dami- 
et'ta,  and  advanced  on  Cairo;  but  were  soon  afterward  glad  to 
obtain  the  permission  of  the  sultan  to  retire  from  the  country 
(1218).  The  actual  Crusade  was  led  by  Frederick  II.,  emperor 
of  Germany.  It  began  in  1228,  and  was  terminated  by  a 
treaty  which  the  emperor  made  with  the  sultan 
of  Egypt.     In  accordance  with  this  treaty,  Pales- 


Fifth  Crusade. 


tine  was  ceded  to  Frederick,  and  free  toleration  granted  of 
both  the  Christian  and  Mohammedan  faiths.  Under  this 
arrangement,  the  Christians  lived  in  Jerusalem  in  peace  and 
prosperity,  undisturbed  until  the  irruption  of  the  Mongols  in 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  Sixth  Crusade 
was  undertaken  by  Louis  IX.  (St.  Louis)  of  France  (1249), 
in  consequence  of  the  capture  and  pillage  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  barbarous  Mongols.  The  French  monarch, 
after  having  taken    Damietta,  was  utterly  de- 


Sixth  Crusade. 


feated  by  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  and  taken  prisoner.     He  was 
afterward  ransomed  by  his  subjects  (1250). 

15.  The  Seventh  Crusade  was  undertaken  by  St.  Louis  in 
alliance  with  Prince  Edward  (afterward  Edward  I.)  of  Eng- 
land (1269),  in  consequence  of  the  taking  of 
Antioch  by  the  Mam'e-luke*  sultan  of  Egypt. 
Louis  crossed  to  Africa,  expecting  to  receive  the 


Seventh 
Crusade. 


king  of  Tunis  as  a  convert  to  Christianity;  but,  instead  of  a 
convert,  he  found  a  determined  enemy;  and  a  pestilence  hav- 
ing broken  out,  the  French  perished  by  thousands  on  the 
burning  sands.      St.  Louis  died  in  his   tent;  and  his  son 


*  The  Mamelukes  (a  word  meaning,  in  Arabic,  slaves)  were  of  Turkish  origin,  and 
were  bought  by  the  sultan  of  Egypt  and  placed  in  the  army.  In  1254,  they  had  ad- 
vanced to  such  a  degrree  of  power,  that  they  made  one  of  their  number  sultan,  ami 
fo'sinded  a  dynasty  which  occupied  the  throne  of  Egypt  for  centuries. 


416  MedicBval  History. 

Philip,  after  making  a  treaty  with  the  king  of  Tunis,  re- 
turned to  France  (1270).  Prince  Edward,  however,  pro- 
ceeded to  the  Holy  Land,  and  gained  some  advantages  by 
his  skill  and  valor;  and  after  making  a  ten  years'  truce,  he 
returned  home  to  ascend  the  English  throne. 

16.  This  was  the  last  of  the  Crusades.  Antioch  had  been 
taken  by  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  and  all  its  inhabitants  slaugh- 
tered or  made  slaves  in  1268;  the  other  towns  of  Syria  soon 
after  fell  successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans, 
excepting  Acre,  which  for  a  time  was  the  metropolis  of  the 
Christians.  This  also  was  captured  by  the  sultan  in  1291,  and 
its  inhabitants,  to  the  number  of  60,000,  put  to  deatli  or  sent 
into  bondage.  Soon  afterward,  all  the  churches  and  fortifica- 
tions of  the  Latin  Christians  throughout  Syria  were  demolished. 

Influence  of  the  Cbtjsades. 

17.  These  enterprises  indirectly  contributed  very  greatly 
to  the  political  and  social  improvement  of  the  nations  of 

Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  They  tended 
to  break  up  the  feudal  system,  by  compelling 
the  great  barons  to  sell  their  lands,  in  order  to 


On  the  feudal 
syslenrt. 


raise  the  money  necessary  to  equip  their  troops  and  transport 
them  to  distant  countries.  They  also  aided  popular  freedom, 
by  inducing  kings  to  grant  to  the  towns  political  privileges, 
in  return  for  contribulions  of  money  for  the  same  purpose. 
They  encouraged  commerce,  by  employing  so 
many  ships  and  such  vast  supi)lies  as  were  ro- 
quired  to  transport  and  sustain  the  vast  armies 


On  connmerce 
and  navigation. 


which  were  raised  and  sent  out  to  so  great  a  distance.  For- 
eign countries  were  brought  into  communication  with  each 
other,  and  the  advantage  of  a  mutual  excliango  of  products 
soon  became  apparent.  Thus  the  arts  of  navigation  and  ship- 
building rapidly  advanced,  and  many  cities  situated  in  the 
route  of  these  expeditions  soon  acquired  extraordinary  influ* 
ence  and  wealth.     Of  these  Gen'oa  and  Venice  are  examplee. 


Principal  Events  and  Dates.  417 

18.  They  promoted  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  the 
progress  of  science  and  literature.  Those  who  engaged  in 
them  were  at  first  grossly  ignorant  and  illiterate; 
but  coming  in  contact,  with  the  Greek  and  Sara- 
cenic civilization,  they  soon  imbibed  a  taste  for 


On  science  and 
literature. 


the  science  and  literature  which  constituted  one  of  its  most 
prominent  features,  and,  on  returning  home,  communicated 
the  same  spirit  to  their  fellow-countrymen.  Moreover,  they 
were  enterprises  undertaken  for  a  noble  and  un- 
selfish purpose;   and  although    blended  with  it 


On  character. 


was  the  desire  of  military  distinction  and  renown,  this  was 
to  be  gratified  by  great  self-sacrifice  and  personal  devotion  to 
a  cause  which  conscience  and  religion  approved.  Hence  were 
necessarily  infused  that  heroic  and  disinterested  spirit,  that 
eagerness  to  succor  the  weak  and  distressed,  that  love  of  roman- 
tic adventure,  and  tliose  elevated  sentiments  of  honor,  all  of 
which  went  to  form  that  remarkable  feature  of  the  manners 
of  the  Middle  Ages  known  as  chivalry.     (See  page  345.) 


Sttmmaey  of  Principal  Events  and  Dates. 

A.D. 

The  Seljuk  Turks  take  possession  of  Jerusalem 1076 

Council  held  at  Clermont 1095 

First  Crusade,  proclaimed  by  Pope  Urban  n. 1095 

Peter  the  Hermit  and  the  Crusaders  start  for  the  Holy  Land 1096 

Solyman  def eatetl,  and  Nice  taken  by  the  Crusading  armies 1097 

Antioch  taken  by  the  Crusaders 1098 

Jerusalem  taken,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  elected  king 1099 

Second  Crusade,  undertaken  by  Louis  VH.  and  Conrad 1147 

Saladin  defeats  the  Christians  and  takes  Jerusalem 1187 

Third  Crusade,  under  Philip  II.,  Richard  I,,  and  Frederick  Barbarossa 1189 

Richard  L  set  out  on  his  return  to  Europe....  1193 

Saladin's  death;  his  empire  dissolved 1193 

Fourth  Crusade,  under  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders 1203 

Constantinople  taken  by  the  Crusaders 1204 

Fifth  Crusade,  under  the  Emperor  Frederick  n 1228 

Sixth  Crusade,  under  Louis  IX.  (St.  Louis),  king  of  France 1249 

Antioch  taken  by  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  1268 

Seventh  Crusade,  under  Louis  IX.  and  Prince  Edward  of  England 1269 

Capture  of  Acre  by  the  Mohammedans.    Total  conquest  of  Syria  and  subjuga- 
tion of  the  Latin  Christians 1291 

8 


CHAPTER  Vn. 
Centeal  and  Southern  Europe. 


SECTION   I. 
Germany. 


1.  After  the  battle  of  Fontenaille,  in  which  the  degen- 
erate grandsons  of  Charlemagne  fought  with  each  other  over 
the  territories  subdued  by  his  wisdom  and  valor, 
the  empire  was  divided  into  three  portions — 
France,    Germany,    and  Italy;  and  the  second 


Divisions  of  the 
empire. 


of  these  divisions  was  assigned  to  Louis  (843).  The  Carlo- 
vingian  race  became  extinct  in  911;  and  there- 
after the  Di'ety  or  Great  Council,  consisting  of 


Diet. 


the  great  princes  of  Germany  and  the  chief  dignitaries  of  the 
Church,  assumed  the  right  of  electing  the  emperor,  subject 
to  confirmation  by  the  Pope,  by  whom  alone  he  could  bo 
crowned.  Several  races  at  this  time  occupied 
Germany,  the  chief  of  which  were  the  Franks, 


Races. 


the  Saxons,  the  Bavarians,  and  the  Suabians.  Tlie  first 
choice  of  the  electors  was  Otto  the  Ilhistrious, 
Duke  of  Saxony;  but,  he  declining,  they  chose 
Conrad  of  Franconia  (911).     Conrad  was  a  good 


Otto  and 
Conrad. 


and  wise  monarch,  but  he  I'cigned  only  seven  years,  his  death 
occurring  in  918. 

GEoaRAPRTCAL  Stupy.  (Map,  page  419.) 
Whatis  Vie  situation  of :  Oermany?  Kinodom  op  Bitroundy?  AtrBTRiA?  Hrw- 
GARYf  Bohemia?  Brandenburo?  Poland?  Pomerama?  Saxony?  Westphaija? 
Franoia?  Lotharinoia?  Suabia?  Brabant?  Flanders?  France?  Vienna?  Prafriie? 
IlamburK?  Frankfort?  Aachen?  Strashurg?  Milan?  Venice?  Genoa?  Geneva? 
Aries?  Florence? 


Germany. 


419 


2.  Five  Saxon  emperors  succeeded  {Saxon  Dynasty),  the 
first  of  Avhom,  Henry  L  (called  the  Fowler)y*  was  a  very  great 
monarch.  He  subdued  the  rebellious  and  dis- 
orderly princes,  and  restored  peace  to  the  coun- 
try. Bohemia  was  made  tributary  to  the  German  Empire, 
and  the  Suabians  were  subdued.     Henry  also  gained  a  great 


Henry  I. 


yictory  over  the  Hungarians,  who  had  swarmed  into  Saxony; 


Central  Europe  (about  1200). 

and  so  thankful  were  the  people  for  their  deliverance  from 
these  savage  hordes,  that  he  was  hailed  as  the  ''  Father  of 
his  Country"  (934). f    To  this  great  achievement  was  added 


*  He  received  the  title  of  Fowler,  because  he  was  flying  his  hawks  on  the  Hartz 
mountains,  when  the  messengers  came  to  tell  him  that  he  had  been  chosen  king. 

t  "  The  nine  years'  truce  being  ended,  the  Hvmgarians  sent  to  the  Fowler  for 
blackmail.    Blackmail  indeed  I    The  only  tribute  Hem-y  wpujd  give  them  was  ft 


•J^^  MedicBval  History, 

an  invasion  of  Denmark,  and  the  reduction  of  the  sea-kings 
to  submission.  His  reformatory  measures  and  institutions, 
both  civil  and  religious,  were  very  important.  He  died  in 
936,  being  succeeded  by  his  son  Otho,  or  Otto. 

3.  Otto  L,(or  Otho  L),  the  Lion,  on  marrying  the  widow  of 
the  king  of  Lombardy,  assumed  himself  that  title,  and  made 
the  kingdom  a  fief  of  Germany.    The  Hungarians 
renewed  their  invasions,  but  were   defeated  by 


Lombardy. 


Otto  in  a  great  battle  fought  in  Bavaria.  The  Duke  of  Lom- 
bardy having  revolted.  Otto,  at  the  head  of  a 
victorious  army,  passed  the  Alps,  subdued  the 


Hungarians. 


rebel  duke,  and  after  receiving  at  Milan  the  iron  crown  of  the 
Lombards,  was  crowned  by  the  Poj)e  Emperor  of 
the  West  {Kaiser — Ccesai'),  like  his  great  prede- 
cessor, Charlemagne  (902).      He  was  a  zealous 


Crowned 
emperor. 


patron  of  letters,  having  a  school  in  his  own  palace,  though 
he  could  neither  read  nor  write.  He  died  in  973.  In  this 
reign  the  Hartz  silver-mines  were  discovered. 

4.  Otto  II.,  called  the  Red  King,  succeeded  his  father  as 
**  King  of  Germany  and  Kaiser  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire," 
being  elected  by  the  princes,  and  crowned  by  the  Pope.  His 
reign  was  a  constant  series  of  wars.  He  defeated  the  Saracens 
in  Lower  Italy,  and  made  himself  master  of 
Nai)les  and  Tarentum;  but  the  Greek  emperor 


Saracens. 


having  invited  the  Saracens  again  into  Italy,  Otto  was  entirely 
overwhelmed  by  them,  and  narrowly  escaped  with  life.  At  a 
diet  held  in  Ve-ro'na,  he  formally  confirmed  the  privileges  of 
the  Republic  of  Venice;  and  was  ])reparing  a 
great  expedition  against  the  Greeks  and  Sara- 


Venice. 


cens,  when  he  died  in  Italy,  probably  from  the  effects  of 
poison  (983). 

mangy  cur,  cropped  of  its  ears  and  tail.  The  Hunfcarians  were  furious;  they  vowed 
vengeance,  doath  without  mercy,  battle  without  qimrter;  but  vengeance  had  jrone 
ovor  to  the  other  side.  A  battle  was  fought  at  ^^Icuehurs:.  iu  Saxony,  and  th«'  Hun- 
garians were  defeated.  The  massacre  was  dreadful ;  the  number  of  prisoners,  we 
are  told,  was  800,000."— brewer'*  History  nf  Germany. 


Germany. 


421 


5.  Otto  ni.  (called  the  Wonder  of  the  World),  at  the  death 
of  his  father,  was  only  three  years  old;  and  from  an  early  age 
was  the  pupil  of  Gerbert,  afterward  Pope  Sylves- 
ter II.,  one  of  the  most  accomplished  scholars  of 
his  age.  It  was  owing  to  his  extraordinary  attainments  under 
this  great  teacher,  that  Otto  received  his  title.     On  com- 


Sylvester. 


mencing  his  reign,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  his  principal  am- 


A  Summons  to  a  Town  to  Open  its  Gates  and  Surrender. 
{From  an  old  engraving.) 

bition  seemed  to  be  to  introduce  the  customs  of  the  Byzantine 
court,  and  to  make  Rome  his  capital.     By  for- 
mally acknowledging  the  Duke  of  Poland  as  a 


Poland. 


separate  ruler,  he  raised  the  Polish  territories  to  the  rank  of 
a  kingdom.     He  died  in  Italy  (1002). 

6.  Henry  II.  (the  Lame),  cousin  of  Otto,  succeeded  him. 
The  Polish  ruler  having  refused  tribute  and  homage  to  the 
new  kaiser,  and,  moreover,  having  annexed  Bohe- 
mia to  his  dominions,  and  invaded  the  country 


Henry  II. 


of  the  Prussians,  Henry,  after  a  war  of  several  years,  made  a 
treaty  with  him,  acknowledging  the  independence  of  Poland, 
but  retaining  Bohemia  as  a  fief  of  Germany.     The  Lombards 


422  Mediceval  History. 

having  revolted,  he  marclied  into  Italy,  and  took  Pavia, 
which  was  burned.  He  also  successfully  made 
war  upon  the  Greeks  in  southern  Italy.     He  was 


Wars  in  Italy. 


a  very  pious  king,  and  in  great  favor  with  the  Church;  hence 
sometimes  called  the  Saint  At  his  death  (1024),  the  Saxon 
Dynasty  terminated. 

7.  The  Franconian  Dynasty,  consisting  of  four  emperors, 
succeeded.     The  first  was  Conrad  XL,  who,  by  his  marriage, 
annexed  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  to  the  empire 
(1033).     He  made  a  treaty  of  peace  and  friend- 


Conrad  II. 


ship  with  Canute,  king  of  Denmark  and  England;  and, 
having  been  crowned  with  the  iron  crown  of  Lombardy, 
received  the  submission  of  all  the  cities  in  northern  Italy, 
including  Pavia.  He  also  received  the  homage  of  the  Nor- 
mans and  Saracens  in  southern  Italy.  The  '*  Truce  of  God" 
(see  page  381)  was  issued  during  this  reign.  Conrad  died  in 
1039. 

8.  Henry  XXL  (called  the  Blade  King,  from  the  color  of  liis 
hair)  succeeded.     In  the  second  year  of  liis  reign,  the  **  Truce 
of  God"    was  substituted  for  the    '* Peace   of 
God;"*  and  the  emperor  proclaimed  that  Ger- 


Peace. 


many  enjoyed  a  universal  peace,  for  the  first  time  since  the 
monarchy  was  founded.  He  gained  a  great  vic- 
tory over  the  Hungarians  (1044),  and  made  their 


Hungarians. 


kingdom  tributary  to  the  empire.  This  great  king  died  in 
early  manhood,  after  a  reign  of  seventeen  years 
(105G).  His  son  Henry,  who  liad  previously  re- 
ceived the  title  of  "  King  of  the  Romans,"  suc- 


King  of  ihe 
Romans. 


cceded  him.     This  title  was  subsequently  borne  by  every 
heir-elect  ol  the  empire. 

•  "  Henry  summoned  a  diet  of  the  German  princes,  urjfed  the  measure  upon 
tlicrn  in  an  eloquent  speech,  and  set  the  exatnple  by  proclaiming  a  full  and  free 
p.nnlon  to  all  who  had  been  hia  enemies.  The  chanpe  was  too  sudden  to  U>  accept- 
able to  many  of  the  princes,  but  they  obeyed  as  far  as  convenient;  and  the  German 
people,  almost  for  the  flrst  time  in  their  history,  enjoyed  a  general  peace  and 
ie<;uritj^,"^J?ayarcf  Taylor's  History  of  Q^rmany, 


Germany, 


423 


9.  Henry  IV.  (the  Great),  a  child  of  five  years  at  the  death 
of  his  father,  assumed  the  government  at  the  age  of  fifteen. 
The  extravagance  of  the  court  and  the  haughti- 
ness of  the  young  king  caused  an  insurrection  of 


Saxons. 


the  Saxons;  and  Henry,  for  a  time,  was  compelled  to  yield 
to  their  demands;  but  finally  he  marched  into  Saxony  with 
an  immense  army,  defeated  his  enemies  in  a  terrible  battle, 
and  laid  waste  their  country  with  fire  and  sword  (1075).  His 
next  contest  was  with  the  famous  Pope  Gregory 
VII.  (Hildebrand).     This  talented  and  energetic 


Hildebrand. 


pontiff  aimed  to  free  the  Church  from  its  abuses  and  make  it 
supreme  over  the  civil  power,  and  there- 
fore determined  to  put  a  stop  to  the  cor- 
rupt sale  of  ecclesiastical  offices  by  the 
emperor.  Henry,  resisting  this,  was  ex- 
communicated; and,  in  1077,  the  greatest 
temporal  monarch  in  the  world  was  forced  ^^ 
to  stand  barefoot  on  the  frosty  eartli  at  Ca-  ;^| 
nossa  (a  town  in  Italy)  for  three  days,  wait- 
ing for  admission  to  Gregory,  to  whom  he 
finally  made  the  most  abject  submission.* 
10.  But  Henry,  stung  to  madness  by 
the  humiliation  he  had  suffered,  returned  to  Germany,  raised 
a  large  army,  and  conquered  Eudolf  of  Suabia, 
whom  the  Pope  had  caused  to  be  elected  in  his 
place.     Then  passing  into  Italy,  he  took  Rome  (1084),  and 


Gregort  VII, 


Henry's  revenge. 


*  "  It  was  the  fourth  day  on  which  he  had  borne  the  humiliating  garb  of  an 
affected  penitent,  and  in  that  sordid  raiment  he  drew  near  on  his  bare  feet  to  the 
more  than  imperial  majesty  of  the  Chiu-ch,  and  prostrated  himself,  in  more  than 
servile  deference,  before  the  diminutive  and  emaciated  old  man,  'from  the  terrible 
glance  of  whose  countenance,'  we  are  told,  '  the  eye  of  every  beholder  recoiled  as 
from  the  lightning.'  Hunger,  cold,  nakedness,  and  shame  had,  for  the  moment, 
crushed  the  gallant  spirit  of  the  sufferer.  He  wept  and  cried  for  mercy,  again  and 
again  renewing  his  entreaties  until  he  had  reached  the  lowest  level  of  abasement  to 
which  his  own  enfeebled  heart,  or  the  haughtiness  of  his  great  antagonist,  could 
depress  him.  Then,  and  not  till  then,  did  the  Pope  QQudesc^nd  tp  revoke  the  an- 
athema of  the  Vatican."— fi^ir  J,  St^h^n, 


424  MedicBval  History. 

ordered  the  election  of  a  pope  in  place  of  Gregory,  whom  he 
declared  to  be  deposed,  and  drove  into  exile  at  Salerno,  a 
town  in  southern  Italy.  Here  this  zealous  and  able  pontiff 
died  (1085);  but,  notwithstanding  his  misfortunes,  he  left  the 
papal  power  greatly  strengthened  and  improved  by  his  efforts.* 
Henry  IV.  reigned  till  1106,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
Henry  V.,  called  the  Parricide^  because  he  had 
deposed  his  father. f     His  reign  was  a  constant 


Henry  V. 


struggle  with  the  Church  and  the  nobles.  He  was  the  last  of 
the  Franconian  emperors.  The  crown  was  next  worn  by 
Lothaire  of  Saxony  (1125-1137),  when  it  passed  into  the 
possession  of  Conrad  of  Suabia. 

11.  Conrad  III.,  the  first  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen 
{-stow' fen)  or  Suabia,  had  been  chosen  by  the  electors  in 
preference  to  his  rival,  Henry  the  Proud,  son-in- 
law  of  Lothaire.    Guelph,  the  brother  of  Henry, 
made  war  upon  the  new  king,  but  being  defeated 


Henry  the 
Proud. 


took  refuge  in  Weinsburg,  which  Conrad  besieged  and  took 
(1140).  J  Unable  to  resist  the  eloquence  of  Bernard,  in  his 
passionate  appeal  for  aid  in   the  Second  Crusade,  Coni-ad 

*  "  The  monk  of  Cluny,  Hildebrand  of  Savona,  who  hml  inspired  the  policy  of 
four  popes,  during  twenty-four  years,  became  Pope  himself  in  1078,  under  the 
name  of  Gregory  VII.  He  was  a  man  of  iron  will  and  inexhaustible  energ}*,  wise 
and  far-seeing  beyond  any  of  his  contemporaries  and  unquestionably  sincere  in  his 
BuimH.''''— Bayard  Taylor.  His  last  words  were:  "I  have  loved  righteousness,  and 
hated  iniquity;  and,  therefore,  I  die  in  exile." 

t  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  a  curse  seemed  to  rest  upon  Henry  IV.  His  sone 
rebelled  against  him,  his  wife  proved  imfaithful;  and  at  last  he  was  compelli'd  to 
abdicate  by  his  favorite  son  Henry.  A  homeless  beggar,  he  wandered  from  house 
to  house,  refused  by  every  one  food  and  shelter.  He  ma«le  his  way  to  Lie^'«',  wlifre 
he  was  found  dead  on  the  door-steps  of  a  religious  house  from  which  he  luid  bren 
spumed.  As  he  died  under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  his  body  was  denie<l  fimeral 
rites,  and  for  five  years  lay  in  a  cellar  at  Liege.  In  1111,  it  was  removeii  to  Spires 
and  there  burled,  the  ban  having  been  removed  by  the  Pope. 

X  The  city  having  made  an  obstinate  defense,  Conrad  determined  to  bum  it  to 
the  ground,  but  gave  notice  that  the  women  might  depart  and  take  with  them 
whatever  they  liked  best.  When  the  gates  were  thrown  oprn.  the  women  appeared 
each  carrying  a  husband,  a  lover,  or  a  son.  This  moved  the  king  so  greatly,  that 
he  panloned  the  rebels  and  spared  the  citj''.  The  terms  Cruvlphs  and  dhihi'llhtes 
originated  at  this  time,  the  former  being  the  password  of  the  rebels,  and  the  latter 
of  Conrad's  army. 


Germany,  425 


yielded,  and  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land  with  an  army  of 
60,000  men;  but  he  met  with  nothing  but  dis- 
aster,  and  after  an  absence   of    two   years  re- 
turned to  Germany.      He  died  in  1152.      Con- 


Second 
Crusade. 


rad  was  never  crowned  Jcaiser,  being  only  king  of  Germany. 
12.  Frederick  I.  {Barharossa — Red  Beard)  was  a  great 
monarch,  and  was  honored  with  the  title  of  "  Father  of  his 
Country."  In  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  he 
cc)mpelled  the  kings  of  Denmark,  Poland,  and 
Hungary  to  do  homage  to  him  for  their  crowns; 


Principal 
events. 


he  raised  the  duchy  of  Bohemia  to  a  kingdom;  and  by  his 
marriage  obtained  possession  of  Burgundy.  He  had  a  difl&- 
culty  with  Pope  Adrian  IV.,  but  it  was  soon  settled,  and  he 
was  crowned  kaiser  in  St.  Peter's.  Frederick's  greatest  con- 
test was  with  the  cities  of  Lombard y,  which  were 
then  emerging  into  power,  and  demanded  their 


Lonnbard  cities. 


independence.  Although  at  first  defeated,  they  gained  a 
gi'eat  victory  over  Frederick  in  the  battle  of  Legnano  {len- 
yali'noY  (ll'^6);  and  by  the  peace  of  Constance,!  gained  the 
right  of  independent  government,  though  they  recognized  the 
emperor  as  chief  ruler  (1183).  Frederick  perished  in  the 
Third  Crusade  (1190). 

13.  The  interval  between  the  death  of  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa  and  the  accession  of  the  Hapsburg  line  (1190-1273), 
was  a  period  of  constant  internal  commotion  and  foreign  war. 
The  most  eminent  of  the  emperors  of  this  period 
was  Frederick  II.,  grandson  of  Barbarossa,  and 


Fredericlt  II. 


one  of  the  ablest  and  most  accomplished  sovereigns  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  He  was  compelled,  by  his  obligations  to  the 
Pope,  to  undertake  two  expeditions  to  the  Holy  Land,  in  the 
second  of  which  he  was  successful.  Contests  with  the  Italian 
cities  and  with  the  papacy  occupied  the  remainder  of  his 

*  A  town  in  northern  Italy,  sixteen  miles  northwest  of  Milan, 
t  A  town  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Germany,  on  the  oorthwestem  shore  of 
Lake  Constance. 


426  MedicBval  History. 


reign.*    He  died  in  1250,  being  succeeded  by  Conrad  IV., 

~~:     7-     I   whose  reign  was  tlie  last  of  the  house  of  Hohcn- 

Conrad  IV.      I 

J   staufen.      At  his  death  (1254),  he  left  a  son. 


Conrad,  only  two  years  old  (called  in  history  Ko7iradin— the 
little  Conrad).  He  received  a  good  education,  became  a 
scholar  and  a  poet;  and  at  the  age  of  ten  the  diet  would  have 
crowned  him  king  of  Germany,  but  the  Pope  opposed  it. 

14.  Subsequently,  he  became  the  central  figure  in  a  pathet- 
ic tragedy.     After  the  death  of  Coni-ad  IV.,  the  Pope  claimed 
Naples    and    Sicily   as   being    forfeited    to    the 
Church,  and  gave  the  latter  to  Charles  of  Anjou, 


Konradin. 


brother  of  Louis  IX.,  King  of  France.  Manficd.  the  ruling 
king,  was  the  uncle  of  Konradin  ;  and  resisting  the  Pope, 
was  defeated  and  slain.  Konradin  determined  to  avenge  the 
injury  to  his  uncle,  raised  a  considerable  force,  with  which  he 
marched  into  Italy,  and  invaded  the  territory  of  Naples.  H© 
was,  however,  defeated  in  battle,  and  falling  into  the  hands 
of  Charles,  was  ordered  to  be  executed.  Tims  perished,  at 
the  age  of  sixteen,  the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufens  (12G8). 
The  poet  Dante,  then  a  boy  of  three  years,  was  present  at  this 
execution,  f 

1(*.  Germany  could  scarcely  be  deemed  a  united  empire 
after  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty.  The  Italian  republics  had 
become  practically  indci)endent ;  and  the  rest  of  the  empire 
was   made  up   of    various   states — dukedoms,  principalities, 

bishoprics,  etc.,   loosely  confederated  together.     For  seven- 

— ■ \ 

♦  During  the  reign  of  Kaiser  Frederick  If.,  the  Teutonic;  knights  took  possession 
of  Prussia,  in  order  to  reduce  the  heathen  people  to  Christianity.  It  was  afterward 
united  to  Brandenburg;  and  now  (1881)  the  king  of  Pnissia  is  (Jerman  emperor. 

t  Konradin  and  liis  friend  Frederick  of  Haden,  alsti  a  men>  youth,  were  led  to 
the  scaffold,  wljile  the  savage  Cliarles  watched  the  scene  from  a  window  of  his 
palace,  and  the  people  looked  on  in  gloom  ^ind  discontent,  only  prevented  from 
revolt  by  the  royal  guards.  Konradin,  standing  on  the  scafTnld.  threw  his  glove 
among  the  spectatoi-s,  tiiat  some  friend  might  tnkei  it  up  and  avenge  his  death. 
Then,  exclaiming,  "O  mother,  what  sorrow  I  hive  caused  tlieel"  he  kn«>lt,  and 
received  the  fatal  blow.  Fi*ederick  a>id  thirteen  others  were  execut^nl  witli  liim. 
In  1282,  the  massacre  of  the  "Sicilian  V.\sfx«r8"  occurred:  the  French  in  Sicily  were 
slaughtered,  and  P^ter  pf  Ara^oQ  ^came  king  of  the  island.    (See  page  sa*).) 


Germany,  427 


fceen  years  (1256-1273),  there  were  several  who  bore  the  title 
of  Kaiser;  but  there  was,  in  fact,  no  reigning  em- 
peror.   This  period,  called  the  Great  Interregnum, 
is  one  of  the  darkest  in  German  history.     The 


Great 
Interregnum. 


country  was  filled  with  feudal  castles,  the  residences  of  robber 
barons,  whose  quarrels,  outrages,  and  depredations  gave  the 
people  neither  peace  nor  safety. 

16.  Rudolph  L,  the  first  of  the  Hapshurg*  line,  was  just 
the  man  for  the  position  which  he  was  elected  to  fill.  He  was 
an  experienced  warrior,  of  determined  will  and 
indomitable  courage,  vigorous  in  intellect,  and 


Character. 


of  a  powerful  physical  frame.  He  subdued  Ot'to-car  of  Bo- 
hemia, and  seized  his  dominions,  including  Austria,  thus 
founding  the  present  Austrian  Empire.  He 
ruled  with  much  skill  and  energy;  and,  reducing 


Ottocar. 


the  robber  nobles  to  submission,  greatly  increased  the  imperial 
power,  t  On  his  death  (1291),  Albert,  his  son,  was  set  aside 
by  the  electors,  and  Adolf  of  Nassau  was  ap- 
pointed in  liis  stead;  but,  a  few  years  afterward, 


Albert. 


he  was  deposed,  and  Albert  elected  in  his  place  (1298).    Adolf, 
resisting,  was  slain  in  battle. 

17.  Albert  I.  was  naturally  a  despot,  and  cared  nothing 
for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects.  J  During  his  reign,  the  Swiss 
cantons  made  their  memorable  rising  for  independence, 
being  provoked,  according  to  the  popular  tradition,  by  the 


*  Hapsburg,  meaning  Hawlc's  Castle,  was  the  name  given  to  the  stronghold  built 
on  the  Rhine  by  the  feudal  ancestors  of  this  race. 

+  "  In  Thuringia,  which  was  perhaps  the  worst  of  the  haunts,  he  leveled  to  the 
ground  as  many  as  sixty-six  castles,  and  put  to  death  twenty-nine  of  the  robber 
nobles.  Some  were  tied  to  the  tails  of  their  own  horses  and  trampled  to  death; 
others  were  hung  on  the  nearest  tree."— Dr.  Brewer. 

X  His  manners  and  personal  appearance  were  by  no  means  prepossessing.  It  is 
said  he  " looked  like  a  clown  and  behaved  like  a  loon."  He  was  "big-nosed,  loose- 
lipped,  blind  of  one  eye,  ill-mannered,  grasping,  selfish,  and  overbearing."  When 
Pope  Boniface  Vm.  was  told  of  his  election,  he  exclaimed,  "  How  can  such  a  one- 
eyed  lout  be  emperor  of  the  Romans!"  Indeed,  the  Pope  refused  to  sanction  his 
election,  and  excommunicated  him;  but  he  afterward  became  reconciled  to  the 
"  one-eyed  lout." 


428  Mediceval  History, 

tyranny  of  the  governor,  Gesler  (ghes'ler),  who  commanded, 
as  the  story  goes,  the  citizens  of  Al'torf  to  bow- 
before  the  ducal  cap  of  Austria,  set  upon  a  pole 


Swiss  cantons. 


in  the  market-place.  This  William  Tell  refused  to  do;  and 
was  condemned  to  lose  his  life,  or  shoot  an  apple  from  his 
son's  head.  Although  he  succeeded  in  this  trying 
ordeal,  the  governor  still  refused  to  set  him  at 


William  Tell. 


liberty;  but  a  storm  arising  as  he  was  carried  in  chains  across 
the  lake,  he  was  unfettered,  in  order  that  he  might  render  aid 
as  a  steersman;  when,  leaping  from  the  vessel  as  it  neared  the 
shore,  he  escaped,  and  a  short  time  after  avenged  himself  and 
his  country  by  slaying  the  tyrannical  governor  (1308).*  The 
emperor  himself  was  murdered  the  same  year  in  Switzerland 
by  his  nephew,  John  of  Suabia. 

18.  After  the  murder  of  Albert,  the  imperial  throne  was 
filled  by  Henry  VII.  (1308-1313),  who  released  the  three  Swiss 
cantons  from   their  allegiance  to  the  house  of 
Hapsburg,  and  gave  Austria  to  the  sons  of  Albert. 


Henry  VII. 


The  two  rival  kaisers,  Frederick  of  Austria  and  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  followed,  the  latter  of  whom  finally 
triumphed  in  battle  (1322).  Louis  reigned  till 
his  death  in  1347;  but  the  year  previous  he  was 


Frederick 
and  Louis. 


excommunicated  by  the  Pope;  and  the  archbishops  united 
with  the  latter  in  the  selection  of  Charles  of 
Luxemburg;  but  the  free  cities  and  most  of  the 


Charles. 


temporal  princes  stood  by  Louis.  The  free  cities,  of  which 
there  were  about  150,  now  rose  to  great  influence 
and  prosperity.     Thej  encouraged  leai'ning,  i)ro- 


Free  cities. 


mo  ted  commerce,  and  thus  contributed  greatly  to  the  progress 
of  Germany. 

19.  Charles  IV.,  at  first  opposed  by  the  electors,  finally 
gained  the  throne.  Having  been  nominated  by  the  Pope 
without  the  consent  of  the  electors,  he  was  called  the  *'  Pope's 

♦  The  Btory  of  William  Tell  is  a  traditionary  legend,  the  details  of  which  are  noiT 
believed  by  many  to  be  fictitious. 


Germany,  429 


Kaiser."     He  was  the  grandson  of  Henry  YII.,  and  the  son 
of  John,  King  of  Bohemia,  who  was  slain  by  the 
Black  Prince  at  the  battle  of  Crecv.     Charles 


Pope's  Kaiser. 


possessed  great  learning  himself,  and  encouraged  it.  He 
founded  the  three  universities  of  Heidelberg,  Vienna,  and 
Prague.  His  most  important  act  was  the  issue 
of  the  "  Golden  Bull,"  by  which  the  electors  of 


Golden  Bull. 


the  German  Empire  and  the  mode  of  election  were  defined 
(1356).*     The  famous  Kienzi,  "the  last  of  the 
Koman  Tribunes,"  was  arrested  by  the  emperor. 


Rienzi. 


and  for  a  time  kept  a  prisoner  in  Prague.  Charles  reigned 
till  1378.  The  "Black  Death"  raged  during  the  first  years 
of  this  reign. 

20.  The  death  of  Charles  IV.  was  followed  by  the  reign 
of  Wenceslas,  called  the  Worthless  (1378-1400),  and  Rupert 
(1400-1410),  after  whom  the  crown  was  con- 
ferred  on   Sig'is-mund   of  Hungary,  a   son    of 


Sigismund. 


Charles  IV.  (1410),  called  the  "  Light  of  the  World."  This 
emperor  had  been  king  of  Hungary,  and  was  a  very  accom- 
plished man.  It  was  in  this  reign  that  the  great 
Council  of  Constance  met  (1414),  at  which,  there 
being  three  competitors  for  the  pontifical  throne. 


Council  of 
Constance. 


Martin  V.  was  elected  Pope,  and  the  great  schism  extin- 
guished. The  doctrines  of  Wickliffe  were  also  condemned; 
and  John  Huss,  rector  of  the  University  of 
Prague,  having  adopted  and  preached  them,  was 


Huss. 


cited  to  appear  before  the  Council.  Refusing  to  retract,  he 
was  degraded  from  the  priesthood;  and  having  been  delivered 
up  to  the  civil  law,  was  burnt  at  the  stake  for  heresy  (1415). 
Huss  had  received  from  the  emperor  a  safe-conduct;   but 

*  The  Golden  Bull  was  so  called  because  its  seal  was  inclosed  in  a  gold  case. 
By  this  instrument  the  number  of  electors  was  prescribed— three  prelates  and  four 
lay  princes;  and  no  appeal  was  permitted  from  their  decision  by  a  majority  vote. 
They  were  to  meet  at  Frankfort;  and  the  place  of  coronation  was  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The  college  of  electors  thus  constituted  lasted,  with  few  changes,  450  years,  till  the 
time  of  Napoleon,  who  broke  up  the  German  Empire. 


430  MedicBval  History. 

Sigismund  broke  his  plighted  word,  in  permitting  this  cruel 
sentence  to  be  executed.  Jerome  of  Prague,  the 
friend  and  disciple  of  Huss,  the  next  year  shared 


Jerome. 


the  same  fate. 

21.  This  led  to  a  furious  war  of  sixteen  years,  in  the  first 

part  of  which  the  Bohemians,  or  Hussites,  were  led  by  the 
famous  John  Zisca,  and  defeated  the  armies  of 
Sigismund  in  many  battles.     In  1422,  a  treaty 


Bohemian  war 


was  made  by  the  emperor,  by  which  the  religious  liberty  of 
the  Hussites  in  Bohemia  was  fully  acknowledged.  The  war, 
however,  was  afterward  renewed,  and  continued  till  1434. 
While  the  war  was  going  on,  Sigismund  marched  against  the 
Ottoman  Turks,  whom  he  defeated  in  a  great 
battle  near  Nissa  (1419).     By  this  victory,   he 


Turks. 


not  only  took  vengeance  upon  those  fierce  barbarians  for  his 
own  disastrous  defeat  at  Nicopolis,  twenty-three  years  before, 
but  checked  for  some  time  the  Ottoman  conquests  on  the 
eastern  frontier.  Sigismund  died  in  1437;  and  the  house  of 
Austria  succeeded,  which  occupied  the  throne  about  three 
centuries  (1437-1740). 

22.  The  short  reign  of  Albert  11,  the  lUnstrious  (1438- 
1439),  was  followed  by  that  of  Frederick  HI.,  the  Pacific,  who, 
in  order  to  aggrandize  the  hou^e  of  Austria,* 
neglected  the  general  interests  of  the  empire,  and 
suffered  the  Ottomans,  who  had  taken  Constanti- 
nople (1453),  to  make  great  encroachments  upon  its  terri- 
tories. He  was  the  last  German  emperor  that  was  crowned 
at  Rome.  He  succeeded  in  effecting  a  marriage  between  his 
son  Maximilian  and  Mary  of  Burgundy,  thus  obtaining  for  the 
former  the  sovereignty  of  the  Netherlands,  which 
Mary  had  inherited  from  her  father,  Charles  the 


Albert  II. 
Frederick  ill. 


Netherlartdt . 


Bold.     Frederick's  reign  was  the  longest  in  German  history, 

•  Frederick  adopted  for  his  device  an  anaprram  consisting:  of  the  five  vovels. 
A.  E,  I,  O,  U,  meaninf?,  In  I^atln,  Awtria  Est  Tmperatura  Orbi  Univeraa;  or.  in  Eng 
lish,  Atistria^s  Empire  la  Ordained  Universal. 


Germany,  431 


lasting  fifty-three  years.     He  was  succeeded  by  Maximilian 
(1493).     During  Frederick's  reign,  printing  was 
invented  in  Germany  (about  1450).     With  this 


Printing. 


reign  terminates  the  mediaeval  period  of  German  history. 
State  of  Society  in  GERMAmr 

During  the  Middle  Ages. 
23.   From  the  time  of  the  great  German  warrior  and 
patriot  Hermann,  to  the  reign  of  Charlemagne, 
the  political  history  of  Germany  is  almost  a  blank. 


Early  period. 


Many  petty  states  were  formed,  each  under  its  own  chief;  and 
Christianity  was  introduced  and  propagated  by 
English  and   Irish   missionaries,    among  whom 


Christianity. 


should  be  especially  mentioned  the  English  monk  Winifred, 
afterward  named  Boniface,  and  called,  on  account  of  his  zeal, 
the  "Apostle  of  the  Germans." 

24.  The  Feudal  System  was  firmly  established  in  Ger- 
many, with  the  resulting  lawnessness  and  violence  that  charac- 
terized the  institution  in  other  parts  of  Euroi^e. 
The  king  or  kaiser*  was  but  a  nominal  sovereign; 


Feudal  system. 


for  many  of  his  vassals  were  richer  than  himself  and  quite  as 
powerful.  They  only  owed  theh'  lord  military  service;  and 
when  that  was  rendered,  they  were  free  to  do  as  they  pleased. 
It  was  not  until  the  close  of  the  Saxon  dynasty  that  Germany 
was  formed  into  a  really  organized  state,  under 
the  rule  of  laws,  and  with  properly  constituted 


Organization. 


magistrates  to  execute  them.      Churches  were  founded  in 
every  part  of  the  country,  and  there  were  many  walled  towns 

*  The  title  fca/ser— emperor— was  conferred  on  Charlemagne  when  he  was 
crowned  Emperor  of  the  West,  or  Emperor  of  the  Romans.  Louis  le  Dehonnaire 
also  received  the  title,  and  afterward  Lothaire,  King  of  Italy.  It  then  passed  to  the 
German  King  Louis,  or  Ludwig,  and  next  to  Charles  the  Fat,  of  France,  on  whose 
death  the  empire  ceased  to  exist  for  abour  three  quarters  of  a  century.  Otto  I. 
received  the  title  of  Emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  a  title  borne  by  all  the 
sovereigns  of  Germany  till  the  time  of  Napoleon  I.  This  title  is,  however,  synony- 
mous with  Emperor  of  the  West,  Emperor  of  the  Romans,  or  the  German  title 
kaiser.  King  of  the  Romans  was  a  title  conferred  by  Henry  III,  on  his  son  as 
emperor  elect  or  prospective,  and  was  thus  used  up  to  the  sixteenth  century. 


432  MedicB'cal  History. 

in  various  parts,  some  of  which  were  Imperial  Free  Cities, 
others  ducal  towns,  and  church  cities,  so  called  because  built 
on  church  lands,  and  having  the  bishop  as  chief  magistrate. 

25.  Notwithstanding  the  general  spread  of  Christianity, 
the  state  of  society  was  very  low.     There  was  but  little  respect 
for  property  or  life.     Almost  any  offense,  except 
parricide,  sacrilege,  or  the  killing  of  a  master  by 


State  of  society. 


his  slave,  could  be  atoned  for  by  paying  a  fine,  called  a  moneys 
bote.  Rough  manners  and  coarse  sensuality  characterized  the 
people  of  all  classes,  until  the  cities,  having  ac- 
quired a  certain  degree  of  independence,  increased 


Cities. 


in  industry  and  thrift.  This  was  promoted  by  Henry  V 
who  admitted  their  artisans  to  the  privileges  of  free  burghers. 
Serfdom  was  gradually  abolished;  and,  before 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  generally  gave 


Serfdom. 


place  to  a  free  peasantry. 

26.    In  the  thirteenth   century  was  formed  the  famous 

league  of  cities,  called  the  Hansa,  or  Hanseatic  League,  the 
object  being  to  protect  their  shipping  against 
pirates,  and  to  extend  their  commerce.  Ham- 
burg and  Lubeck  were  the  first  to  form  a  union; 


Hanseatio 
League. 


but  Brunswick,  Bremen,  Cologne,  Dantzic,  and  many  other 
towns  soon  joined  the  confederacy,  which  became  veiy  power- 
ful, and  exerted  an  imi)ortant  influence  on  the  civilization 
and  commercial  prosperity  of  Germany.  The  chief  foreign 
depots  of  the  league  were  London,  Bruges,*  Novgorod,!  and 

*  Bruges,  the  chief  city  of  Flanders,  was.  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  great  emporium 
of  central  Europe,  distinguished  not  only  for  its  extensive  commerce,  but  its  manu* 
factures,  particularly  of  cloths  and  tapestries.  Hallam.  remarks:  "In  the  thir- 
teenth century,  it  was  said  that  all  the  world  \/aa  clothed  from  Engli^i  wool 
wrought  in  Flanders." 

t  *'  Novgorod,  on  the  banks  of  the  Dmen  Lake,  was  the  glory  of  Russia  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  with  its  strong  walls,  its  250  churches  and  convent.s  glittering  with 
gilt  cupolas,  and  its  300,000  active  citizens,  who  soon  threw  off  the  yoke  of  the 
wrangling  Russian  princes,  and  constituted  themselves  into  the  celebrated  republic 
I>ater  (after  1240),  it  entered  the  confederacy  of  the  Hans«'ntlo  cities,  and  became 
the  great  emporium  of  Indian  commerce  for  the  north  of  Europe."— JToeppcw'^ 
Middle  Aqes. 


Germany.  433 


Bergen.*  Its  deputies  met  every  three  years  at  Lubeck.  The 
confederacy  attained  its  greatest  prosperity  and  influence  in 
the  foTu-teenth  century.  Its  last  general  assembly  met  in 
1630.  t 

27.  The  peasants  or  serfs  lived  in  miserable  hovels  near 
the  castle  to  whose  lord  they  looked  for  protection.  The 
townsfolk  had  wooden  houses,  with  few  con- 
veniences, and  furnished  in  the  rudest  manner. 


Dwellings. 


The  dwellings  of  the  nobles  were  huge  castles,  gloomy  and 
lonesome,  built  on  a  high  hill  or  some  other  almost  inaccessiblo 
place.  The  master  and  his  numerous  retainers,  when  not 
engaged  in  war  and  pillage,  passed  their  time  in  feasting  and 
revelry,  interspersed  with  rough  brawls.  The  women  occu- 
pied themselves  in  spinning,  embroidery,  weaving 
gold  fringe,  making  banners,  etc.,  or  playing  on 


Employments. 


the  harp  or  lute.  During  the  grand  banquets  and  festivals, 
crowds  of  minstrels,  jugglers,  mimics,  and  clowns  flocked  to 
the  castle  to  amuse  the  guests.  Some  of  the 
furniture  was  often  rare  and  costly — fine  table- 


Fumiture. 


linen  from  Damascus,  and  rich  tapestry;  and  their  drinking- 
vessels  were  sometimes  of  silver,  though  usually  of  horn  or 
earthenware.  They  had  only  wooden  platters  or  pewter 
trenchers,  and  knives  and  forks  were  not  used  at  the  table, 
each  person  taking  up  his  food  in  his  fingers. 

28.  The  costume  of  the  king  and  nobles  was  rich  and 
elaborate.  The  former,  on  great  occasions,  wore  a  magnifi- 
cent purple  tunic,  with  a  golden  girdle,  from 
which  hung  a  sword.     On  his  head  was  a  jeweled 


Costume. 


cap  of  crimson  velvet,  his  hair  flowing  over  his  shoulders. 


*  A  commercial  town  on  the  western  cca^t  of  Norway. 

t "  Eighty  of  the  most  considerable  places  constituted  the  Hanseatic  con- 
federacy, divided  into  four  colleges,  whereof  Lubeck,  Cologne,  Brunswick,  and 
Dantzic  were  the  leading  towns.  Lubeck  held  the  chief  rank,  and  became,  as  it 
were,  the  patriarchal  see  of  the  league;  whose  province  it  was  to  preside  in  all  gen- 
eral discussions  for  mercantile,  political,  or  military  purposes,  and  to  carry  them 
Into  execution.  '—flaWam's  Middle  Ages. 


434  MedicBval  History, 

The  tunic  was  also  worn  by  the  nobles.  The  shoes  wei'e 
usually  long  and  pointed,  often  made  of  purple  cloth  fringed 
with  gold.  Ladies  wore  very  long  robes  with  tiglit  sleeves 
extending  to  the  wrist,  the  body  fitting  close  to  the  waist, 
and  confined  by  a  rich  girdle.  A  wimple  was  usually  worn 
round  the  face  and  chin,  fastened  at  the  forehead  by  a  gold 
or  jeweled  fillet. 

29.  All  through  the  gloomy  period  of  the  Dark  Ages, 
there  was  but  little  of  learning  or  literature  in  any  part  of 
Germany.     Charlemagne  and  a  few  of  his  suc- 
cessors took  an  interest  in  intellectual  culture; 
but,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  histories  and 


Learning  and 
literature. 


poems  in  Latin,  or  in  some  of  the  German  dialects,  nothing 
was  written.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  a  Latin  chroni- 
cle of  the  world,  by  Hermann  the  Cripple,*  a  scholar  of 
extraordinary  genius  and  learning,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
-  Henry  IIL  It  was  a  monk  named  Conrad,  in 
the  service  of  Henry  the  Lion,  who  wrote  the 


Conrad. 


famous  Song  of  Roland  (Rolands-lied),  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. About  the  same  time  (1150-1250),  flourished  the  cele- 
brated Min^7ie-si7ig-ers,  or  *Move-pocts" — the 
troubadours  of  Germany — wliose  poems  aided  in 


Minnesingers. 


the  revival  of  European  literature.!     The  Nibelunyen-liedy  a 
kind  of  epic  poem  in  ballad  form,  belongs  to  this  period.     In 


♦  Hermann  was  a  wonder.  His  body  was  wholly  paralyzed;  he  could  scarcely 
hold  a  pen,  or  speak  intelliffibly;  yet  hla  leaniing  and  sagacity  made  him  tin  object 
of  universal  attention,  people  coming  from  different  parts  of  Europe  to  converse 
with  him.  Hie  Chronicle  of  the  Six  Ages  of  the  World  is  a  valuable  work.  esiHHji- 
ally  because  of  its  history  of  Germany  during  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries.  He 
also  wrote  a  treatise  on  mUfeic,  and  one  on  the  antrolnlje,  an  instrument  used  in  the 
Middle  Ages  for  measuring  the  altitude  of  the  heavenly  bo<lies. 

t  The  name  is  dirived  from  the  old  German  wonl  minni,  meaning  love.  They 
were  contemporaneoiis  with  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  the  kings  of  which  line 
spoke  the  Suabian  dialect,  the  richest  and  most  musical  in  Gernwiny.  The  poems 
of  the  Minnesingers  were  not  all  love-songs,  but  oft+'u  commemorated  ht'rt>ic  deeds 
and  wonderful  exploits.  The  names  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  these  poets 
are  preserved.  Many  princes  and  knights,  Frederick  U.  for  example,  were  proud 
to  be  classed  among  them. 


Germany. 


435 


the  fifteenth  century  arose  in  the  cities  the  Mexster singer 8,  a 
kind  of  literary  society  or  guild,  whose  composi- 
tions were  chiefly  of  a  humorous  or  satiric  charac- 
ter.    Hans  Sachs,  one  of  these,  a  shoemaker  by  trade,  was  the 


Meistersingers. 


most  distinguished  German  poet  prior  to  the  Reformation. 

30.  In  the  fifteenth  century  a  stronger  light  began  to  pre- 
Tail.  During  the  long  reign  of  Frederick  the  Pacific,  there 
were  many  learned  men  eminent  in  yarious 
branches  of  science  and  literature,  among  whom 


Eminent  men. 


may  be  mentioned  Nicholas  of  Cusa  (1401-14G4),  the  son  of 

a  fisherman,  who  became  one  of 
the  greatest  scholars  of  his  age; 
John  Miiller  (1436-147(5),  con- 
sidered the  restorer  of  astron- 
omy; and  Rudolf  Agric'ola  (1443- 
1485).  Toward  the  end  of  the 
century,  Copernicus,  the  reviver 
of  tlie  true  theory  of  the  solar 
system,  was  born;  and  Albert 
Durer  commenced  to  be  famous 
as  a  painter  and  engraver.  The 
invention  of  printing  gave  an 
impulse  to  learning  and  literature  which  it  had 
never  before  received.  The  credit  of  this  inven- 
tion is  contested  by  the  Dutch  in  favor  of  Lau- 


AliBERT  DUKBIL 


Invention  of 
printing. 


reus  Coster  of  Harlaem  (1423),  and  by  the  Germans  in  behalf 
of  John  Gutenberg  of  Mentz  (1436).* 

*  Gutenberg,  in  1450,  entered  into  partnership  with  John  Faust,  or  Fust,  the 
latter  furnishing  the  means  of  utihzing  the  invention ;  and  the  work  for  printing 
the  Bible  in  Latin  was  partly  executed,  when  the  partnership  was  dissolved,  in 
1455.  The  next  year,  Gutenberg  completed  the  printing  of  the  Bible ;  and  in  the 
mean  time,  Faust  entered  into  partnership  with  Peter  SchoelTer,  his  son-in-law,  and 
also  printed  books.  Coster  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  invent  the  method  of  im 
pressing  characters  on  paper  by  means  of  blocks  of  carved  wood,  in  1423;  while 
Gutenberg  invented  movable  types,  and  Schoeffer,  in  conjunction  with  Faust,  first 
founded  types  of  metal.  Thus  Gutenberg  is  entitled  to  be  considered  the  inventor 
of  printing,  and  Schoeffer  of  type-founding.  Faust  was  merely  a  patron,  as  he 
only  furnished  the  means  to  carry  on  the  work. 


436 


Medimval  History. 


Emfebobs  of  Gebmant, 

Fbom  Conrad  I.  (911)  to  Maximilian  I  (U93), 


Line 


K-5 


Name.  Date  of  reign. 

ConradI 911-  918 

Henry  1 918-936 

Ottol 936-973 

Otton 973-  e83 

Ottom S83-1002 

Henry  n 1003-1024 

Conrad  H 1034-1039 

Henry  m 1039-1056 

Henry  IV 1056-1106 

Henry  V 1106-1125 

Lothaire  H 112^1137 

Conrad  HI 1138-1152 

Frederick  1 1153-1190 

Henry  VI 1190-1197 

Two  reigns 1197-1215 

Frederickn 1215-1250 

Conrad  IV 1250-1254 


Line.       Name. 

Interregnum 

f  Rudolf  I.    Hapsburg. 

Adolf 

Albertl 

Henry  VII 

Frederick  of  Austria. 
•  Louis  V.  of  Bavaria. . . 

Gunther 

Charles  IV 

Wenceslas. 

Rupert 

'Sigismund 

f  Albert  II 


Date 


I -j  Frederick  m. 
<  I  Maximilian... 


of  reign. 
1254-13?3 
127^1291 
1292-1298 
1298-1308 
130B-1313 
1314-1330 
1314-1*17 
1*47-1*49 
1347-1378 
137*-1400 
1400-1410 
1410-1437 
1438-1439 
1440-1493 
1493 


Stjmmary  of  Principal  Events  and  Dates. 

A.D. 

Carlovlngian  race  becomes  extinct 911 

Hungarians  defeated  by  Henry  the  Fowler 934 

Lombardy  made  a  flef  of  the  German  Empire 961 

Otto  the  Great  crowned  Emperor  of  tlie  West  (Kaiser) 9G8 

Lower  Burgundy  annexed  to  the  Empire  of  Germany  by  Conrad  II 1088 

The  Hungarian  Empire  made  tributary  to  Germany 1044 

Bohemia  added  to  the  Empire 1045 

The  king-elect  of  Germany  was  styled  "  King  of  the  Romans" 1056 

Saxony  invaded  and  ovemm  by  Henry  IV 1075 

Rome  taken  by  Henry  IV. ;  Gregory  driven  into  exile 1084 

Frederick  Barbarossa  defeated  by  the  Italians  at  Lignano 1176 

The  Italian  cities  gain  their  independence  by  the  peade  of  Oonstance 118S 

Prussia  became  a  part  of  the  German  Empire 1230 

Execution  of  Konradin,  the  last  of  the  HohenstAufens 1208 

Insurrection  of  the  Swiss  cantons.    Legend  of  William  Tell 1308 

The  Golden  Bull  issued  by  Charles  III 1356 

Meeting  of  the  Council  of  Constance 1414 

John  Huss  condemned  and  burnt  at  the  stake  for  heresy 1415 

The  Turks  defeated  at  Nissa  by  SIgismund 1419 

The  religious  lilierty  of  the  Hussites  in  Bohemia  acknowledged 1423 

Frederick  III.  crowne<i  kaiser  by  the  Pope « 1153 

The  Bible  printed  by  Gutenbei-g  and  Faust 1465 


SSwltzerland.  437 


SECTION  n. 

SWITZEBLAKD. 

81.  Switzerland,  anciently  the  land  of  the  ITelvetians, 
who  were  so  terribly  defeated  by  Caesar,  like  other  parts  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  was  overrun  by  the  barbari- 
ans. In  the  fifth  century,  the  Alemanni,  Goths, 
and  Burgundians  possessed  different  portions  of 
the  country;  but,  in  the  next  century,  these  were  conquered 
by  the  Franks,  under  whose  sway  Christianity 
was  generally  established.     It  thus  formed  a  part 


Barbarie 
invasions. 


Franks. 


of  the  Frankish  empire  of  Charlemagne.  After  the  reign  of 
Charles  the  Fat,  the  northern  part  of  Switzerland  became  a 
part  of  the  German  Empire,  and  the  southern  portion  was  an- 
nexed to  Burgundy.  At  first  the  land  was  held  as  a  fief  by 
the  vassals  of  the  crown;  but,  in  course  of  time, 
the  towns  acquired  great  influence,  some  becom- 


Towns. 


ing  free  cities  of  the  empire.     The  three  ancient  cantons  of 
Schwytz  {slivUz),  Uri  (oo^re),  and  Unterwalden 
{oon'ter-wal-den)y  inhabited  by  descendants  from 


Cantons. 


Swedish  immigrants,  retained  a  certain  degree  of  indepen- 
dence. 

32.  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  a  Swiss  baron,  when  he  became 
emperor,  favored  the  independence  of  the  cantons;  but  his 
son  Albert  pursued  an  opposite  policy,  and  undertook  to  an- 
nex Switzerland  to  Austria.  The  oppression  of 
the  Swiss  by  that  emperor  led  to  an  uprising  of 


Insurrection. 


the  people  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Austrian  bailiffs.*    Leo- 
pold, the  emperor's  son,  advancing  into  Switzerland  with  a 

♦  The  leading  men  of  the  "forest  cantons,"  whose  dependence  upon  the  empire 
had  been  for  centuries  only  nominal,  met  in  convention  on  the  Rutli  meadow,  and 
adopted  a  solemn  resolution  to  drive  out  the  Austrian  governors,  whom  they  looked 
upon  as  foreign  tyrants  (1307).  To  this  period  belongs  the  story  of  William  TelL 
(See  page  428.) 


438  MedicBval  History, 

considerable  army,  was  defeated  by  a  small  band  of  Swiss  at 
the  narrow  pass  of  Mor'gar-ten  (1315).  This  was  followed 
by  a  league  of  the  cantons  of  Uri,  Schwytz,  and  TJnterwal- 
den,  to  which  others  were  afterward  added;  and, 
in  1352,  the  confederacy  included  eight  cantons. 


Confederacy. 


The  Austrians  afterward  renewed  the  war,  and  were  again 
defeated  at  Sem'pach  (1386),  in  a  battle  memor- 
able for  the  devotion  of  Arnold  of  Winkelried 


Sempach. 


{win'kel-reed),  who,  when  his  countrymen  recoiled  from  the 
serried  spears  of  the  enemy,  rushed  upon  them,  burying  them 
in  his  bosom,  but  making  way  for  the  Swiss  host  behind  him.* 
33.  In  the  following  century,  Switzerland  had  gained  in 
strength;  but  it  was  severely  tried  by  a  civil  war  which  broke 
out  among  the  cantons  in  1436.  This  was  followed  by  a 
struggle  with  Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, in  which  the  Swiss  gained  two  decisive 
victories  (1476).     The  emperor  Maximilian  re- 


Contest  with 

Charles  the 

Bold. 


newedthe  attempt  to  deprive  the  Swiss  of  their  independence; 
but  was  defeated  in  six  desperate  battles  (1499). 
This  led  to  a  treaty  with  Maximilian,  by  which 


Traaty. 


the  independence  of  the  cantons  was  finally  established.  This 
made  the  Swiss  a  nation;  and,  five  new  cantons  being  admit- 
ted to  the  confederacy,  it  assumed  the  form  which  it  retained 
for  two  centuries. 

*  The  historian  Van  MUller  thus  describes  the  Incident:  "  The  hostile  lines  stood 
unbroken  and  firm.  Sixty  Swiss  had  already  been  slain.  They  feared  the  sudden 
effect  of  some  un  perceived  movement  by  the  vanguard  from  the  rear,  or  of  some 
surprise  by  the  troops  of  Bonstetten.  This  moment  of  delay  and  indecision  was 
terminated  by  a  man  from  the  canton  of  Unterwalden,  Arnold  Strutthan  of  Winkel- 
ried, knight.  He  said  to  his  companions,  'I'll  make  a  lane  for  you,'  leaped  from 
out  the  ranks,  called  with  a  loud  voice,  'Take  care  of  my  wife  and  children;  faith- 
ful, dear  confederates,  remember  my  race ;'  rushed  upon  the  enemy,  grasped  some 
lances  with  his  hands,  buried  them  in  his  breast,  and,  being  a  very  tall  and  strong 
man,  he  pressed  them  with  him  to  the  ground,  as  he  sank  down.  Instantly  his 
companions  threw  themselves  over  his  body;  and  all  the  hosts  of  the  confederates, 
in  succession,  pressed  on  with  the  utmost  force.  The  lines  of  the  astonished  anemy 
pressed  one  upon  another  to  receive  them ;  whereby,  through  fear,  haste,  horror, 
ard  heat,  many  lonls,  wounded  in  their  annnr.  were  suffocated ;  while  large  bands, 
toftstening  from  the  forests  strengthened  the  forces  of  the  Swiss." 


Italy.  439 

SECTION  in. 

Italy. 

34.  Northern  Italy,  by  the  defeat  of  the  Lombards  (774), 
passed  under  the  rule  of  Charlemagne,  who  was,  in  800,  crowned 
at  St.  Peter's  ^Emperor  of  the  West,  or  Emperor 
of  the  Komans.     After  the  battle  of  Fontenaille, 


Various  events. 


it  was  assigned  to  his  grandson  Lothaire  (843),  whose  descend- 
ants held  the  throne  nearly  fifty  years  (843-888).  This 
period  is  noted  for  the  invasion  of  southern  Italy  by  the 
Saracens,  who  carried  their  victorious  arms  even  to  the  gates 
of  Kome.  They  held  possession  of  a  large  part  of  the  coun- 
try until  they  were  expelled  by  the  Normans  (1016). 

35.  Confusion  and  civil  war  followed  the  close  of  the  Car- 
lovingian  dynasty  in  northern  Italy,  occasioned  by  the  dis- 
putes of  ambitious  nobles  for  the  throne,  until 
Otto  I.  of  Germany  assumed  the  sovereignty  of 


Civil  war. 


the  country  (961).  Prom  this  period  the  chief  towns  rapidly 
emerged  into  power  and  importance.  The  Lombard  League 
was  formed  in  1167,  and,  in  1183,  the  cities  secured 
their  independence  by  the  Peace  of  Constance. 


Cities. 


The  bitter  strife  between  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  de- 
vastated the  country  for  centuries,  some  of  the  cities  favoring 
the  Guelph  interest,  that  is  the  interest  of  Italy  and  the  popes 
against  that  of  the  emperor;  others  the  Ghibelline,  or  impe- 
rial interest.  Nevertheless,  the  republics  of  northern  Italy 
attained  a  high  degree  of  splendor  and  prosperity,  which  they 
continued  to  enjoy  during  the  Middle  Ages.* 

'  *  These  republics  included  :  1.  The  Lombard  CiYtes— Milan,  Cremona,  Pavia, 
Brescia,  Verona,  Mantua,  Padua,  etc. ;  2.  The  Cities  of  Romagna— Bologna,,  Fer- 
rara,  Modena,  etc.;  3.  The  Tuscan  Cities— Florence,  Pisa,  Lucca,  etc.;  4.  Genoa; 
and  5.  Venice.  Some  of  these  cities  were  in  the  Guelph  int^erest;  o*'hers  in  the 
Ghibelline.  There  were  frequent  wars  among  these  small  states,  an:'  family  feuds 
in  the  individual  cities,  such  as  that  of  the  Capulets  and  Montaj  .  s  in  Verona., 
on  which  Shakespeare  founded  his  play  of  Borneo  and  Juliet. 


440  Mediceval  History. 


Eepublic  of  Venice. 

36.  Among  these  republics,  Venice  occupied  a  prominent 
place.    Its  foundation  dates  from  the  Invasion  of  Italy  by 
Attila  (452),  who  pillaged  and  destroyed  the  cities 
of  the  Veneti  m  northern   Italy;  and  many  of 


Early  history. 


the  inhabitants,  taking  refuge  among  the  islands  at  the  head 
of  the  Adriatic,  founded  there  a  settlement  which  for  a  time 
1   depended  for  its  subsistence  upon  fighinff  and  the 

Later  histo^.  »,  «         ,  ,r  ,,,-.r 

I  manufacture  of  salt.  It  was  called  Ve-ne  zuu 
Between  two  and  three  centuries,  it  was  a  simple  republic;  but, 
in  697,  the  first  doge  (duke)  was  elected,  an  officer  in  whom 
was  vested  almost  absolute  authority.  The  republic  was  nom- 
inally subject  to  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  assisted  it  in  defend- 
ing the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna  from  the  attacks  of  the  Lom- 
bards. During  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  (809),  it  was  attacked 
by  the  Franks,  but  defeated  them  with  great  loss.  In  the 
course  of  time,  the  central  island,  Rialto  (re-ahVto),  was  con- 
nected with  the  other  islands  by  numerous  bridges;  and  this 
city  of  bridges  and  canals,  instead  of  streets,  came  to  be  gen- 
erally known  by  its  present  name,  Venice,  A 
short  time  after  this,  the  Venetians  took  St.  Mark 


St.  Mark. 


as  their  patron  saint,  having,  as  is  said,  brought  his  body  from 
Alexandria  (829).* 

37.  During  the  next  250  years,  the  republic  greatly  in- 
creased in  wealth,  commerce,  and  naval  power;  and  its  ter- 
ritorial dominions  were  augmented  by  the  accjui- 
sition  of  Dalmatia,  and  some  of  the  neighboring 


Growth. 


provinces.     In  the  First  Crusade,  the  Venetians  sent  a  ileet 

♦  •*  After  defeating  Pepin,  king  of  Italy  (In  809),  the  Venetians  maoe  choice  of 
the  largest  Island,  the  Riva  AltSk— Rialto— in  the  center  of  the  lAgoons,  where  they 
had  secured  their  families  and  their  wealth,  and  there  they  built  the  city  of  Venice, 
the  capital  of  their  repiibllc.  Some  years  later,  thoy  transported  thither  from 
Alexandria,  in  Ep>'pt,  the  body  of  Saint  Mark,  tlio  Evangelist,  whom  they  chose 
patron  of  their  stat*;.  His  winged  Hon  figured  in  th«*ir  arms;  and  under  his  virtori- 
Otis  banner  they  afterward  raised  their  great  colonial  empire  of  the  East."  -Ko«p- 
pen's  Middle  Age», 


Italy.  441 

of  more  than  two  hundred  vessels  to  aid  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 
(1099);  and  during  the  whole  period  of  these  expeditions, 
Venice  was  the  great  center  of  commerce,  and  the  emporium 
by  which  the  silks,  spices,  and  gems  of  the  East  were  dis- 
tributed to  Europe.  It  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
League  of  Lombardy  against  Frederick  Barbarossa;  and,  dur- 
ing the  contest  (in  1177),  gained  a  splendid  naval  victory 
over  the  Ghibellines,  under  Otto,  Frederick's  son,  in  defense 
of  the  Pope,  who  had  appealed  to  the  republic  for  protection. 
It  was  after  this  victory  that  the  ceremony  of  "wedding  the 
Adriatic'*  was  instituted,  the  Pope  presenting  the 
doge  with  a  ring  for  the  purpose.  This  cere- 
mony was  always  afterward  performed  with  great 


Wedding  the 
Adriatic. 


pomp  and  festivity,  a  ring  being  cast  into  the  sea,  to  indicate 
that  it  was  '*  subject  to  Venice  as  a  bride  is  to  her  husband." 
38.  After  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Crusaders 
(1204),  Venice  having  supplied  a  fleet,  under  the  venerable 
Doge  Dan'do-lo,  received,  as  her  share   of  the 
spoils,  the  Mo-re'a,  and  several  other  territories 


Dandolo. 


in  Europe.  The  doge,  although  blind  and  ninety  years  of 
age,  so  distinguished  himself  that  the  Crusaders,  in  admira- 
tion of  his  prowess  and  skill,  offered  him  the  imperial  crown, 
which  he  refused.  During  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth 
century  and  most  of  the  fourteenth,  Venice  was  engaged  in 
almost  constant  war  with  her  great  rival,  Gen'o-a. 

39.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  (1275), 
Mar'co  Po'lo,  the  great  Venetian  traveler,  crossed  Asia,  and, 
after  visiting  Tartary  and  China,  returned  home 
by  way  of  the  East  Indies  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 


Marco  Polo. 


The  account  which  this  traveler  gave  of  the  East  did  much  to 
stimulate  further  adventure  and  exploration.  After  Genoa 
had  passed  away  as  an  independent  power  (1396),  Venice 
experienced  her  highest  prosperity,  and  was  the 
greatest  maritime  power  in  the  world.     She  ac- 


Height  of  glory 


quired  by  conquest,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century. 


442  MedicBval  History, 

a  large  domain  in  northern  Italy,  and  did  important  service 
to  Europe  by  repelling  the  attacks  of  the  Turkish  fleets  in  the 
Mediterranean.  Her  wars,  however,  soon  wasted  her  treas- 
ures and  impaired  her  commerce;  while  her  government  be- 
came tyrannical  and  corrupt.  When  the  new 
route  to  the  East,  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good 


Decline. 


Hope,  was  discovered  (1497),  her  glory  soon  departed. 

Southern  Italy. 

40.  In  the  ninth  century,  southern  Italy  was  invaded  by 

the  Saracens,  against  whom  it  was  for  a  time  defended  by  the 

armies  of  the  Byzantine  Empire.     In  the  next 

century.  Otto  II.  of  Germany,  having  defeated 


Saracens. 


the  Saracens,  made  himself  master  of  Naples  and  Salerno, 
and  finally  of  Tarentum.  This  so  alarmed  the  Greek  em- 
peror, that  he  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Saracens;  and,  in 
the  severe  battle  of  Crotona,  utterly  defeated  Otto,  Avho  with 
difficulty  escaped  from  the  hands  of  the  victors.  The  Sara- 
cens held  many  of  the  most  important  places  in  southern 
Italy  until  they  were  expelled  by  the  Normans,  in  tlie  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries. 

41.  These  were  a  band  of  adventurers  from  Normandy, 
who  at  first  rendered    aid  in  expelling   the   Saracens   from 
Salerno  (1016).     Being  joined  by  others,  they 
soon  made  a  lodgment  in  the  delightful  regions 


Nornnang. 


of  southern  Italy,  repeatedly  defeating  the  vastly  more  numer- 
ous forces  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  Their  numbers  were  in- 
creased by  constant  accessions  from  Normandy;  and,  in  lOGO. 
the  renowned  Robert  Guis'card  (or  ghecs-kar') 
was  acknowledged  by  the  Pope  Duke  of  Apu'lia 


Guiscard 


and  Cala'bria,  and  of  such  other  lands,  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  as 
he  might  rescue  from  the  Greeks  and  Saracens.  This  Norman 
duke  was,  perhaps,  the  most  accom])]ished  soldier  of  his  age; 
and  extended  his  con((ucsts  throughout  soutliern  Italy,  thus 
putting  an  end  to  the  long  dominion  of  the  Eastern  emperors. 


Italy,  443 

42.  He  subsequently  raised  an  immense  army,  officered  by 
Norman  knights,  and  attacked  the  other  territories  of  tlie 
Eastern  Empire.  Durazzo  (doo-rat'so)  fell,  after 
a  siege  of  seven  months,  before  his  invincible 
skill  and  valor;  and  thence  he  marched  his  army 


Conquests  of 
Guiscard. 


into  the  heart  of  the  empire,  making  Constantinople  itself 
tremble.  He  was,  however,  hastily  recalled  to  Italy  to  pro- 
tect Pope  Gregory  VII.  (Hildebrand)  against  his 
inveterate  foe,  Henry  IV.  of  Germany;  and,  rais- 


Hildebrand. 


ing  a  large  army,  he  marched  rapidly  from  Salerno  to  Rome, 
and  compelled  the  German  emperor  to  seek  safety  in  retreat. 
It  was  with  the  faithful  Robert  Guiscard  that  the  illustrious 
pontiff  at  last  found  an  asylum  at  Salerno. 

43.  Roger  I.,  the  brother  of  Robert  Guiscard,  conquered 
Sicily  from  the  Saracens  after  several  years  of  war;  and  his 
son,  Roger  II.,  ruled  over  the  Norman  posses- 
sions in  both  Sicily*  and  Italy,  and  subjugated 


Roger  Guiscard. 


the  free  cities  of  Naples  and  Amal'fif  (1127);  but,  in  the 
person  of  William  II.,  his  grandson,  the  Norman 
dynasty  became  extinct,  and  the  kingdom  passed 
nnder  the  sway  of  the  German  emperors  (1189). 


End  of 
Norman  rule. 


Thus  it  remained  till  the  reign  of  Manfred,  whom  Charles  of 
Anjou  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Beneven'to  (1266),  and  thus 
obtained  the  throne  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  which 
he  retained  till  the  dreadful   massacre  of  the 


Anjou  rule. 


Sicilian  Vespers  (1282).  By  this  event  he  lost  Sicily;  but 
transmitted  Naples  to  his  descendants,  who  retained  the 
throne  of  that  country  till  1435,  when  it  passed  to  the  kings 


*  Roger  Guiscard  was  crownerl  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies  at  Palermo.  He  brought 
artisans  from  Athens,  and  founded  a  silk  manufactory  in  that  city  in  1146. 

t  A  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Salemo,  southeast  of  Naples,  noted  for  its  extensive 
trade  in  the  Middle  Ages.  "This  little  republic  rose,  reached  the  height  of  its 
power,  and  declined,  between  the  sixth  and  twelfth  centuries.  Its  career  as  a  free 
trading  state  was  brilliant  till  checked  br  the  arms  of  Roger  Cuiscard,  king  of 
Sicily,  from  which  time  its  splendor  was  lost."~reats's  Growth  and  Txissitudes  of 
Commeroe. 


444  MedicBval  History, 

of  Aragon,  who  had  ruled  Sicily  from  the  time  of  the  Sicilian 
Vespers. 

44.  Rome,  or  Papal  Italy,  was  governed  after  the  eighth 
century  by  the  Popes,  who,  in  succession,  were  elected  to  fill 
the  chair  of  St.  Peter.  During  a  period  of  sixty -eight 
years  (from  1309  to  1377)  the  Pope's  residence  was  at  Avig- 
non, in  France.  Rome,  in  the  mean  while,  was 
the  scene  of  constant  disorder  from  the  lawless 
acts  of  the  great  nobles,  who  prosecuted  their 


Condition  of 
Rome. 


family  feuds  with  the  utmost  fury  and  license.  Out  of  these 
struggles  arose  Rienzi  {re-en'ze),  the  **Last  of 
the  Tribunes,"  who,  in  1347,  seized  the  chief 


Rienzl. 


power,  and,  having  expelled  the  nobles,  endeavored  to  restore 
the  ancient  liberties  of  the  city.  A  counter-revolution  over- 
turned his  government  after  an  existence  of  but  seven  months, 
and  he  was  dirfen  into  exile.  Rienzi  was  a  friend  of  the 
famous  poet  Pe'trarch,  and  was  distinguished  for 
his  learning  and  oratory.*     Ancona,  in   Papal 


Ancona. 


Italy,  was  one  of  the  most  important  commercial  cities  in  the 
peninsula  at  this  period,  f 

•  "Never  perhaps  has  the  energy  and  effect  of  a  single  mind  been  more  remark- 
ably felt  than  in  the  sudden,  though  transient,  reformation  of  Rome  by  the  tribune 
Rienzi.  A  den  of  robbers  was  converted  to  the  discipline  of  a  camp  or  convent: 
patient  to  hear,  swift  to  redress,  inexorable  to  punish,  his  tribunal  was  alwaj-s 
accessible  to  the  poor  and  stranger;  nor  could  birth,  or  dignity,  or  the  immunities 
of  the  Church  protect  the  offender  or  his  accomplices.  The  privileged  houses,  the 
private  sanctuaries  In  Rome,  on  which  no  offlcer  could  presume  to  trespjiss,  were 
abolished;  and  he  applied  the  timber  and  iron  of  their  barricades  in  the  fortifica- 
tions of  the  capitol.  ...  In  this  time  (says  the  historian),  the  woods  began  to 
rejoice  that  they  were  no  longer  infested  with  robbers;  the  oxen  l>egan  to  plow, 
the  pilgrims  visited  the  sanctuaries;  the  roads  and  inns  were  replenlslied  with 
travelers;  trade,  plenty,  and  good  faith  were  restored  in  the  markets;  and  a  purse 
of  gold  might  be  exposed  without  danger  in  the  midst  of  the  highway.  As  soon  as 
the  life  and  property  of  the  subject  are  secure,  the  labors  and  rewards  of  industry 
spontaneously  revive;  Rome  was  strill  the  metropolis  of  the  Christian  world;  and 
the  fame  and  fortune  of  the  tribune  were  diffused  In  every  country  by  the  strangers 
who  had  enjoyed  the  blessings  of  his  government."— ff/^foon, 

t  "Ancona,  in  the  Papal  States,  was  founded  by  the  Syraciisans  about  fotir  cen- 
turies before  Christ,  and  has  ever  been,  next  to  Venice,  the  most  considerable  port 
on  the  Adriatic  coast  of  Italy.  Its  early  easteru  trade  was  chiefly  with  Cyprus.*'-^ 
YeaU, 


Italy,  445 


State  of  Society  in  Italy 

During  tM  Middle  Ages. 

45.  The  innumerable  invasions  and  revolutions  to  which 
Italy  was  subjected  in  the  Middle  Ages,  introduced  vast 
changes  not  only  in  the  political  condition  of  the 
country,  but  in  the  manners  and  customs,  the 


Changes. 


arts,  occupations,  and  language  of  the  people.     Out  of  the 
barbarism  resulting  from  this  ruin  and  disorder, 
a  new  civilization  slowly  emerged,  having   its 
origin  and  principal  growth  in  the  cities,  par- 


New 

civilization. 


ticularly  those  of  the  north.      The  Lombard   rule  was,  on 
the  whole,  favorable  to  this  improvement.     The 
feudal  system  prevailed,  but  it  acquired  a  more 


Feudal  system. 


exact  and  legal  form  in  Italy  than  in  other  parts  of  Europe. 

46.  The  great  commercial  cities,  Venice,  Genoa,  Florence, 
Ancona,  and  Amalfi,  were  the  gateways  not  only 
of  imported  commodities,  but  of  the  civilization 
of  the  countries  with  which  they  were  brought 


Commerce  and 
manufactures. 


into  communication.  Manufactures  were  extensively  carried 
on  in  all  the  cities  of  northern  Italy;  being  in  some  the  chief 
source  of  their  wealth.  In  Florence  this  was  especially  true. 
Dyeing,  and  the  making  of  cloth,  scarlet  stuffs,  silk  fabrics, 
tapestries,  straw  hats,  with  artistic  work  in  mosaic,  metal, 
and  alabaster,  were  prominent  industries.  Lombard  capital- 
•ists  competed  with  the  Jews  as  bankers  and  money-changers 
in  every  important  city  of  Europe.  Venice  had,  also,  very 
numerous  and  extensive  manufacturing  industries. 

47.  Architecture  in  Italy  gradually  passed  from  the  old 
classic  style  to  the  Gothic;  but  this  mode  of  building  did  not 
progress  as  rapidly  in  this  as  in  many  other  parts 
of  Europe.     The  splendid  palaces  and  mansions 


Architecture. 


erected  in  Florence,  Bologna,  Genoa,  and  other  cities,  show 
wonderful  taste  and  genius  in  this  branch  of  art.     The  works 


446  MedicBval  History. 

of  the  Roman  architect  Vi-tru'vi-us  *  were  printed  at  Rome 
in  1486;  and  the  adoption  of  his  system  by  the  Italian  archi- 
tects led  to  the  arrangement  of  the  Five  Orders  of  Architec- 
ture. 

48.  Many  Byzantine  artists  passed  into  Italy,  and  intro- 
duced their  various  styles  of   painting  and  sculpture,  thus 
laying,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  at  Venice,  Pisa, 
and  other  cities,  the  foundation  of  the  Italian 
schools  of  art.     Sculpture,  under  Nicola  Pisano 


Painting  and 
sculpture. 


{ne'ko'lah  pe-sah'no),\  took  the  lead  in  this  age.  The  revival 
of  painting,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  was 
greatly  promoted  by  the  celebrated  Cimabue  {che-mah-hoo' a) 
(1240-1300),};  of  Florence;  but  Italian  painting  more  prop- 
erly begins  with  the  next  century.  Giotto  (jot^to)  (1276- 
1336)  was  eminent  not  only  as  a  painter,  but  an  architect  and 
a  sculptor.  In  the  fifteenth  century,  the  fine  arts  made  great 
progress,  particularly  in  Florence,  under  the  sway  of  the 
Medici.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  {vin'che)%  painted  his  great  pic- 
ture, **  The  Last  Supper,"  at  the  close  of  the  mediaeval  period 
(1497).     He  was  noted  for  the  universality  of  his  genius. 

49.  The  Italian  literature  dates  from  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, previous  to  which  time  there  were  dialects  more  or  less 


*  Vitruvf us,  or  more  properly  Marcus  Vitruvius  Pollio,  lived  in  the  time  of  Ai^rus- 
tus,  by  whom  he  was  greatly  admired  and  patronized  as  an  architect.  He  wrote 
an  elaborate  woric,  On  Architecture,  arranged  in  ten  booka  A  second  edition  of 
this  worlf  was  printed  at  Florence  in  1496,  and  a  third  at  Venice  In  1497.  It  treats  in 
detail  of  the  four  orders  of  architecture. 

t  Pisano,  bom  about  1200,  Inaugurated  the  revival  of  sculpture  in  Italy.  He 
executed  many  magnificent  works  not  only  in  sculpture,  but  in  architecture.  He 
died  in  1278. 

t  Giovanni  Cimabue  took  the  lead  In  the  restoration  of  palntlnj?.  Having  studied 
under  Byzantine  masters,  he  soon  laid  aside  their  flxe<l,  traditional  methods,  and 
by  boldly  adopting  the  style  dictated  by  his  own  genius,  gave  life  and  individuality 
to  his  works.  His  church  frescos  were  much  admired.  He  Is  called  by  some  **  the 
father  of  modem  painting."    Giotto  was  his  greatest  pupil. 

%  Leonardo  da  Vinci  was  bom  at  Vincl.  near  Florence,  In  14C3.  He  was  emi 
nent  not  only  as  a  painter,  but  as  a  sculptor,  architect,  engineer,  and  scientist. 
His  pictures  are  classed  with  those  of  Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo,  who  lived  in 
the  succeeding  period.    He  died  In  1619. 


Italy,  447 

closely  resembling  the  Latin  language,  such  as  the  Tuscan, 
the  Venetian,  the  Neapolitan,  etc.     Of  these,  the 
Tuscan  might  claim  a  superiority  in  many  respects. 


Literature. 


Classical  Italian  literature  commenced  in  Florence  under 
the  influence  of  the  Troubadours;  and  the  common  language 
began  to  take  the  place  of  Latin.  Among  the  writers  of  this 
century,  Dante  {dan' to)  (1265-1321)  may  justly  be 
given  pre-eminence.     This  world-renowned  poet 


Dante. 


had  political  as  well  as  literary  distinction,  being  the  chief 
magistrate  of  his  native  city,  Florence.  He  was,  however, 
banished  by  its  factious  citizens;  and  while  living  in  exile 
wrote  his  great  poem,  the  Divi'na  Comme'dia,  published  just 
before  his  death. 

50.  A  little  later,  Pe'trarch  (1304-1374)  wrote  his  Sonnets, 
classed  among  the  most  melodious  and  beautiful  compositions 
in  the  Italian  language;  and  in  the  same  period 
Boccaccio   {hok-kaf cJio)   (1313-1375)  wrote  the 


Noted  writers. 


romances  and  tales  called  the  DecoCm' eron,  noted  for  its  ele- 
gant style.  The  fourteenth  century  is  deemed  the  greatest 
era  of  Italian  literature;  in  the  next,  flourished  the  poet 
Ar-i-os'to  (born  in  1474),  the  author  of  the  romance  poem 
Orlan'do  Furio'so,  and  the  famous  statesman  and  author 
Macchiavelli  (mak-e-ah-veVle),  born  in  Florence  (1469). 
The  latter  part  of  the  century  was  enriched  by  the  galaxy  of 
genius  that  encircled  their  great  patron  at  Florence,  Lorenzo 
de' Medici,  styled  the  Magnificent.  The  first  printing-press 
was  set  up  in  Italy  in  1465. 

61.  At  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  was  born  Guido 
{gwe'do)  of  Arezzo  {ah-ret'so),  who  is  considered  the  father 
of  the  modern  system  of  music.  He  invented  the 
staff  and  the  art  of  solfa-ing,  and  greatly  im- 


Music 


proved  the  system  of  musical  notation  in  use  in  his  time.* 

♦"The  tradition  is,  that  while  chanting  a  hymn  in  honor  of  St.  John,hewaa 
struck  with  the  gradual  and  regularly  ascending  tones  of  the  opening  syllables  of 
each  hemistich  in  the  three  first  verses,  and  discerned  at  once  their  fitness  for  a 


448  Mediceval  History. 

Italy  and  Germany  took  the  lead  in  music  during  the  remain- 
ing periods  of  the  Middle  Ages,  as  they  have  continued  to  do  in 
subsequent  times. 


SECTION  IV. 
Spain  and  Portugal. 


62.  On  the  conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Saracens,  the  Chris- 
tians, who  were  the  remnant  of  the  Visigothic  kingdom,  took 
refuge  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  As-tu'ri-as, 
and  founded  a  new  kingdom  under  their  leader 
Pe-la'yo.     For  centuries  they  and  their  descend- 


Christion 
kingdom*. 


ants  waged  an  almost  incessant  warfare  upon  the  Mos'lems, 
or  Mohammedans;  and  new  kingdoms  came  into  existence  as 
the  country  was  gradually  recovered.  Of  these,  Ar'a-gon  and 
Castile  (cas-teeV)  were  the  chief.  In  1212  these 
different  kingdoms  combined  their  forces,  anr* 


Tolosa. 


fifained  at  To-lo'sa  *  one  of  the  greatest  victories  ever  achieved. 

by  the  Christians  over  their  Moslem  foes. 

53.  After  this  battle  the  Saracen  power  rapidly  declined, 

and  that  of  Castile  and  Aragon  steadily  increased.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  Castilian  monarchs  were  Al- 
fon'so  X.,  noted  for  his  learning,  and  i)articu- 
larly  for  his  love  of  astronomy  (1262-1284);  Peter 


Castiie  and 
Aragon. 


the  Cruel,  a  contemporary  of  Du  Guesclin  and  the  Black 

B7Btem  of  solfeg^o.    On  Introdudnj?  his  new  theory  to  the  choir,  It  proved  eml 
nenUy  successful,  and  was  gladly  adopted.    The  words  of  the  hymn  In  Latin  ai^* 

English. 
XJt  queant  laxis  ITlf-tered  be  thy  wondrous  itory 

Be-^aaaxe  fibrls  JJe-prehenslble  though  I  bti, 

Mi'to  gestorum  Ife  make  mindful  of  thy  (^loiy, 

JTVt-muli  tuorum,  JfVx-mous  son  of  Zebedee: 

9al-ye  pollutl  Sol-ace  to  my  spirit  bring, 

lo-bil  reatum.  La-boring  thy  praise  to  slog.*' 

Sancte  Johannes. 
*  TokMa  la  in  the  northern  [tart  of  Spain,  oa  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 


8(pain  and  PortngaL 


449 


Prince;  and  Henry,  his  successor,  who  was  defeated  at  Na- 
yarrete  {nah-var-ra'ta)  by  the  Black  Prince,  and  deposed. 
The  smaller  kingdom  of  Aragon  acquired  extensive  foreign 
possessions,  the  chief  of  which  were  Sicily,  Naples,  and  Sar- 
dinia. Under  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  the  Cath- 
olic, who  married  Isabella,  queen  of  Castile,  both 


Union. 


these  kingdoms  were  united  (1479);  and  from  this  date  com- 
menced the  real  greatness  of  Spain. 


The 
Spanish  Kingdoms 

About  1350 


Geographical  Study. 
What  was  the  situation  of :  Ah Aao's^  Castile  and  Leon?  Granada?  Navarre? 
Portugal?     Old  Castile?     New  Castile?     Asturias?     Gallicia?     Catalonia*. 
Zaragosa?  Barcelona?  Pampeluna?  Toledo?  Cordova?  Seville? 

54.  Ferdinand  for  ten  years  carried  on  a  fierce  war  against 
the  Moorish  kingdom  of  Granada  (grah-nah^dah),  in  southern 
Spain,  the  only  remnant  of  the  Saracenic  power  in  the  Penin- 


450 


MedicBval  History. 


sula.  After  a  long  siege,  the  famous  fortress  Alhambi-a 
was  surrendered;  and  Boabdil,  the  "last  of 
the  Moors,"  was  allowed  to  retire,  his  subjects 
being  free  to  sell  their  property  and  leave  Spain, 


War  with 
Granada. 


Conquest  of 
the  Moors. 


or  to  remain  under  their  own  laws,  customs,  and  magistrates, 
but  tributary  to  Castile  (1492).  The  Jews,  how- 
ever, were  expelled;  and  Ferdinand,  in  thus 
driving  out  thousands  of  his  most  industrious 

and  enterprising  subjects,  inflicted  a  severe  blow  on  the 
prosperity  of  the  kingdom.  The  year  1492  is 
also  memorable  for  the  discovery  of  America  by 


Columbus. 


Christopher  Columbus,  who  had  sailed  under  the  patronage 

of  Queen  Isabella. 

POETUGAL. 

65.  This  kingdom  was  previously  a  part  of  Castile;  but,  m 
1095,  King  Alfonso  VI.  granted  it  to  his  son-in-law,  Henry  of 
Burgundy,  who  was  to  rule  as  a  vassal.  Henry's 
son  and  successor,  Alfonso,  gained  a  great  vic- 
tory over  the  Saracens,  and,  throwing  off  his  allegiance 
to  Castile,  made  Portugal  an  independent;  kingdom  (1139). 
This  led  to  a  fierce  contest  with  Castile,  whicli 
lasted    for  a  long   time ;    but  ended    in  favor 


Early  history. 


Independence. 


a  long  time ;  out  enaea  m 
of  the  Portuguese,  who  were  governed  for  more  than  two 
centuries  by  the  descendants  of  Alfonso,  whom  they  had 
chosen  for  his  virtues  and  his  valor. 

66.  Alfonso  III.  extended  the  kingdom  to  its  present 
limits,  by  the  conquest  of  Al-gar've,  the  most  soutliern  pro- 
vince, which  he  wrested  from  the  Moors,  after  a  contest  of 
three  years  (1252).  During  the  reign  of  John, 
Prince  Henry,  the  Navigator,  one  of  tlie  wisest 


Prince  Henry. 


and  best  men  of  his  age,  planned  and  directed  several  voyages 
in  order  to  explore  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  dis- 
cover a  passage  around  it  to  the  Indies.  Under 
John  II.,  Bartholomew  Diaz  (dc'az)  reached  the 


Diaz  and 
Da  Gama. 


*'  stormy  cai)e"  at  the  extremity  of  the  continent  (148G),  to 


Bpain  and  Portugal.  461 

which  the  king  of  Portugal  gave  the  name  of  Good  Hope; 
and,  in  1497,  Vas'co  da  Ga'ma  doubled  this  cape,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  sailing  to  India.  This  voyage  and  that  of  Columbus 
revolutionized  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

Peogeess  of  Civilization  in  Spain  and  Poetttgal. 

67.  The  greatest  advancement  in  civilization  reached  in 
these  centuries  was  during  the  dominance  of  the  great  Moor- 
ish kingdom,  the  center  of  which  was  at  Cordova. 
Eeference  has   already  been   made  to  this  (see 


Moors. 


page  331).   Christian  civilization  did  not  begin  to  make  any 
progress  of  importance  till  the  reign  of  Ferdi- 
nand; and,  therefore,  an  account  of  it  properly 


Christians. 


belongs  to  the  period  of  modern  history.     The  last  twenty 
years  of  the  fifteenth  century  were  distinguished 
by  the  maritime  enterprises  of  the  Portuguese; 
and  Spain  became  identified  with  maritime  discov- 


Maritime 
discovery. 


eries  even  more  astounding.  Barcelona  was  noted  for  its  ex- 
tensive commerce  during  the  whole  period  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
68.  In  Spain,  as  in  Italy,  there  were  various  dialects 
spoken  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  besides  the 
native  Basque  language  and  the  Arabic.  The 
modern  Spanish  language  is  based  upon  the  old 
Castilian  dialect,  in  which  were  written  the  earli- 


Language  and 
literature. 


est  specimens  of  Spanish  literature,  consisting  of  heroic  bal- 
lads and  romances,  mostly  relating  to  the  exploits  of  the  Cid, 
the  most  renowned  of  the  legendary  heroes  of  Spain;  also  a 
rhymed  chronicle  of  this  personage,  written  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  earliest  prose  writers  were  monks  and  priests. 
In  the  reign  of  Alfonso  X.,  there  was  a  great  literary  revival; 
the  king  himself  wrote  several  poems,  and  caused  translations 
of  foreign  works  to  be  made  into  Castilian.  There  were  many 
Castilian  writers  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries, 
but  neither  Spanish  nor  Portuguese  literature  reached  any 
important  development  till  a  later  period. 


CHAPTER  YIIL 

Southeastern  Europe. 

1.  In"  connection  with  the  history  of  the  Eastern  Empire, 
reference  has  been  made  to  several  conquering  races   tliat, 
from  time  to  time,  invaded  its  dominions,  with 
varying  success;  as  the  Bulgarians,  Magyars  or 


Races. 


Hungarians,  Slavonians,  Kussians,  and  Turks.  Some  of  these 
succeeded  in  establishing  independent  states  that  existed  for 
a  longer  or  shorter  time,  among  which  the  most 
important  were  Bulgaria,  Servia,  Hungary,  Bos- 


nia, and,  finally,  the  great  Ottoman  Empire,  into  which 
most  of  them  were  absorbed.  Of  each  of  these  a  brief  sketch 
will  here  be  given. 

BULGABIA. 
2.    The  Bulgarians,   a  Turanian  race,  emigrated  in  two 
divisions  from  their  homes  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  one  found- 
ing a  power  (Great  or  White  Bulgaria)  on  the 
Volga  River,. and  the  other  passing,  in  the  fifth 


Bulgarians. 


century,  to  the  west,  where  finally  they  established  a  kingdom 
(Black  Bulgaria),  in  680.  This  latter  branch  of 
the  race  had  come  into  collision  with  the  Avars 


Bulgaria. 


and  Slavs,  and  been  assimilated  by  the  latter  to  such  an 
extent,  that  this  western  Bulgarian  power  is  historically 
Slavic,  or  Slavonic*  Christianity  was  introduced  into  tliis 
kingdom  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century.     In  the  latter 

♦  "The  modem  Bulf^arians  bear  the  Bulfrarian  name  only  In  the  way  In  which 
the  Romanized  Olts  of  Oaul  l)ear  the  name  of  their  Frankish  masters  from  Ger- 
many, and  in  which  the  Slavs  of  Kief  and  Moscow  bear  the  name  of  their  Russian 
masters  from  Scandinavia.  In  all  three  cases,  the  power  formed  by  the  imion  of 
conquerors  and  conquered  nas  taKen  the  name  of  the  conquerors,  and  han  kept  th9 
speech  of  the  conquered."— FVeeman'a  HiatoriccU  Qtoqrc^y  of  Europe, 


Southeastern  Europe. 


453 


part  of  this  century,  the  Bulgarian  Kingdom  was  overturned 
by  the  Eussians. 

3.  In  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century,  there  was  a  great 
revival  of  the  Greek  power;  and  Bulgaria  was  re-annexed  to 
the  empire,  making  the  Danube  again  its  boundary;  and 


Geographical  Study, 
What  was  the  situation  of:  Bulgaria?    Hungary?    Servia?    Roum?    Where 
were  the  Cumans?    What  was  the  extent  of  the  Eastern  Empire?    What  was  the 
situation  of  Belgrade?  Hadrianople?  Nicomedia?  Nicaea?  Ephesus?  Philadelphia? 

thus  it  remained  for  more  than  two  hundred  years.     Then  a 

revolt  occurred,  and  a  second  Bulgarian  kingdom 

was  formed,  extending  southward  to   Thessaly 

and  Epirus;  but  this  was  again  subdued  by  the 

empire  in  the  eleventh  century  (1018).     Once  more  was  the 

Bulgarian  kingdom  revived  by  an  insurrection  against  the 


Second  and 
third  kmgdonns. 


454 


Medieval  History, 


imperial  authority  (1187),  and  retained  its  independence  till 
its  conquest  by  the  Ottomans,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  after  their  great  victory  at  Cossova  (1390). 

Seevia. 

4.  The  country  that  received  this  name  was  under  Byzan- 
tine rule  till  the  early  part  of  the  seventh  century,  when  it 
was  devastated  by  the  Avars,  who  were  afterward 
driven  out  by  a  Slavonic  race  called  the  Serbs,  or 
Servians.      These  people  had  been  living  previously  in  the 


Early  history. 


I      Southeastern  Europe  AND  Asia  JMlnor  1354  A.D.     i 

QKCX>RAFHIOATi  StITDT. 

What  voere  the  situation  and  boundaries  of:  Sbrvia?  Bitloaria?  WALLACHiAf 
Bosnia?  Croatia?  Where  was  the  kingdom  of  Sicily?  Hungary?  The  Dobrutchaf 
What  was  the  extent  of  the  Eastern  Empire  at  this  time?  Of  the  Turkish  domin- 
ions? To  what  did  Trebizond  belong?  Armenia?  What  was  the  capital  of  the 
Greek  Elmpire? 

region  north  of  the  Carpathian  mountains,  which  they  had 
left  at  the  instigation  of  the  Greek  emperor,  to  give  assist- 
ance against  the  Avars.  For  some  time  Servia  continued  in 
vassalage  to  the  Eastern  Empire;  but  subsequently  it  became 
subservient  to  Bulgaria,  till  the  conquest  of  the  latter  (1018), 


Southeastern  Europe,  455 

5.  It  became  an  independent  principality  about  the  middle 
of  the  eleventh  century  (1043),  and  allied  itself  to  Hungary 
against  the  empire;  but  its  ruler  was  not  crowned 
king  until  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth 
century  (1217).     About  the  middle  of  the  next 


Independent 
kingdom. 


century,  it  made  extensive  conquests,  and  soon  comprehended 
Macedonia,  Albania,  Thessaly,  northern  Greece,  and  a  part  of 
Bulgaria  (see  map).  Its  ruler  at  this  time  took  an  imperial 
crown,  with  the  title  of  Emperor  of  the  Serbs  and  the  Greeks. 
This  was  the  height  of  its  glory;  for  under  subsequent  rulers 
it  fell  to  pieces;  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century,  was 
overwhelmed  by  the  Ottomans.  Servia  was  not,  however, 
permanently  annexed  to  the  Turkish  Empire  tiU  1521. 

HUNGAEY. 

6.  The  Magyars  or  Hungarians,  also  a  Turanian  race,  like 
the  Bulgarians,  made  their  way  from  their  home  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Dnieper  and  the  Danube  rivers,  and 
founded,  in  the  ninth  century,  a  kingdom  on  the 


Magyars. 


north  bank  of  the  latter  river  (887).  They  were  an  active 
and  warlike  people;  but  their  bold  incursions  were  repressed, 
on  the  east  by  the  Greek  Empire,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
German  emperors  (934  and  955).  From  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century,  Hungary  ranks  as  a  kingdom 
of  Latin  Christianity,  and  after  that  time  it  grew 
in  all  directions.  It  made  a  permanent  conquest 
of  Croatia  and  Transylvania.  The  Turanian  Cumans  ad- 
vanced to  the  Danube;  but,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
Mongolian  invasion  swept  them  away,  and  for  a 
time  crushed  the  Hungarian  power.  The  rem- 
nant of  the  Cuman  nation  continued  to  exist 


Kingdom  of 
Hungaiy. 


Mongol 
invasion. 


nnder  Magyar  rule,  giving  to  the  Hungarian  monarch  the 
additional  title  of  King  of  Cumania. 

7.  The  greatest  extension  of  the  Hungarian  dominion  was 
uj  the  fourteenth  century,  during  the  reign  of  the  Angevin 


456  Mediceval  History. 

king,  Louis  the  Great  (1342-1382).  He  took  Dalmatia  from 
the  Venetians,  and  reduced  Wallachia,  Moldavia, 
Bosnia,  and  Bulgaria  to  a  state  of  dependence. 


Louis  the  Great. 


In  1370,  by  right  of  succession,  he  became  King  of  Poland,  and 
thus  became  the  ruler  of  an  empire  stretching  from  the  Baltic 
to  the  Adriatic.  On  his  death,  Poland  was  detached  from 
Hungary  ;  and  the  latter,  by  the  marriage  of 
Mary,  eldest  daughter  of  Louis,  to  Sigismund, 


Later  history. 


became  united  to  Germany  (1411).  Hungary  was  subse- 
quently again  independent ;  and  under  its  heroic  kings 
Hunyadi  and  Matthias,  recovered  its  strength,  and  extended 
its  sway.*  During  the  fifteenth  century  it  waged  incessant 
wars  with  the  Ottomans,  especially  during  the  first  half,  pre- 
vious to  the  fall  of  Constantinople. 

Bosnia. 

8.  Bosnia  was  formed  as  an  independent  state  by  a  Slavic 
irruption  in  the  seventh  century;  but  it  maintained,  for  a 
considerable  time,  only  an  uncertain  and  change- 
ful independence.     In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 


Hittoty. 


centuries,  it  was  under  the  Hungarian  sway;  and,  in  the 
next  (1339),  it  passed  to  the  Servian  Empire,  to  which  it 
belonged  for  some  time,  when  it  again  became  independent 
(1370).  It  was  under  the  last  Bosnian  dynasty,  commencing 
in  1376,  on  the  breaking  up  of  the  empire  of  Servia,  that  it 
acquired  a  real  position  among  European  powers;  for  it 
promised  at  one  time  to  take  the  place  of  that  fallen  empire. 
Its  greatness  was,  however,  shattered  at  Cossova,  with  other 
Christian  powers;  and  it  finally  succumbed  to  the  sway  of 
the  Ottomans,  becoming  a  province  of  their  vast  empire  in 
1463,  but  not  permanently  annexed  to  it  until  1528. 

♦  "  Later  In  the  fifteenth  century  came  another  day  of  Hunprarlan  pjeatnesa 
under  the  son  of  Hunyady  and  Matthias  Corvlnus.  Its  most  distlnfcui.shliiK  feature 
was  the  extension  of  the  Majryar  power  to  the  west,  over  Bohemia  and  if«  depend- 
encies, and  even  over  the  Austrian  archduchy.  In  the  southeastern  lands,  Wallor 
jhiH  and  Moldavia  again  became  Hungarian  dependenclo*"— freeman. 


Southeastern  Europe, 


4m 


Ottoman  or  Tubkish  Empiee. 

9.  Of  all  the  different  conquering  races  that  poured  into 
Europe  from  the  north  of  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea,  the  most 
terrible  were  the  Turkish  hordes,  first  the  Seljuks 
and  then  the  Ottomans.*     The  attacks  of  the 


Turks. 


Ottomans  on  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  the  successive  con- 


Geographical  Study. 
What  were  the  boundaries  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  1460?    What  was  the  situa- 
tion of  Bosnia?  Wallachia?  Bulgaria?  Roumelia?  Albania?  Morea?  Hungary? 
SiiAVONiA?  Croatia?  DAlmatia?    To  whom  did  Dalmatia  belong? 

quests  which  they  made  of  its  territories,  have  already  been 
referred  to.      The  Ottomans  were   originally  a 
Turkish    band  who   served    the    Seljuk    sultan 


Origin. 


against  the  Mongols;  and  subsequently,  as  the  vassals  of  that 


*  "Most  of  these  invading  races  have  passed  away  from  history;  three  still  re- 
main in  three  different  stages.  The  Bulgarian  is  lost  among  the  Aryan  people, 
who  have  taken  his  name.  The  Magyar  abides,  keeping  liis  non- Aryan  language, 
but  adopted  into  the  European  commonwealth  by  his  acceptance  of  Christianity. 
The  Ottoman  Turk  still  abides  on  European  soil,  unchanged  because  Mahometan, 
fiviii  an  alien  alike  to  the  creed  and  to  the  tongues  of  Europe."— i?Veeman, 


458  MedlcBval  History. 

monarcli,  they  became  a  power  in  Asia,  and  soon  afterward 
passed  into  Europe. 

10.  When  Am'urath,  the  successor  of  Othman,  had  fixed 
his  capital  at  Adrianople,  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, he  had  already  in  fact   hemmed  in  the 
Greeks  at  Constantinople;   and,  under  Bajazet, 


Conquests. 


the  first  Ottoman  prince  who  bore  the  title  of  Sultan,  the 
Ottoman  dominions  in  Europe  extended  from  the  Danube 
River  to  the  -^gean  Sea,  thus  including  Bulgaria,  Macedonia, 
Thessaly,  and  Thrace.  Servia  and  Wallachia  were  dependent 
states;  and  central  and  southern  Greece,  with  Bosnia,  Hun- 
gary, and  other  western  lands,  were  open  to  the  ravages  of 
these  Mohammedan  conquerors. 

11.  But  a  mightier  power  than  even  the  Ottomans  was  at 
hand  to  check  their  career.    This  was  tlie  Tartar  horde  under 
Timour,  and  the  great  Turkish  dominion  was  for 
a  time  broken  to  pieces.*     The  Christian  states 
enjoyed  a  resi)ite  from  attack,  and  the  sons  of 


Timour  the 
Tartar. 


the  defeated  and  captive  Bajazet  were  contented  to  restore  to 
the  empire  some  portions  of  its  lost  territory.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  tide  of  Ottoman  conquest 
turned  again;  and,  under  Mohammed  the  Conqueror  (1451- 
1481),  made  rapid  progress.  It  was  during  the 
tliirty  years  of  his  reign,  especially  after  the 
taking  of  Constantinople,  that  the  Turkish  do- 


Later 

conquests. 


minion  was  fully  and  firmly  established  as  a  great  power  in 
Europe.  [For  the  extent  of  its  territory  in  this  reign,  see 
map,  p.  457.]  The  further  development  of  this  empire  will  be 
given  in  connection  with  modern  history. 

•  Timour,  or  Tamerlane,  was  born  not  far  from  Samarcand.  At  an  enrly  afro  he 
rose  to  great  eminence  in  his  native  country,  and  was  invested  with  imperial  au- 
thority. With  insatiable  ambition,  he  aspired  to  the  dominion  of  the  world.  After 
many  victories  in  Persia,  Tartary,  and  India,  he  tunied  his  attention  to  the  Ottomans 
who,  under  Bajazet,  were  makinfj  preat  conquests.  The  Inttrr  colh'ctt'd  an  army 
of  400,000  men ;  but  he  ni»»t  with  a  terrible  defeat,  and  fled  from  the  Bcene  of  the 
conflict  on  a  fleet  horse  (1402).  He  was,  however,  pursued  and  captured;  and  U  (f 
said  was  kept  for  a  time  by  bis  conqueror  iu  an  iron  cage.    (See  page  ai o.) 


Table  of  Contempokatteotts  Events. 


A.D. 

England. 

TRAKCE. 

Othbb  Nations. 

7^9 

Victory  of  Charles  MarteL 
End  of  Merov.  dynasty. 
Accession  of  Charlemagne.. 

Period 

7n^ 

of  the 

768 
786 

The  Saxon 
Heptarchy. 

Saracen  Conouests. 
Haroun  al  Raschid. 

f¥M) 

Empire  of  the  West  restored 
Death  of  Charlemagne. 

Div.of  Charlemagne's  empire 

Charles  the  Fat. 

814 

827 
848 

Egbert,  King  of  England 

Louis  Emp.  of  Germany. 

871 
884 

Alfred  the  Great. 

910 

Fatimite  dynasty  begina 

919 

Normans  settle  in  France. 

936 

Otho  the  Great. 

987 
996 

^I^^^^'- 

1013 
1017 

Sweyn. 

The  Normans  in  Italy. 

lasi 

Henry  L 

1042 
1055 

Edward  the  Confessor. 

Seljuks  take  Bagdad. 
Henry  IV.  of  Germany, 
Robert  Guiscard. 

1056 

1060 

PhiliD  I 

1066 
1076 

William  the  Conqueror. 

Turks  take  Jerusalem. 

1084 

Hildebrand  deposed. 

1087 
1095 

Wiiliam  Riif  us. 

First  Crusade. 

Louis  VI. 
Louis  VIL 

1100 
1108 

Henry  L 

1137 

1153 

Frederick  Barbarossa. 

1154 
1176 

Henry  H. 

Battle  of  Legnano. 

1180 

Philip  n.  (Augustus). 

1187 

1189 
1199 
1216 
1W3 

Richard  I. 
John. 
Henry  HL 

Louis  Vm. 
Louis  IX. 

V?.9(y 

1258 

End  of  Saracen  Empire. 

1270 

Philip  IIL 

1272 

EdwardI 

Mongols  take  Iconimn. 

12a5 

Philip  rv. 

Louis  X 

1307 
1314 
1315 

Edward  n. 

Battle  of  Bannockburn. . 

Battle  of  Morgarten. 

1317 

Philip  V. 
Charles  IV. 

Philip  VI 

1392, 

1327 
1328 
1347 

Edward  m. 

RienzL 

1350 

John. 
Charles  V. 

Charles  VI. 

1364 

137r 
1380 

Richard  n. 

1386 

Battle  of  Sempach. 
Battle  of  Nicopolis. 

1396 

1399 
1413 
1414 

Henry  rv 
Henry  V. 

1422 
1453 

Henry  VI 

CalariesVii. 

Constantinople  taken. 

1461 
1483 

Edward  IV. 

Edward  V.    Richard  in. 

Louis  XI. 
Charles  VIH. 

460 


Medicexal  History, 


Topical  Eevtew. 


EMINENT   PERSONAGES. 

Who  were  they? 

At  what  period  did  they  live? 

With  what  events  connected?        pagb 

Peter  the  Hermit 408,  409 

Urbann 408 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon 409 

Noureddin 411,  412 

Saladin 412,  413 

CJcunt  Baldwin  of  Flanders. 413 

Dandolo 413,  441 

Otto  the  Illustrious 418 

Henry  the  Fowler. 419 

Otto  the  Lion 420 

Otto  the  Red  King 420 

Otto  the  Wonder 421 

Sylvester  n 421 

Otto  the  Larae 421 

Henry  the  Black  King 422 

Henry  the  Great 423 

Hildebrand  (Gregory  VH.) 423,  443 

Frederick  Barbarossa 412,  425 

Konradin 426 

Rudolf  of  Hapsburg 427,  437 

Albertl 427,  437 

William  Tell 428 

The  Pope's  Kaiser 428,  429 

Rienzi 429,  444 

Sigismund  of  Hungary 429 

JohuHuss 429 

Jerome  of  Prague 430 

JohnZisca 430 

Frederick  the  Pacific 430 

Winifred  or  Boniface 431 

Herman  the  Cripple 431 

Hans  Sachs 435 

Nicholas  of  Cfusa 435 

JohnMttller 436 

Rudolf  Agrlcola 435 

Albert  Durer    435 

Arnold  of  Wlnkelried...  438 

Marco  Polo 441 

Robert  Guiscard 442 

Roger  I 443 

Petrarch 444,  417 

Dante 436,  447 

Nicola  Pisano 416 


PAOI 

Cimabue 446 

Giotto... 446 

Leonardo  da  Vinci 446 

Boccaccio 447 

Ariosto 447 

Lorenzo  the  Magnificent 447 

Macchiavelli 447 

Arezzo 447 

Pelayo 448 

Ferdinand  the  Catholic 449 

BoabdU 450 

Queen  Isabella 449,  450 

Prince  Henry  the  Navigator. 450 

Bartholomew  Diaz 450 

Hunyadi 456 

Mohammed  the  Conqueror 458 

Bajazet 458 

GREAT  EVENTS. 

When  did  they  occur? 

What  led  to  tJiem? 

What  were  the  consequences t 
Preaching  of  Crusades.  .408,  411,  412,  4l4l 

Taidng  of  Jerusalem 410 

Children's  Crusade 414 

Captivity  of  St.  Louis 415 

Battle  of  FontenaUle, 418,  419 

Defeat  of  the  Hungarians 419,  420 

Poland  made  a  kingdom 421 

Taking  of  Weinsburg 434 

Battle  of  Legnano 425 

Independence  of  the  Italian  Cities. .  426 

Revolt  of  tlie  Swiss 428 

Growth  of  the  Free  CiUes 428,  438 

Issue  of  the  Golden  Bull 429 

Battle  of  Nissa 430 

Revolt  of  the  Hussites. 480 

Introduction  of  Christianity 431 

Union  of  the  Hanso  towns 488 

Invention  of  Printing 485 

Battle  of  Morgarten 488 

Lombard  League .• 489,  441 

Foundation  of  Venice 440 

Discovery  of  Cape  of  Good  Hope.448,  460 

Battle  of  Benevento 448 

Expulsion  of  tlie  Jews  from  Spain. .  4BC 


Orkney  ^Islands      J>  Q.     lO 


11.   MODEEI^  HISTOET. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
England, 

From  1485  to  the  Present  Time. 


SECTION  L 
The  Tudor  IjIWE, 


1.  Henry  VII.  With  the  accession  of  this  king  the  long 
ciyil  wars,  by  which  the  country  had  been  devastated  for  so 
many  years,  were  brought  to  an  end.  Henry  was 
the  son  of  Edmund  Tu'dor  and  Margaret,  a  de- 


Descent. 


scendant  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster.  In  order  to 
strengthen  his  title  to  the  throne,  and  put  an  end  to  all 
dissensions  between  the  rival  families,  he  mar- 
ried Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Edward  IV.     To 


Marriage. 


remove  all  competition  for  the  crown,  he  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower  the  young  Earl  of  Warwick,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Clar- 
ence, and  grandson  of  the  renowned  king-maker. 

2.  The  general  favor  felt  toward  the  house  of  York  occa- 
sioned Henry  much  trouble,  and  many  plots  and  insurrections 

Geographical  Study,  Map  No.  XVI. 
What  18  the  situation  of :  Dover?  Portsmouth?  Canterbury?  Winchester?  Salis- 
bury? Shoreham?  Windsor?  Plymouth?  Torbay?  Taunton?  Exeter?  Sedgemoor? 
Bath?  Bristol?  Newbury?  Gloucester?  Cardiff?  Milford?  Caernarvon?  Worcester? 
Tewksbury?  Evesham?  Worcester?  Edgehill?  Naseby?  Northampton?  Cambridge? 
Fotheringay?  Norwich?  Oxford?  Bosworth?  Shrewsbury?  Derby?  Nottingham? 
Manchester?  Hull?  York?  Towton?  Marston  Moor?  Durham?  Carlisle?  Pieston 
Pan?  Dunbar?  Stirling?  Falkirk?  Glencoe?  Inverness?  Culloden? 


462  Modern  History. 


were  formed  against  him.  A  rumor  having  heen  circulated 
among  the  people  that  Warwick  had  escaped  from  the  Tower, 
an  attempt  was  made  to  personate  him;  and  for  this  purpose 
a  handsome  youth,  named  Lambert  Simnel,  a 
baker's  son,  was  chosen.     The  impostor  was  car- 


Simnel. 


ried  to  Ireland,  and  was  there  proclaimed  king  under  the  title 
of  Edward  VI.  (1487).  The  king  prevented  the  insurrection 
from  spreading  in  England  by  exhibiting  in  public  the  real 
Earl  of  Warwick;  and  the  adherents  of  the  impostor,  having 
landed  in  England,  were  defeated  in  a  decisive  battle  by  the 
king's  troops  (1487).  Simnel,  being  taken  prisoner,  was  par- 
doned, and  was  afterward  employed  as  a  domestic  in  the 
king's,  household. 

3.  Five  years  afterward,  a  more  formidable  attempt  was 
made  by  the  enemies  of  the  king  to  raise  a  pretender  to  the 
throne,  by  counterfeiting  Richard,  the  younger  of  the  two 
sons  of  Edward  IV.,  who  were  said  to  have  been  smothered  in 
the  Tower.  The  person  selected  for  this  purpose  was  a  young 
man  named  Perkin  Warbeck;  and  so  well  did  he 
play  his  part,  that  Margaret,  Duchess  of  Bur- 
gundy, sister  of  Edward  IV.,  acknowledged  him 


Perkin 
Warbeck. 


as  her  nephew,  and  greeted  him  with  the  title  of  the  Wliite 
Rose  of  England.*  James  IV.,  king  of  Scotland,  also  ac- 
knowledged him,  and  gave  him  the  noble  Lady  Gordon  in 
marriage,  and  invaded  England  in  order  to  raise  an  insurrec- 
tion in  his  favor.  The  attempt,  however,  failed;  and  Perkin 
finally  gave  himself  up,  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Towei 

*  "  Margaret  was  second  sister  to  King  Edward  the  Fourth,  and  had  been  second 
wife  to  Charles  sumamed  the  Hardy,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  by  whom  having  no 
children  of  her  own  she  did  with  singular  care  and  tenderneas  intend  the  etiucatlon 
of  Philip  and  Margaret,  grandchildren  to  her  f(iriner  husband ;  which  won  her  great 
love  and  authority  among  the  Dutch.  This  princess  (having  the  spirit  of  a  man  and 
the  malice  of  a  woman),  abounding  in  treasure  by  the  greatness  of  her  dower  and 
her  provident  government,  and  being  childless  and  without  any  nearer  cares,  made 
It  her  design  and  enterprise  to  see  the  Majesty  Royal  of  England  once  again  re- 
placed in  her  house;  and  had  set  up  King  Henry  as  a  mark  at  whose  overthrow  al) 
her  actions  should  aim  and  shoot;  insomuch  as  all  the  counsels  of  his  succeedinj 
troubles  came  chiefly  out  of  that  quiver."— .Bocoh'*  Reign  of  Henry  VIL 


England.  463 


(1497).  There,  becoming  acquainted  with  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick, he  planned  with  him  an  escape,  but  the  plot  was  dis- 
covered, and  both  were  executed,  Perkin  being  hanged  at 
Tyburn,  and  the  unfortunate  prince  beheaded,  on  a  charge  of 
treason  (1499).  By  this  act  of  cruelty,  Henry  destroyed  the 
last  male  descendant  of  the  Plantagenets. 

4.  Henry  was  a  prudent  monarch,  and  very  much  averse 
to  war,  because  it  prevented  the  gratification  of  his  ruling 
passion,  avarice.  In  order  to  increase  his  hoards, 
he  resorted  to  the  most  unjust  and  tyrannical 
exactions.     His  treasures  amounted  at  his  death 


Wealth  of  the 
king. 


to  nearly  two  millions  sterling — an  enormous  sum  for  that 
period.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  twenty-four  years,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Henry  (1509).  During  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII.,  the  celebrated  navigators,  John  and 
Sebastian  Cab'ot,  set  sail  from  Bristol  under  a 


Cabots. 


commission  from  the  king,  and  discovered  the  mainland  of 
North  America  (1497).  It  was  not  until  the  year  after  this 
that  Columbus,  in  his  third  voyage,  reached  the  mainland  of 
America.  Henry  built  a  large  vessel  which  he  named  the 
Great  Harry,  thus  laying  the  foundation  of  the  English  navy. 
5.  Henry  VIII.,  when  he  ascended  the  throne,  was  only 
eighteen  years  of  age,  and  was  handsome,  affable,  and  popu- 
lar. During  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  he  mar- 
ried Catharine  of  Aragon,  aunt  of  the  Emperor 


Marriage. 


Charles  V.,  to  whom  he  had  been  betrothed  since  his  eleventh 
year.  This  princess  had  been  previously  married  to  his  elder 
brother  Arthur,  a  youth  of  sixteen  years,  who  died  a  few 
months  after  the  marriage.  Henry  made  a  special  favorite  of 
Thomas  Wolsey  {wooVze),  and  advanced  him  suc- 
cessively to  the  highest  honors,  though  he  was  of 


Wolsey. 


very  humble  origin,  being,  as  it  is  said,  the  son  of  a  butcher. 
Wolsey  had,  however,  received  an  excellent  education,  and 
was  a  man  of  very  great  talents.  He  was  afterward  made  a 
cardinal  by  the  Pope,  and  himself  aspired  to  be  pope. 


464 


Modern  History, 


6.   Henry  joined  the  league  which  Wcas  formed  against 
France  by  Spain,  Venice,  and  the  Pope;  and,  liaving  invaded 
France  at  the  head  of  50,000  men,  he  routed  the 
French  in  the  celebrated  Battle  of  the  Spurs, 
so  called  from   the   rapid  flight  of   the  enemy 


Defeat  of  the 
French. 


(1513).     In  this  campaign,  the  Emperor  Maximilian  enlisted 
in  Henry's  army,  and  received  pay  as  one  of  his  subjects  and 


Flodden  Field. 


Ship  iw  which  Henry  Vm.  embarkrd  tn  lf520  Fon  Franok. 

captains.  In  tlie  same  year,  James  IV.,  king  of  Scotland, 
having  invaded  England  with  a  large  army,  was  defeated  by 

the  Earl  of  Surrey  in  the  battle  of  Flodden  Field; 

and  the  king  himself,  with  tlie  flower  of  the 
Scottish  nobility,  was  left  dead  on  the  field.*    The  French 

•  The  Scots  woiild  not  believe  that  their  king  was  slain,  nsgertlng  that  the  body 
which  was  taken  to  London  and  Interred  as  his.  was  in  roallty  that  of  one  Elphin- 
stou,  who,  to  deceive  tlie  English,  was  arrayed  in  anns  resembling  the  king's 


England.  465 


king,  Francis  I.,  desirous  of  effecting  an  alliance  with  Eng- 
land, planned  a  meeting  with  Henry,  which  took  place  near 
Calais,  at  what  was  called,  from  the  gorgeousness  of  the  dis- 
play made,  the  ''Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold"  (1520). 

7.  Martin  Luther  having  caused  great  excitement  in  Europe 
by  the  promulgation  of  his  doctrines,  Henry  VIII.,  who  had 
been  carefully  educated  in  the  Roman  faith,  wrote 
a  treatise  against  them,  and  dedicated  it  to  the 


Luther. 


Pope  (Leo  X.),  who,  as  a  recompense,  conferred  on  the  royal 
author  the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith  (1521).  A  few  years 
after  this,  Henry  applied  to  the  Pope  (Clement  VII.)  for  a 
divorce  from  Queen  Catharine,  professing  to  have  some  doubts 

of  the  lawfulness  of  a  marriage  with  his  brother's   i 

widow:  while  the  real  reason  was  that  he  desired    I 


to  marry  Anne  Boleyn  {an  hHVen),  an  attendant  of  the  queen, 
with  whom  he  had  become  enamored  (1527). 

8.  Clement,  unwilling  to  grant  the  request  of  the  English 
monarch,  put  him  off  from  time  to  time,  thus  keeping  him  in 
a  state  of  suspense.     The  king's  anger  was  first 


TTT    -,  1  I    Wolsey'sfall 

vented  upon  his  great  mmister,  W olsey,  to  whose 
insincerity  or  neglect  he  attributed  the  disappointment  of  his 
wishes.  Accordingly,  the  cardinal  was  dismissed  from  his 
high  office,  banished  from  court,  and  deprived  of  many  of 
his  great  possessions.  Being  resolved  upon  his  entire  ruin, 
the  king  afterward  caused  him  to  be  arrested  on  a  charge  of 
treason;  but  death  saved  the  proud  cardinal  from  any  further 
disgi'acev  Among  his  last  words  was  the  well-known  excla- 
mation, '*  Had  I  but  served  God  as  diligently  as  I  have  served 
the  king,  he  would  not  have  given  me  over  in  my  gray  hairs!'* 
9.  By  the  advice  of  Cranmer,  the  great  universities  of 
Europe  were   consulted  with    regard  to  the  lawfulness   of 


during  the  battle.  Hence,  the  populace  entertained  the  opinion  that  James  waa 
still  alive,  having  secretly  gone  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  that  he 
would  return  and  take  possession  of  the  throne.  To  this  fond  conceit  they  clung 
for  many  years. 


466  Modern  History. 


Henry's  marriage;  and  these  having  generally  decided  against 
it,  Cranmor,  who  had  recently  been  made  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  opened  a  court  to  examine  the  question;  but  the 
queen  refusing  to  appear  before  it,  he  declared 
the  marriage  invalid,  and  ratified  that  with 
Anne  Boleyn,  who  was  then  formally  crowned 


Divorce  of 
Catharine. 


queen  (1533).  The  Pope  having  pronounced  the  judgment 
of  Cranmer  illegal,  and  threatened  Henry  with  excommuni- 
cation, the  Parliament,  under  the  king's  iniluence,  confirmed 
his  marriage  with  Queen  Anne,  and  formally  declared  him 
"the  only  supreme  head  in  earth  of  the  Church  of  England." 
By  this  declaration  and  other  acts  of  Parliament,  the  English 
Church  was  separated  entirely  from  the  Catholic 
Church  (1534).  The  monasteries  were  after- 
ward suppressed,  and  some  modifications  intro- 


English 
Reformation. 


duced  in  the  doctrines  and  forms  of  religion.     This  event  is 

known  in  history  as  the  English  Reformation. 

10.   Sir  Thomas   More,  one  of  the   most  virtuous   and 

learned  men  of  the  kingdom,  who  had  succeeded  Wolsey  as 
chancellor,  was  beheaded  for  refusing  to  acknowl- 
edge the  king's  supremacy ;  and  the  upright 
Bishop  Fisher  was  condemned  and  executed  for 


More  and 
Fisher. 


the  same  offense  (1535).*  The  king  indeed  evinced,  during 
the  whole  of  his  subsequent  reign,  a  spirit  of  the  most  cruel 
bigotry  and  persecution.  In  abandoning  his 
allegiance  to  thePope,  he  by  no  means  became  a 


Henry's  bigot^. 


convert  to  all  the  new  doctrines  of  Luther  and  others  against 

♦  "  Cromwell's  ingenuity  framed  an  act  of  succes.sion  which  not  only  sanctioned 
the  re-marriage,  but  called  on  all  who  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  declare  their 
belief  in  the  religious  validity  of  the  divorce."  It  was  this  oath  that  More  refused 
to  take.  "A  mock  trial  was  hardly  necessary  for  his  condemnation,  or  for  that  ol 
Fisher,  the  most  learned  among  the  prelates  who  had  l>een  Imprisoned  on  the  same 
charge  in  the  Tower.  The  old  bishop  approached  the  block  witli  a  hook  of  the  New 
Testament  In  his  hand.  He  opened  it  at  a  venture  ere  he  knelt,  and  read:  'This  is 
life  eternal  to  know  Thee,  the  only  true  Ood.'  Fisher  s  death  was  soon  followed  by 
that  of  More.  On  the  eve  of  the  fatal  blow,  he  moved  his  beard  carefully  from  the 
block,  '  Pity  that  should  he  cut,'  he  was  heard  to  mutter,  with  a  touch  of  the  old, 
sad  irony; '  that  has  never  committed  treason.' "— <?recn«. 


England.  467 


the  Catholic  faith;  and  while  he  deprived  the  churches  aud 
monasteries  of  their  possessions,  he  caused  those  who  dis- 
sented from  their  teachings  to  be  punished  without  mercy, 
many  being  burned  at  the  stake. 

11.  Less  than  three  years  had  elapsed  after  his  marriage 
with  Anne  Boleyn,  when  he  caused  her  to  be  beheaded  on  a 
charge  of  adultery;  but  he  himself  seemed  to 
prove  her  innocence  and  the  wickedness  of  his 
own  conduct,   by  immediately  marrying    Jane 


Wives  of  the 
king. 


Seymour,  to  whom  he  liad  previously  become  attached.  This 
queen  having  died  a  short  time  afterward,  for  political  rea- 
sons he  contracted  a  marriage  with  Anne  of  Cleves;  but,  on 
seeing  her,  he  was  greatly  disappointed  with  her  personal 
appearance,  and  he  soon  afterward  divorced  her.  Cromwell, 
who  had  arranged  the  marriage,  was  executed  on  a  charge  of 
treason.  His  next  choice  was  Catharine  Howard,  who,  like 
Queen  Anne,  was  condemned  and  beheaded  on  a  charge  of 
adultery,  but  was  generally  believed  guilty.  Catharine  Pprr, 
his  sixth  wife,  had  the  sagacity  and  good  fortune  to  escape 
his  jealous  cruelty,  and  survived  him. 

12.  The  last  victim  of  Henry's  tyranny  was  the  accom*. 
plished  Henry  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey,  who  was  beheaded  on 
Tower  Hill,  being  unjustly  condemned  for  trea- 
son (1547).     The  king  survived  this  event  only  a 


Earl  of  Surrey. 


few  days.  Henry  VIII.  was,  without  doubt,  one  of  the  most 
remorseless  despots  that  ever  reigned;  and  there  were  but  few 
of  his  subjects  who  did  not  rejoice  at  his  death. 
During  this  reign,  the  first  complete  copy  of  the 


Character. 


Englisli  Bible  was  printed,  and  ordered  by  the  king  to  be 
placed  in  every  parish  church.  It  was  based  upon  the  trans- 
lation of  William  Tyndale,  and  executed  by  Miles 
Coverdale.      Henry  left  three  children, — Mary, 


Bible. 


daughter  of  Catharine;  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Anne  Boleyn; 
and  Edward,  son  of  JauQ  Seymour,  The  last  succeeded 
him. 


468  Modern  History. 


13.  Edward  VI.  was  in  his  tenth  year  on  his  accession;  and 
the  governmeut  was  administered  with  great  firmness  by  liis 
maternal  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  under  tlie 
title  of  Lord  Protector.      During  the  first  years 
of  this  reign,  further  changes  were  made  in  the 


Principal 

events. 


established  religion,  and  severe  laws  enacted  against  those  who 
refused  to  comply  with  the  liturgy,  as  contained  in  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,  compiled  chiefly  by  Cranmer  and  Ridley. 
Some  who  refused  obedience  were  committed  to  the  flames. 
The  Duke  of  Somerset  was  deprived  of  his  offic3  of  Protector 
(1549),  and  finally  executed,  through  the  contrivance  of  tlie 
designing  and  ambitious  Duke  of  Northumberland,  who  thus 
obtained  an  undisputed  control  over  the  king  (1552).  Tliis 
nobleman  induced  Edward  to  set  aside  his  sisters  Mary  and 
Elizabeth,  and  bequeath  the  crown  to  Jane  Grey,  great-grand- 
daughter of  Henry  VII.,  wlio  was  married  to  Lord  Guilford 
Dudley,  a  son  of  Northumberland.  Soon  after  this,  Edward 
died,  much  lamented  for  his  many  virtues  (1553).* 

14.  Mary,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  Nortliumberland, 
was  acknowledged  queen;  and  the  unfortunate  pair,  Dudley 
and  Lady  Jane  Grey,  suffered  death  upon  the  scaf- 
fold (1554),  the  queen  showing  no  mercy  notwith- 
standing their  youth  and  innocence.     The  Lady 


Lady  Jane 
Grey. 


Jane  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  princesses  of  her  time, 
having  been  instructed  in  Latin  and  Greek  by  the  celebrated 
Roger  As'cham.  She  was  also  possessed  of  singular  amiability, 
virtue,  and  piety.  Her  last  message  to  her  youthful  liusband 
(for  neither  of  them  was  over  seventeen  years  of  age)  was: 
''Our  se])arati()n  will  be  only  for  a  moment;  we  shall  soon 

♦  "Etlward  VI.,  only  son  of  Henry  VIU.  by  his  third  wife,  Jane  Seymour,  was 
nine  years  old  when  he  asoended  the  throne  by  the  death  of  the  king  hii;  father. 
His  tnajority  was  flxe<l  at  the  eijfhteenth  year  of  his  age  by  the  late  king's  will,  but 
he  died  before  lie  came  to  it,  af  iiir  a  sliort  reign  of  six  years,  five  months,  and  eight 
days.  There  was  reason  to  hope  extraordinary  things  from  tliis  young  prince,  had 
It  pleased  Ood  to  bless  him  with  a  longer  life.  He  had  an  excellent  memory,  a 
wonderful  solidity  of  mind,  and  witnal  he  was  laborious,  sparing  no  pains  to  qualify 
himself  for  the  well-governing  of  his  kingdom."— ffopm'«  History  of  England, 


England.  469 


meet  each  other  in  a  jilace  where  our  affections  will  be  forever 
united,  and  where  misfortunes  will  never  more  disturb  our 
eternal  felicity." 

16.  The  cherished  object  of  Mary  was  to  restore  the  Catho- 
lic religion;  and,  in  pursuance  of  it,  she  consented  to  marry 
Philip  of  Spain,  son  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
Through  an  obsequious  Parliament,  sue  then 
caused  all  the  statutes  of  Edward  VI.  with  regard 


Measures  of 
the  queen. 


to  religion  to  be  repealed,  and  the  severe  laws  against  heresy 
to  be  revived.  Cardinal  Pole  was  sent  at  her  request  to  Eng- 
land as  papal  legate,  and  the  kingdom  formally  restored  to  the 
Roman  Church.  One  of  the  most  dreadful  persecutions  on 
record  then  ensued;  and  no  less  than  277  persons  were  burnt 
at  the  stake,  the  most  eminent  among  these  martyrs  being 
Cranmer,  Ridley,  and  Lat'imer.* 

16.  To  please  her  husband,  Philip,  now  become  king  of 
Spain,  the  queen  engaged  in  a  war  with  France;  but  ill  suc- 
cess attended  her  efforts;  and  Calais,  which  the 
English  had  held  for  more  than  two  centuries. 


Other  events. 


fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  The  queen  was  greatly 
mortified  at  this  event;  and  her  death  occurred  a  short  time 
after  it  (1558),  much  to  the  relief  of  the  nation,  who  had  been 
disgusted  with  her  cruelty  and  bigotry.  During  this  reign, 
commercial  intercourse  was  established  with  Russia,  a  passage 
to  Archangel  having  been  discovered  during  the  previous 
reign. 

17.  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Anne  Boleyn,  who  succeeded 
Mary,  had  been  educated  in  the  Protestant  faith,  and  her  ac- 
cession to  the  throne  was  hailed  by  the  people  with  great 


*  "  Cranmer  was  conducted  to  the  stake,  declaring  that  he  had  never  changed 
his  belief;  and  that  his  recantations  had  been  wrung  from  him  by  the  hope  of  life; 
and  that,  as  his  hand  had  offended  by  writing  contrary  to  his  heart,  it  should  be 
the  first  to  receive  its  punishment.  When  the  fire  was  kindled,  to  the  surprise  of 
the  spectators,  he  thrust  his  hand  into  the  flame,  exclaiming:, '  This  hath  offended ! ' 
His  sufferings  were  short;  the  flames  rapidly  ascended  above  his  bead,  and  he  ex- 
pired in  a  few  moments."— I»tngard's  History  of  England, 


1:70  Modern  History. 


rejoicings.  The  first  important  event  of  her  reign  was  the 
re-enactment  of  the  laws  of  King  Edward,  con- 
cerning religion,  and  the  re-establishment  of  the 
new  liturgy,  to  which  all  were  required  to  conform 


First  events 
of  the  reign. 


under  severe  penalties.  By  the  Act  of  Supremacy  all  clergy- 
men and  government  officers  were  compelled  to  take  an  oath 
acknowledging  the  English  sovereign  head  of  the  Church; 
and  by  the  Act  of  Conformity y  no  persons  were  allowed  to  at- 
tend any  other  places  of  worship  than  those  of  the  established 
Church.  Hundreds  suffered  death,  imprisonment,  or  other 
persecution  for  refusing  compliance  with  these  arbitrary 
statutes. 

18.  The  reign  of  Elizabeth  for  the  first  eleven  years  was 
distinguished  for  the  internal  quiet  and  prosperity  of  the 
country.     She  displayed  that  prudence,  vigilance, 
and  activity  'SO  necessary  in   a  sovereign,  and 
gained  the  almost  universal  esteem  and  admira- 


Conduct  of 
the  queen. 


tion  of  her  people.  Thougli  she  was  urged  by  Parliament  to 
enter  into  tlie  married  state,  and  many  distinguished  princes, 
both  Catholic  and  Protestant,  sought  her  hand,  she  positively 
declined  all  such  offers,  and  expressed  her  determination  to 
remain  single  for  life.  She  owed  much  of  her  success  in 
administering  the  government  to  the  great  statesmen  whom 
she  selected  as  her  ministers,  among  whom  the  most  promi- 
nent were  Cecil  (ses'il),  afterward  Lord  Burleigh,  and  Sir 
Francis  Walsingham. 

19.  There  were  at  this  time  in  the  kingdom  three  religious 
parties — namely,  the  Churchmen,  or  those  who  were  attached 
to  the  established  Church;  the  Roman  Catholics, 
who,  supported  by  the  great  Continental  powers, 
expected  to  re-establish  their  religion;  and  the 


Religious 
parties. 


Puritans,  who  contended  for  more  radical  changes  in  re- 
ligious forms  and  doctrines  (1509).  These  last  had  imbibed 
their  principles  from  those  who,  during  the  persecutions  of 
the  previous  reign,  hacj  takei^  refuge  in  Geneva  and  Frank- 


England.  471 


fort;  and  they  opposed  Elizabeth's  government,  not  only  on 
the  ground  of  religious   differences,  but  on  ac- 
count  of  her   assuming  a   prerogative  and   au- 


Puritans. 


thority  opposed  to  the  civil  and  political  rights  of  the  people. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  a  subsequent  reign  that  these  fear- 
less agitators  were  enabled  to  bring  their  principles  into 
thorough  operation. 

20.  England  at  this  time  began  to  distinguish  herself  in 
that  splendid  career  of  maritime  enterprise  which  has  shed 

so  much  luster  upon   her  name.      Under   the    i 

auspices  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (raw'le),  a  favor-         ^affairT* 
ite  courtier  of  Elizabeth,  voyages  were  made  to    I 

North  America;  and  the  queen  gave  to  the  regions  discovered 
the  name  of  Virginia,  in  honor  to  herself  as  a  virgin  queen 
(1584).  Erobisher  also  made  voyages  to  search  for  a  north- 
west passage  to  the  Pacific;  and  Sir  Erancis  Drake  completed 
a  voyage  round  the  world,  by  way  of  Cape  Horn  and  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  (1579). 

21.  The  people  of  the  Netherlands  having  revolted  against 
Philip  XL  of  Spain,  in  consequence  of  his  dreadful  oppres- 
sions and  persecutions  (1572),  Elizabeth  warmly 
espoused  their  cause;  and  Philip,  therefore,  made 


War  with  Spain. 


extensive  preparations  to  invade  England  and  conquer  it,  so 
that  he  might  restore  it  to  the  authority  of  the  Pope.  For 
this  purpose  he  equipped  an  immense  fleet,  called  the  Invin- 
cible Ar-ma'da,  consisting  of  150  ships,  bearing  3000  guns 
and  27,000  men.  But  this  vast  armament,  as  it  sailed  up  the 
Channel,  was  attacked  and  partly  destroyed  by  a  much  smaller 
fleet,  under  the  command  of  Lord  Howard,  as  admiral,  as- 
sisted by  those  renowned  captains,  Drake,  Erobisher,  and 
Hawkins.  The  Spanish  admiral,  therefore,  finding  it  impos- 
sible to  effect  a  landing  on  the  coast,  or  gain  any  advantages 
over  the  English  fleet,  attempted  to  return  to  Spain  by  sail- 
ing around  Scotland;  but  a  storm  arising,  nearly  all  his  ves- 
erts  were  wrecked  off  the  Orkney  Islands  (1588). 


472 


Modern  History. 


22.  The  year  preceding  this  glorious  event  is  memorable 
for  the  execution  of  the  unfortunate  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 
at  Foth'er-in-gay  Castle,*  after  an  imprisonment 
of  more  than    eighteen    years.      Maiy  was    the 


Mary  Stuart. 


great-granddaughter  of  Henry  VII.,  and  had  first  married 
Francis  II.,  king  of  France,  in  which  country  she  had  been 
educated  in  the  Catholic  faith.  The  early  death  of  her  husband 
caused  her  to  return  to  Scotland,    where  she  assumed  the 

throne,  although  she  was  much 
disliked  by  the  Scots  on  account 
of  her  religion  and  her  gay  man- 
ners (1561).  A  few  years  after^ 
ward  (1565),  she  married  her 
cousin,  Lord  Darn'ley,  with 
whom  she  lived  very  unhappily, 
on  account  of  his  misconduct, 
extravagance,  and  vicious  ex- 
cesses. Darnley,  becoming  jeal- 
ous of  her  Italian  secretary, 
Mary  Stuart.  Rizzio    (ret'se-o),    ruslied     one 

fcTening  into  her  apartment,  where  she  was  engaged  with  the 
Booretary  and  others  ;  and  the  unfortunate  man  was  dragged 
into  the  antechamber,  where  he  was  stabbed  to  death  (156CV 
23.  Mary  subsequently  professed  to  have  pardoned  this 
miocious  outrage;  but  a  few  months  afterward,  Darnley's 
house  was  blown  up  by  gunpowder,  and  he  him- 
self thus  killed.  The  suspicion  that  Mary  was 
accessory  to  this  crime,  was  confirmed  by  her 


Flight  to 
Lngland. 


marriage,  three  months  later,  with  the  Earl  of  Bothweli,  a  dis- 
solute nobleman,  who  was  generally  believed  to  have  been 
concerned  in  its  perpetration.  This  caused  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  nobles,  who,  having  taken  her  prisoner,  com- 
pelled her  to  abdicate  the  throne,  and  confined  her  in  Loch 

•  Fotheringay,  a  parish  In  Northamoton  Co.,  In  the  central  part  of  Enjfland.  The 
castle  was  razed  to  the  ground  after  the  accession  of  Jamoe  L    ^See  Map  No.  XVI.) 


England,  473 


Lev'en  Castle.*  She,  however,  escaped  thence,  and  raised  a 
small  army,  which  Avas  defeated  by  Murray  the  Regent;  where- 
upon she  fled  into  England  and  threw  herseii  on  the  protec- 
tion of  Elizabeth;  but  instead  of  the  generous  hospitality 
which  she  had  anticipated,  she  found  herself  a  captive  for  life. 
24.  Mary  had  given  great  offense  to  Elizabeth,  when  in 
France,  by  assuming  the  title  of  Queen  of  England,  on  the 
ground  that  the  marriage  of  Henry  VIII.  with  Anne  Boleyn 
was  unlawful;  and  hence  that  Anne's  daughter,  being  illegiti- 
mate, had  no  right  to  the  throne;  and  during  Mary's  whole 
life,  the  Catholic  party  in  England  favored  her  pretensions, 
many  conspiracies  being  formed  by  them  to  place  her 
upon  the  throne.  In  the  last  of  these,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  take  the  life  of  Elizabeth,  Mary  was  found 
guilty  of  being  an  accomplice,  and  sentenced  to 
death;  and  the  warrant  for  her  execution  having 


Execution  of 
Mary. 


been  signed,  she  was  beheaded  (1587).  f  Queen  Mary  was  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  accomplished  princesses  of  her  age. 
Her  manners  were  graceful  and  winning,  and  her  conversation 
full  of  wit  and  sprightly  intelligence.     She  was  a   i 

TIT  ,  ,-  I       Character. 

charming  smger,  and  could  accompany  herself  on 


several  instruments;  and  the  poems  which  she  has  left  attest 
a  genius  for  that  kind  of  composition. 

♦  Loch  Lcven,  a  small  lake  in  the  eastern  part  of  Scotland,  about  twenty  miles 
north  of  Edinburj^h.  It  contains  several  islands,  on  one  of  which  the  remains  of 
the  castle  still  exist.  This  lake  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  Loch  Leven  in  the  west- 
em  part  of  Scotland,  near  which  is  the  famous  valley  of  Glencoe. 

t  The  execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  presents  one  of  the  most  pathetic 
scenes  in  history.  "She  knelt  down  with  great  courage,  and,  still  holding  the 
crucifix  in  her  hands,  stretched  out  her  neck  to  the  executioner.  She  then  said 
aloud,  and  with  the  most  ardent  feeling  of  confidence,  '  My  God.  I  have  hoped  in 
you:  I  commit  myself  to  your  hands.'  .  .  .  There  was  a  universal  feeling  of 
compassion  at  the  sight  of  this  lamentable  misfortune,  this  heroic  courage,  this 
slBmirable  sweetness.  The  executioner  himself  was  moved,  and  aimed  with  an  un- 
steady hand;  the  axe.  instead  of  falling  on  the  neck,  struck  the  back  of  the  head, 
and  wounded  her;  yet  she  made  no  movement,  nor  uttered  a  complaint.  It  was 
only  on  repeating  the  blow  that  the  executioner  struck  off  her  head,  which  he  held 
up,  saying,  '  God  save  Queen  Elizabeth! '  '  Thus,'  added  Dr.  Fletcher,  '  may  all  her 
enemies  perish.'  ^^—Mignefs  History  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots^ 


474  Modern  History. 


25.  During  the  religious  wars  in  France,  Elizabeth  gave 
all  the  aid  in  her  power  to  the  cause  of  the  Protestants;  and 
when  Henry  IV.  had  ascended  the  throne  she 
sent  him  monej;  and  a  force  under  the  Earl  of 


Essex. 


Essex,  to  assist  him  in  subduing  his  enemies  (1589).  Essex 
was  a  young  nobleman  who  by  his  merit  and  accomplishments 
had  gained  very  high  favor  with  the  queen;  but  he  afterward 
fell  into  disgrace,  in  consequence  of  misconduct  during  an 
expedition  against  the  revolted  Irish  (1599).  Disappointed 
in  obtaining  a  pardon  from  the  queen,  he  entered  into  a  plot 
to  raise  an  insurrection  against  her,  and  with  his  accomplices 
was  arrested,  and  being  tried  for  treason,  was  convicted,  and 
finally  beheaded  (1601). 

26.  The  fate  of  this  young  nobleman,  for  whom  she  appears 
to  have  had  a  very  deep  affection,  oppressed  the  queen's  mind 
with  a  settled  melancholy,  which  was  greatly  increased  when, 
as  is  stated,  she  learned  that  a  ring  which  she  had  previously 
given  to  him,  and  which  he  had  sent  to  her  to  recall  her 
tenderness  and  incite  her  to  clemency,  had  been  troncherous- 
ly  withheld  by  one  of  his  enemies.  She  died  in 
the  forty-fifth  year  of  her  reign,  at  the  age  of 
seventy  (1603),  leaving  a  reputation  for  prudence, 


Death  of 
Elizabeth. 


vigor,  and   ability  unsurpassed  by  any  sovereign  that  ever 
reigned.  ^  This  reign  closes  the  Tudor  line. 

State  of  Society  in  England, 

Dui-ivg  the  Period  of  the  Tudors  (1485-1608). 
27.  The  Tudors  were,  in  general,  arbitrary  princes;  and 
their  will  was  but   slightly  checked  by  the  i)roceedings  of 
Parliament.     Indeed,  many  practices  were  acqui- 
esced in  that  violated  the  most  sacred  rights  of 


Government. 


the  people.  Of  this  character  were  the  proceedings  in  the 
Court  of  Star  Chamber,  which  was  established  or  i-cvived  by 
Henry  VII.,  aad  the  Couvt  of  High  Commission,  instituted 


England.  475 

by  Elizabeth.  The  former  was  resorted  to  for  the  punishment 
of  political  offenses,  the  other  to  compel  religious  conformity. 
Unlimited  supremacy  was  conferred  by  Parliament;  and,  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  to  utter  seditious  words  against 
the  queen  was  a  capital  offense. 

28.  The  revenue  of  Queen  Elizabeth  has  been  estimated  at 
half  a  million  sterling.  She  caused  the  customs  to  be  more 
carefully  collected;  and  in  1590  they  amounted  to 
fifty  thousand  pounds  a  year,  having  been  raised 


Revenue. 


to  that  sum  from  fourteen  thousand.  The  supplies  obtained 
from  Parliament  daring  her  whole  reign  are  said  to  have  only 
amounted  to  three  millions,  so  that  she  must  have  exercised 
very  great  economy  to  carry  on  such  vast  undertakings  with 
fio  slender  a  revenue.  The  merchants  of  London  were  always 
willing  to  grant  her  the  loans  of  money  which  she  required. 

29.  Commerce  and  navigation  made  very  great  progress 
during  the  sixteenth  century.  The  voyage  of  Columbus  had 
given  a  vast  impulse  to  maritime  adventure,  which 
was  still  further  stimulated  by  the  rich  traffic  to 
which  it  gave  rise.      Magellan's  discovery  of  a 


Commerce  and 
navigation. 


southwest  passage  to  the  East,  led  to  many  attempts  during 
this  period  to  discover  one  in  the  northwest.  Martin  Fro- 
bisher  made  three  fruitless  voyages  with  this  object;  and  Davis, 
not  discouraged  by  his  failure,  made  another  attempt,  in 
which  he  discovered  the  strait  that  bears  his  name.  The  dis- 
covery of  a  passage  to  Archangel,  which  was  made  during  the 
reign  of  Queen  Mary,  brought  England  into  close  communi- 
cation with  Russia;  but  active  commerce  with  that  country 
did  not  begin  until  1569.*     Elizabeth  obtained  from  the  Czar 

*  "  In  the  year  1553,  the  English  sent  forth  three  ships  for  the  discovery  of  a 
northeastern  passage  to  Cathay,  or  China,  Two  of  these  were  wrecked ;  the  third, 
commanded  by  Richard  Chancellor,  proceeded  to  'an  unknown  part  of  the  world,' 
and  reached  a  place  where  there  was  'no  night  at  all  but  a  continual  light  and 
brightnass  of  the  sun  shining  clearly  upon  the  huge  and  mighty  sea.'  At  length 
they  came  to  a  bay,  and  the  mouth  of  the  Dwina,  and  report  having  announced 
them  to  the  terrified  natives  as  men  of  '  a  strange  nation,  of  singular  gentleness 


476  Modern  History, 


a  patent  by  which  the  English  were  to  have  the  whole  trade 
of  the  empire.  Encouraged  by  this  privilege,  the  English 
ventured  farther  into  that  vast  region  than  any  Europeans 
had  previously  done,  establishing  a  commercial  route  with  the 
Caspian  and  the  East  by  way  of  the  Dvvina  and  Volga  rivers. 
This  caused  great  jealousy  and  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
Hanse  towns;  but  Elizabeth  promptly  repressed  their  meas- 
ures.    Trade  also  began  to  be  carried  on  with  Turkey. 

30.  The  naval  power  of  England  commenced  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII.;  but  ship-building  was  evidently  not  active, 
since  his  successor  was  obliged  to  hire  vessels  from 
Hamburg,  Lubeck,  Genoa,  Venice,  and  other  great 


Naval  power. 


commercial  towns.  Under  the  vigorous  sway  of  the  Virgin 
Queen,  a  better  state  of  things  was  introduced;  and,  in  1582, 
the  number  of  seamen  in  England  was  registered  at  over  four- 
teen thousand;  and  the  number  of  vessels  amounted  to  above 
twelve  hundred.  The  navy,  at  her  death,  was  considered 
large;  but  the  whole  number  of  guns  was  less  than  eight  hun- 
dred. The  military  force  of  the  nation,  at  the  time  of  the 
threatened  attack  by  the  Spanish  Armada,  was  set  down  at 
about  200,000  men. 

31.   Manufacturing  industry,   at  the  commencement  of 
Elizabeth's  reign,  had  made  but  little  progress,  foreign  wares 
of  all  kinds  enjoying  the  preference  over  those 
made  at  home.     The  persecutions  in  France  and 


Manufactures. 


the  Netherlands,  however,  drove  a  large  number  of  skilled 
artisans  into  England,  who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  manu- 
facturing ];)rosperity  afterward  attained.  Tlie  cloth  manufac- 
ture was  so  extensive,  tliat  as  many  as  200,000  pieces  were 
said  to  be  exported  annujiily  from  England.  The  making  of 
pins  commenced  during  Elizabeth's  reign.     Before  that  time 

and  courtesy,'  Chancellor  was  able  to  travel  Into  the  Interior.  He  found  tliat  the 
country  was  called  Russia,  or  Muscovy,  and  that  Ivan  Vassilievitch  II.  *niled  and 
governed  far  and  wide.'  This  was 'the  discovery  of  Rijssia,' of  which  the  fame 
spread  through  Spain  the  belief  *  of  the  discovery  of  New  Indies.'  and  In  Entrland 
gave  immediate  impulse  to  mercantile  adventure."— Boncro/t'*  Studies  in  Bxttory 


England,  477 


the  ladies  used  to  fasten  their  dresses  with  clasps,  small  skew- 
ers of  gold,  silver,  or  brass,  or  hooks  and  eyes. 

32.  Agriculture  was  carried  on  with  more  skill,  although 
vast  tracts  of  land  were  still  devoted  to  the  pasturage  of  sheep. 
The  condition  of  the  peasantry  was  considerably 
improved.     Their  wattled  huts  gave  place  by  de- 


Agriculture. 


grees  to  comfortable  houses,  built  of  stone  or  brick;  and  glass 
windows  came  into  general  use.     Wheaten  bread 
was  eaten  more  generally,  although  rye  and  bar- 


Houses,  Ate. 


ley  constituted  the  principal  food  of  the  poorer  classes.  Pota- 
toes were  introduced  from  South  America  by  Raleigh,  who 
also  brought  tobacco  from  the  West  Indies,  and  set  the 
example  of  using  it  in  England. 

83.  The  ancient  magnificence  and  hospitality  of  the 
nobility  were  still  in  part  retained.  The  Earl  of  Leicester 
gave  the  queen  an  entertainment  at  his  famous 
castle  at  Kenilworth,  in  which  the  most  astonish- 
ing profusion  was  displayed.     Among  other  par- 


Luxury  of 

the  nobles. 


ticulars,  it  is  said  that  as  many  as  three  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  hogsheads  of  beer  were  consumed.  Lord  Burleigh  is 
said  to  have  kept  a  hundred  servants;  and  his  silver  plate, 
it  is  remarked  by  a  writer  of  the  period,  '* amounted  to  only 
fourteen  or  fifteen  thousand  pounds  in  weight."  Great  lux- 
ury in  apparel  was  also  indulged  in,  the  queen  taking  the  lead; 
who,  though  she  issued  a  proclamation  to  restrain  this  species 
of  extravagance,  at  her  death  left  a  wardrobe  of  3,000  dresses. 
34.  The  revival  of  learning,  particularly  the  study  of  the 
•classics,  constituted  a  remarkable  feature  of  this  i)eriod. 
Erasmus,  a  native  of  Holland,  was  professor  of 
Greek  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  did  much 


Learning. 


toward  the  attainment  of  this  result.  Henry  VIII. ,  Mary, 
Elizabeth,  and  Lady  Jane  Grey  were  all  distinguished  for 
their  classical  learning.  Roger  Ascham  has  already  been  re- 
ferred to  as  a  distinguished  teacher  of  Latin  and  Greek. 
Middle  English  now  gave  place  to  the  New  or  Modern  Eng- 


478  Modern  History. 


lish,  which,  with  slight  modifications,  continues  to  be  the 
language  used.  This  was  the  language  of  Shakspeare  and 
Bacon.  In  the  first  part  of  this  period,  the  drama  consisted 
of  short  plays  called  *' Interludes,"  of  which  the 
most  successful  writer  was  John  Ilcywood,  who 


Noted  writers. 


lived  at  the  court  of  Henry  VIII.  To  this  period  belong 
Edmund  Spenser,  the  author  of  the  Faerie  Queeiie ;  and  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,  who  wrote  a  pastoral  romance,  called  Arcadia. 
Sir  Thomas  More  wrote  a  philosophical  romance  called  Utopia, 
which  is  much  celebrated.  Queen  Elizabeth  also  wrote  verses, 
and  claimed  to  be  a  poetess. 


SECTION  n. 
The  Stuart  Family. 


35.  James  L,  the  son  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  succeeded 
Elizabeth,  not  only  by  right  of  birth,  but  by  the  nomination 
of  the  late  queen.     He  had  been  proclaimed  king 
of  Scotland  under  the  title  of  James  VI.,  after 


James  I. 


the  abdication  of  Mary  (1567),  being  then  an  infant;  and, 
therefore,  on  his  accession  to  the  English  throne,  tiie  two 
countries  became  united  under  one  monarch,  although  they 
continued  for  about  a  century  longer  to  have  their  own  sepa- 
rate legislatures. 

36.  In  the  first  part  of  this  reign,  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
to  subvert  the  government  and  place  Arabella  Stuart,  the 
king's  cousin,  on  the  throne;  and  in  this  scheme 
the  celebrated  Sir  Waiter  Riileigh  was  accused  of 


Raleigh. 


being  concerned,  and  was  kept  in  imprisonment  for  several 
years,  during  which  he  wrote  his  "  History  of  the  World." 
Being  released  in  order  that  he  might  point  out  a  gold-mine 
which  he  said  existed  in  Guiana  (ghe-aWnah),  and  having 
failed  in  the  expedition,  he  was,  on  his  return,  beheaded,  in 


England. 


479 


pursuance  of  the  sentence  previously  pronounced  against  him 
(1618).*  This  act  reflects  a  lasting  disgrace  upon  James^ 
who  sacrificed  this  illustrious  man  to  appease  the  anger  of 
Spain,  incensed  by  the  attack  which  Kaleigh  had  made  upon 
several  of  the  Spanish  settlements  in  South  America. 

37,  Some  of  the  Catholic  party,  disappointed  in  not  re- 
ceiving the  religious  liberty  which  they  had  expected  on  the 
accession  of  James,  became  concerned  in  a  plot 

to  overturn  the  gov- 
ernment  by   the    de- 


Gunpowder 
plot 


struction  of  the  king  and  Par- 
liament (1605).  For  this  pur- 
pose a  vault  below  the  House  of 
Lords  was  hired,  in  which  thirty- 
six  barrels  of  gunpowder  were 
stored.  These  were  to  be  fired, 
on  the  opening  of  Parliament, 
by  one  Guy  Fawkes,  an  officer 
in  the  Spanish  service,  who  was 
the  agent  of  this  conspiracy, — 
called  the  Gunpowder  Plot.  It  was  fortunately  discovered 
just  on  the  eve  of  its  execution,  and  Guy  Fawkes  with  some 
of  the  other  conspirators  was  executed. 

38.  James,  although  of  a  pusillanimous  disposition,  was 
very  persistent  in  upholding  the  royal  prerogative,  being 
prone  on  all  occasions  to  insist  on  the  divine  right  of  kings  to 


*  "  Raleigh  in  vain  submitted  to  the  court  that  the  commission  given  him  as 
commander,  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  others,  amoimted  to  a  pardon; 
execution  was  granted,  and  the  scholar,  the  writer,  the  warrior,  and  the  statesman 
(for  Raleigh  was  all  of  these)  was  led  to  a  scaffold,  in  the  66th  year  of  his  age,  in 
order  to  cement  by  his  blood  a  marriage  with  a  daughter  of  Spain.  He  mounted 
the  scaffold  with  that  courage  which  never  deserted  him.  When  he  had  taken  off 
his  gown  and  doublet,  he  asked  the  executioner  to  let  him  see  the  axe.  He  poised 
it,  and  running  his  thumb  along  the  edge,  said,  with  a  smile,  '  This  is  a  sharp 
medicine,  but  it  will  cure  all  diseases.'  The  executioner  was  going  to  blindfold 
him,  but  he  refused  to  let  him,  saying,  '  Think  you  I  fear  the  shadow  of  the  axe, 
when  I  fear  not  the  axe  itself?'  He  gave  the  signal  by  stretching  out  his  hands, 
and  his  head  was  struck  off  at  two  blows."— A^e?flrA«ey's  History  of  England. 


480 


Modern  History. 


rule  without  control.  His  arbitrary  acts  and  principles,  how- 
ever, met  with  decided  opposition  from  the  Parlia- 
ment of  1621,  who  declared  their  privileges  to  be 
the  ancient  and  undoubted  birthright  of  the  Eng- 


Couree  of 

Parliament. 


lish  peo])le;  which  declaration  so  incensed  the  king,  that  he 
sent  for  the  Journals  of  the  Commons,  and  tore  the  record 
out  with  his  own  hands.  A  settlement  was  effected  in  Vir- 
ginia, during  the  previous  part  of  this  reign  (1607),  at  a  place 
named,  in  honor  of  the  king,  Jamestown. 

39.  James  had  been  educated  by  the  celebrated  George 
Bu-chan'an,  of  Scotland,  and  possessed  considerable  learn- 
ing, of  which  he  was 
passionately  fond  of 
makmg  a  display;  so 


Manners  of  the 
king. 


Mdskbtkbr  and  Pikkman,  Time  of 
James  I. 


that,  although  he  was  excessively 
flattered  by  his  courtiers,  his 
pedantry  gained  him  very  gen- 
eral ridicule.  The  distinguished 
French  minister.  Sully,  very  aptly 
styled  him  '*the  wisest  fool  in 
Christendom."  He  was  as  de- 
void of  dignity  of  manners  and 
conversation  as  of  good  sense,  his 
unseemly  familiarity  being  equal  to  his  childish  vanity  and 
offensive  arrogance. 

40.  One  of  the  worst  characteristics  of  this  monarch  was 
his  proneness  to  attach  himself  to  unworthy  favorites,  the 
first  of  whom  was  Robert  Carr,  a  young  Scotch- 
man, on  whom  James  for  several  years  lavished 
the  most  profuse  favors,  bestowing  on  him  the 
title  of  Earl  of  Somerset.  Carr  wjis  succeeded  in  the  king's 
favor  by  George  Villiers  (viVyerz),  who  was  created  Duke 
of  Buckingham,  and  gained  an  infamous  notoriety  by  his 
profligacy  and  arrogjvnt  conduct.  James  being  anxious  to 
bring  about  a  marriage  between   bis  son  Charles  and  the 


Carr  and 
Buckingham. 


England,  481 


Infanta  of  Spain,  Buckingham,  conceived  the  romantic  pro- 
ject of  a  journey  to  Spain*by  the  young  prince  and  himself  in 
disguise.  On  their  way  they  yisited  the  French  court,  where 
Charles  first  saw  the  French  princess  Henrietta  Maria,  whom 
he  subsequently  married. 

41.  A  treaty  was  soon  afterward  made  with  France,  one 
of  the  terms  of  which  confirmed  this  proposed  marriage;  but, 
before  it  was  carried  into  effect,  the  king  was 
suddenly  seized  with  illness,  and  expired,  in  the 


King's  death. 


fifty-ninth  year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-two  years 
(1625).  One  of  the  most  important  events  of  this  period  was 
a  new  translation  of  the  Bible.  It  was  executed 
under  the  patronage  of  the  king,  and  by  a  num- 
ber of  learned  men  designated  by  him.     It  was 


Translation  of 
the  Bil^. 


published  in  1611;  and  having  superseded  other  versions,  con- 
tinues to  be  the  English  Bible  in  general  use  among  English- 
speaking  Protestants. 

42.  The  Puritans — so  called  from  their  strict  principles 
and  austerity  of  life — greatly  increased  in  numbers  and  influ- 
ence during  this  reign.  Their  public  preachings 
were  directed  against  the   dissoluteness,  levity, 


Puritans. 


and  luxury  of  the  times,  and  particularly  inculcated  a  more 
serious  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  which  had  previously  been 
a  day  of  pleasure  and  pastime.  Some  of  them,  disgusted  with 
the  king's  high-handed  measures,  especially  against  those  who 
refused  to  conform  to  the  established  church,  emigrated  to 
Holland,  and  afterward  to  New  England,  ^here  they  made  a 
settlement  at  Plymouth  (1620).  This  emigration  was  con- 
tinued during  the  next  reign. 

43.  Charles  I,  on  his  accession,  was  in  his  twenty-fifth 
year;  and  soon  afterward  married  Henrietta  Maria,  daugh- 
ter of  the  French  king  Henry  IV.  In  order  to 
prosecute  a  war  with  Spain,  which  had  been 
brought  on  by  the  arrogance  and  misconduct  of 


Measures  of 
Parliament. 


the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  he  summoned  a  parliament,  and 


482  Modern  History, 


asked  for  a  vote  of  supplies.  This  the  Commons,  under  the 
leadership  of  Sir  Thomas  Wentworth,  Sir  John  Eliot,  and  others, 
refused  to  grant,  unless  Charles  would  relinquiiih  some  of  the 
prerogatives  which  had  been  exercised  by  his  father,  and  which 
he  still  claimed  as  his  hereditary  right.  Charles,  therefore,  dis- 
solved the  parliament,  and  levied  money  by  his  own  authority. 
44.  These  forced  loans,  called  tonnaqe  and  'poundage j^  and 
sJiip'money,\  gave  great  offense  to  the  people,  whose  discon- 
tent was  still  further  increased  by  the  conduct 
of  Buckingham, — particularly  by  the  failure, 
through  his  mismanagement,  of  an  expedition  de- 


King's 

measures. 


signed  to  assist  the  Huguenots,  or  French  Protestants,  in 
fheir  contest  with  Richelieu  {reesU'e-lu).  In  a  succeeding 
parliament,  accordingly,  the  king  met  with  more  determined 
opposition;  and  the  famous  Petition  of  RightX  was  adopted, 
to  which  the  king  was  obliged  to  give  his  assent  (1628). 
Soon  after  this  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  was  assassinated  at 
Portsmouth,  by  nn  officer  of  the  army  whom  he  had  offended. 
45.  This  parliament  having  been  again  assembled  in  1629, 
and  proving  refractory,  the  king  determined  to  rule  without 
a  parliament,  and  continued  his  illegal  exactions. 
He  also,  by  means  principally  of  the  Court  of 
Star  Chamber, %  attempted  to  punish  such  of  the 


King  and 
Parliament 


popular  leaders  as  had  made  themselves  particularly  obnoxious. 

♦  Tonnage  and  poundage  were  duties  on  imported  merchandise  which  it  had 
been  customary  to  allow  the  king  to  levy  since  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  The 
Parliament  of  162r)  refused,  however,  to  grant  this  privilege  fo  the  king  for  a  longer 
perio<l  than  one  year. 

t  Ship-money  was  an  arbitrary  tax  levied  on  the  seaports  for  the  equipment  of 
a  fleet.    Charles  extended  it  over  the  whole  kingdom. 

t  The  Petit hn  of  Right  was  an  emphatic  statement  of  the  privileges  of  the  people 
as  conferred  by  previous  enactments.  It  is  regarded  as  the  Second  Ortat  Charier 
of  English  liberties. 

§  The  Court  of  Star  Chamber  was  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  derived  Its  name 
from  the  chamber  of  the  king's  palace  at  Westminster  in  which  it  used  to  hold  its 
sessions,  the  celling  of  this  apartment  being  decoratad  with  stars.  It  had  very  ex- 
tensive powers,  both  civil  and  criminal,  and  could  adjudge  cases  without  tho  Inter- 
vention of  a  jury.  Hence  It  became  a  fonnidable  instrument  of  tyranny.  It  wai 
abolished  by  act  of  Parilament  in  1041. 


England,  483 


Some  of  them  were  fined  for  what  was  called  their  seditious 
language  in  Parliament;  but  they  refused  to  pay  the  fines,  and 
Sir  John  Eliot  died  in  prison.  Charles,  however,  chose  some 
of  his  ministers  from  among  the  popular  leaders;  one  of 
whom,  Sir  Thomas  Wentworth,  was  created  Earl  of  Strafford, 
and  became  the  chief  minister  of  the  king. 

46.  Another  cause  of  complaint  was  afforded  by  the  policy 
of  the  king  with  regard  to  religion.     Under  the  influence  of 

Archbishop  Laud,  the  liturgy  was  altered  and  the   i " 

ritual  increased  by  many  of  the  ceremonial  obser-   I ' 

vances  of  the  Catholic  Church,  very  much  to  the  disgust  of 
the  great  body  of  the  English  people,  but  particularly  of  the 
Puritans.  Many  of  the  latter,  to  avoid  con- 
forming to  the  requirements  of  the  established 


Puritans. 


church,  emigrated  to  New  England,  and  founded  Massachu'- 
setts  and  other  colonies  in  that  country.  Charles  also  at- 
tempted to  force  this  liturgy  upon  the  Scottish  people;  but 
they  rose  in  insurrection  against  it;  and  the  fa- 
mous Covenant  was  formed  and  signed,  according 


Covenant. 


to  which  they  solemnly  bound  themselves  to  unite  for  their 
mutual  defense,  and  to  resist  all  religious  innovations  (1638). 
The  king  requiring  them  to  relinquish  the  covenant,  a  war- 
ensued;  and  a  Scottish  army  invaded  England,  which,  after 
defeating  a  detachment  of  the  royal  forces  at  the  Tyne  River, 
took  possession  of  Newcastle. 

47.  This  compelled  the  king  finally  to  call  another  parlia- 
ment, in  order  to  obtain  supplies.  This  body,  memorable  as 
the  Long  Parliament,  assembled  in  1640,  and  im- 
mediately commenced  the  redress  of  public  griev- 
ances.    One  of  its  first  acts  was  the  impeachment 


Long 
Parliament. 


of  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  who  had  become  odious  to  the  popu- 
lar leaders  because  of  his  desertion  of  their  cause, 
and  the  aid  he  had  given  the  king  in  carry- 
ing out  his  most  arbitrary  measures.    Being  tried 


Strafford 
and  Laud. 


ftnd  found  guilty  of  treason,  he  was  beheaded,  the  king 


484  Modern  History. 


having  ungratefully  given  his  assent  to  the  execution  (1641). 
Archbishop  Laud  was  also  impeached  and  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower,  but  his  execution  did  not  take  place  until  four  years 
afterward.  In  the  same  year,  a  dreadful  insur- 
rection broke  out  in  Ireland  against  the  govern- 


I  re  land. 


ment,  and  the  English  were  massacred  with  every  species  of 

cruelty  (1641). 

48.  Meanwhile,  the  Parliament  continued  its  measures  of 

redress;  and  the  king  took  a  step  which  still  further  inflamed 
the  popular  indignation  against  him.  Going 
Avith  an  armed  retinue  to  the  House,  he  de- 
manded that  five  of    its    members    should  be 


King  and 
Parliament. 


pointed  out  to  him  in  order  that  they  might  be  seized.  But 
the  Speaker,  Lenthall,  refused  to  comply,  boldly  declaring 
that  he  was  the  servant  of  the  House,  and  could  only  act  Id 
accordance  with  its  directions.  Tlie  king  therefore  retired 
without  effecting  his  object,  amid  the  low  murmurs  of  "  Pri- 
vilege! privilege!"  from  the  indignant  members  (1642). 
Among  the  five  members  thus  assailed  was  tlie  noted  patriot 
John  Hampden,  who,  a  few  years  before,  had  gained  the  ap- 
plause of  the  peoi)le  by  making  a  bold  stand  against  the  ille- 
gal levy  of  ship-money. 

49.  Tlic  king,  whose  conduct  was  characterized  by  great 
irresolution  as  well  as  rashness  and  imprudence,  afterward 
apologized  for  this  breach  of  the  privileges  of 
Parliament;  but  the  latter  was  now  determined 
on  extreme  measures,  and  demanded  the  royal 


Civil  war 
commenced. 


assent  to  propositions  which  would  have  stripped  him  of  all 
authority.  Finding  a  large  party  in  his  favor,  ho  collected 
what  forces  he  could,  and  erected  the  royal  standard,  resolved 
to  stake  the  issue  upon  the  sword.  The  Parliament  had  also 
made  preparations  for  the  struggle;  and  thus  was  commenced 
that  great  civil  war  which  raged  for  years  between  those  who 
supported  the  authority  of  tlio  king  and  those  who  wished  to 
limit,  or  destroy  it  (1642). 


England,  485 


60.  The  Cavaliers,  as  the  royalists  were  then  called,  in- 
cluded the  greater  part  of  the  nobility,  clergy,  and  landed 
gentry,  with  those  who  were  attached  to  the  estab- 
lished church,  and  all  the  Catholics.     The  sup- 


Cavaliers. 


porters  of  Parliament  were  chiefly  composed  of  the  yeomanry 
of  the  country,  the  townspeople,  and  the  dissenters,  who 
were  chiefly  Puritans.  These  last  were  called 
Roundheads,  in  derision  of  their  custom  of  wear- 


Roundheads. 


ing  their  hair  cropped  short.*  The  parliamentary  forces  were 
at  first  led  by  the  Earl  of  Essex;  those  of  the  king,  by  the 
Earl  of  Lindsay.  The  cavalry  of  the  latter  was  commanded 
by  the  famous  Prince  Rupert,  f 

51.  The  first  general  engagement  took  place  at  Edgehill, 
and  Lindsay  was  mortally  wounded  and  taken  prisoner;  but 
there  was  no  decisive  victory  on  either  side 
(1642).     In  a  skirmish  the  next  year,  the  illus- 


Hampden. 


trious  John  Hampden  was  mortally  wounded; J  and  his  loss 

*  "The  Cavaliers,  who  affected  a  liberal  way  of  thinking,  as  well  as  a  gayety  and 
freedom  of  manners  inconsistent  with  pmntanical  ideas,  were  represented  by  the 
Roundheads  cs  a  set  of  abandoned  profligates,  equally  destitute  of  religion  and 
morals;  the  devoted  tools  of  the  court,  and  the  zealous  abettors  of  arbitrary  power. 
The  Cavaliers,  on  the  other  hand,  regarded  the  Roundheads  as  a  gloomy,  narrow- 
minded,  fanatical  herd,  determined  enemies  to  kingly  power,  and  to  all  distinction 
of  ranks  in  society.  But  in  these  characters,  drawn  by  the  passions  of  the  two 
parties,  we  must  not  expect  Impartiality;  both  are  certainly  overcharged."— 
RitsselVs  Modern  Europe. 

t  Prince  Rupert  was  the  son  of  Frederick,  Elector-Palatine,  and  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  James  I. ;  so  that  the  reigning  king.  Charles  I.,  was  his  uncle.  He  was 
not  only  prominent  in  this  war,  but  afterward  acquired  great  distinction  in  the 
naval  operations  of  England.  Subsequently  he  became  noted  for  his  researches  in 
science  and  the  useful  arts. 

X  "  The  news  of  Hampden's  death  produced  as  great  a  consternation  in  hig 
party,  according  to  Clarendon,  as  if  their  whole  army  had  been  cut  off.  The  jour- 
nals of  the  time  amply  prove  that  the  Parliament  and  all  its  friends  were  filled  with 
grief  and  dismay.  Lord  Nugent  has  quoted  a  remarkable  passage  from  the  next 
Weekly  Intelligencer.  '  The  loss  of  Colonel  Hampden  goeth  near  the  heart  of  every 
man  that  loves  the  good  of  his  king  and  country;  and  makes  some  conceive  little 
content  to  be  at  the  army  now  that  he  has  gone.  The  memory  of  this  deceased 
colonel  Is  such  that  in  no  age  to  come  but  it  will  more  and  more  be  had  m  honor 
and  esteem;— a  man  so  religious,  and  of  that  prudence,  judgment,  temper,  valor, 
and  integrity,  that  he  hath  left  few  his  Uke  behind  him.'  "^MacaiUay6  Misce^ 
laneous  Essays 


466  Modern  History. 


Falkland. 


was  felt  as  a  severe  blow  to  the  popular  party.  Several 
battles  were  fought  during  the  same  year  (1043),  the  most 
Important  of  which  was  that  of  Newbury.  The  result  was 
still  indecisive;  but  the  royalists  lost  one  of  their  chief  sup* 
porters  in  the  brave  and  eloquent  Lord  EalklancI 
(fawh'land),  who,  while  he  had  at  first  firmly 
and  patriotically  opposed  the  unjust  pretensions  of  the  king, 
stood  by  him  when  the  attempt  was  made  by  Parliament  to 
deprive  him  of  his  legal  authority. 

62.  The  Parliament  entered  into  negotiations  with  Scot- 
land to  combine  their  forces  against  the  king;  and,  princi- 
pally through  the  address  of  Sir  Henry  Vane, 
who  had  been  sent  as  a  commissioner  to  Edin- 


Sir  Henry  Vane. 


burgh,  a  "  solemn  league  and  covenant"  was  entered  into  by 
which  the  Scottish  people  renewed  the  pledges  of  the  previous 
covenant,  and  bound  themselves  to  assist  the  cause  of  the 
English  Parliament.  A  large  army  was,  accordingly,  sent 
into  England;  but  this  was  counterbalanced  by  a  considerable 
force  which  the  king  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  Ireland 
(1G43).  Lord  Fairfax,  who  commanded  the  par 
lijimentary  forces  in  the  north,  formed  a  junction 


Fairfax. 


with  the  Scotch,  and  laid  siege  to  York. 

63.  Prince  Rupert,  arriving  with  a  considerable  army, 

raised  the  siege,  and  brought  on  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor, 
in  which  the  royalists  sustained  a  severe  defeat, 
principally  through  the  activity  and  skill  of 
Oliver  Cromwell,  by  whom  Prince  Rupert's  cav- 


Oliver 
Cromwell. 


airy  was  routed  and  his  artillery  captured  (1G44).  A  short 
time  afterward,  the  command  of  the  i)arliainentary  army  was 
transferred  to  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  a  man  entirely  under 
the  influence  of  Cromwell;  and,  the  next  year 
(1645),  a  very  decisive  victory  was  gained  by 
Fairfax  and  Cromwell  over  the  king  s  forces  at 
Naseby  (naze'be),  in  winch  the  Utter  especially  distinguished 
himself  Ijy  his  skill  »n4  valor, 


Battle  of 
Naseby. 


England.  487 


54.  After  other  reverses,  the  king,  despairing  of  success, 
gave  liimself  up  to  the  Scottish  army  (1646),  expecting  to  be 
treated  with  respect  and  liberality;  but  the  Scots 
delivered  him  up  to  the  English  Parliament,  by 
whom   he  was   kept   a  prisoner  (1647).      Soon 


Surrender  of 
the  king. 


Cromwell's 
measures. 


afterward,  the  Puritan  dissenters  known  as  Separatists  or  In- 
dej^endentSj  triumphed  over  the  Presbyterians;. and  Cromwell, 
who  belonged  to  the  former,  obtained,  through  his  influence 
with  the  army,  control  of  the  Parliament.  Find- 
ing the  Presbyterian  members  hostile  to  his  views, 
he  caused  the  House  to  be  surrounded  by  two  regi- 
ments under  Colonel  Pride,  one  of  his  trusty  officers,  and 
excluded  all  but  the  most  determined  of  the  Independents. 
This  invasion  of  the  Parliament  was  called,  in  derision, 
**  Colonel  Pride's  Purge"  (1648). 

66.  Meanwhile,  the  king  had  offered  important  conces- 
sions, which  the  Presbyterians  were  disposed  to  accept;  but 
the  Independents,  who  now  controlled  Parlia- 
ment, voted  them  to  be  unsatisfactory,  for  Crom- 


Independents. 


well  and  the  other  generals  under  his  influence  were  resolved 
on  the  entire  subversion  of  royalty  and  the  establishment  of  a 
republic.  Accordingl}^,  a  resolution  was  adopted  that  the 
king  had  been  guilty  of  treason  in  levying  war  against  his 
Parliament;  and  a  court  was  organized  to  try  him.  This 
court,  presided  over  by  John  Bradshaw,  a  lawyer, 
consisted  of  133  members,  among  whom  were  the 
chief  officers  of  the  army;  and,  although  the  king 


Execution  of 
the  king. 


refused  to  acknowledge  its  authority,  he  was  found  guilty,  and 
three  days  afterward  was  beheaded  (January  30,  1649).* 

*  "Whatever  had  been  the  faults  and  follies  of  Charles's  life,  '  he  nothing  com- 
mon did,  or  mean,  upon  that  memorable  scene.'  Two  masked  executioners  awaited 
the  king  as  he  mounted  the  scaffold,  which  had  been  erected  outside  one  of  the 
windows  of  tlie  Banqueting  House  at  Whitehall;  the  streets  and  roofs  were 
thronged  with  spectators;  and  a  strong  body  of  soldiers  stood  drawn  up  beneath. 
His  head  fell  at  the  first  blow;  and,  as  the  executioner  lifted  it  to  the  sight  of  all,  a 
groan  of  pity  and  horror  burst  fvQUx  the  sUeat  crowd."— (?reen'«  History  of  tluf 
English  People. 


488  Modern  History. 


56.  The  Scots  had  protested  agiiiiist  this  whole  proceed- 
ing,  and  foreign  nations  interceded  in  the  king's  behalf. 
The  Prince  of  Wales,  anxious  to  save  his  father's  hfc,  sent  a 
blank  sheet  of  paper,  subscribed  with  his  name  and  sealed 
with  his  arms,  on  which  the  judges  might  write  what  con- 
ditions they  pleased  as  the  price  of  the  king's  release;  but 
these  men  could  not  be  moved  from  their  pur- 
pose. A  few  days  after  the  death  of  Charles,  the 
Commons  abolished  the  House  of  Lords,  and  for- 


Commonwealth 
proclaimed. 


mally  proclaimed  the  establishment  of   the  Commontoealth, 

declaring  it  high  treason  to  acknowledge  Charles,  the  Prince 

of  Wales,  king  of  England. 

57.   The  character  of  Charles  I.  was  in  many  respects 

worthy  of  commendation.  In  his  private  relations  his  con- 
duct was  quite  exemplary,  being  entirely  free 
from  those  vices  which  so  often  sully  the  charac- 
ter of  kings.     As  a  monarch,  his  principal  fault 


Character  of 
Charles  I. 


was  insincerity,  by  which  he  lost  the  confidence  of  his  people; 
for  he  gave  his  assent  to  measures  of  reform  which  he  subse- 
quently endeavored  to  evade.  His  arbitrary  conduct  fitids 
some  apology  in  the  fact  that  his  predecessors  hud  exercised 
most  of  the  powers  which  he  claimed;  but  his  prudence  and 
moderation  were  not  sufficient  to  convince  him  that  the 
change  which  had  taken  })lace  in  the  sentiments  of  the  people 
necessitated  a  corresponding  change  in  the  royal  claims;  and 
a  sad  experience  was  needed  to  show  him  that  no  authority, 
however  great,  can  j)revail  over  the  influence  of  public  opinion. 
58.  The  Commonwealth.  Cromwell,  as  Lord  Lieutenant, 
having  entirely  subdued  the  insurrection  which  had  broken 
out  in  Ireland,  was  next  sent  by  the  Parliament 
to  Scotland,  where  the  Covenanters  had  pro- 
claimed Charles  II.  king,  and  had  raised  a  large 


Ireland  and 
Scotland. 


army  for  his  support.  They  were  entirely  defeated  by  Crom- 
well in  the  battle  of  Dunbar  (1650);  after  which  Charles 
determined  to  march  into  England,  expecting  to  obtain  large 


England.  489 


accessions  to  his  army.  But  in  this  he  was  disappointed; 
and  being  promptly  pursued  by  Ci-omwell,  was  defeated  at 
Worcester  (woos'ter),  where  the  whole  Scottish  army  were 
either  killed  or  taken  prisoners  (1651).  Charles 
escaped  from  England  with  great  difficulty,  being 


Prince  Charles. 


obliged  to  travel  for  two  months  in  the  disguise  of  a  peasant. 
At  one  time,  he  concealed  himself  for  twenty-four  hours  in  a 
large  oak-tree,  while  his  pursuers  passed  on.  This  tree  was 
afterward  known  as  the  Royal  Oak. 

59.  The  affairs  of  the  English  republic,  under  the  admin- 
istration   of    the   Parliament,    continued   to   be 
prosperous.     The  Portuguese  were  humbled  by 


Englishsuccess, 


Admiral  Blake;  Ireland  was  reduced  to  submission  by  Ire'ton, 
one  of  Cromwell's  generals;  and  Scotland  was  entirely  subju- 
gated by  General  Monk,  whom  Cromwell  had  left  to  complete 
the  work  commenced  by  the  battle  of  Dunbar.  Being  offended 
by  the  haughty  behavior  of  the  Dutch  republic,  the  Parlia- 
ment passed  the  famous  Navigation  Act,  which  prohibited  all 
nations  from  importing  any  merchandise  into  England  or  her 
colonies  except  in  English  ships,  or  in  the  ships  of  the  country 
where  the  goods  were  produced.  The  Dutch  being  at  this 
time  the  principal  commercial  nation  of  Europe, 
a  war  was  brought  on,  in  which  Blake  gained 


Dutch  war. 


several  splendid  victories  over  the  Dutch  fleets,  commanded 
by  the  great  admirals  Van  Tromp  and  De  Ruy'ter  (1651-3). 
60.  Meanwhile,  Cromwell  perceiving  that  the  Parliament 
had  become  jealous  of  his  power,  determined  to  dissolve  it. 
Accordingly,  going  to  the  House  with  300  soldiers,  he  loaded 
the  members  with  the  vilest  reproaches,  and  bade  them  "  to 
be  gone  aud  give  place  to  honester  men."     Seizing  the  mace, 

he  exclaimed,  *'Take  away  this  bauble!"     Then    i — 

commanding  the  soldiers  to  clear  the  hall,  he        diSea? 
ordered  the  doors  to  be  locked;  and  putting  the    I 
keys  in  his  pocket,  departed  to  his  lodgings  (1653).     Thus,, 
being  supported  by  the  army,  he  obtained  the  supreme  power 


490 


Modern  Histcrry. 


of  the  government.     Desiring,  liowever,  to  preserve  some  of 
the  forms  of  the  republic,  he  issued  writs  for  the  election  of 

1    156  persons,  who  were  to  constitute  a  parliament. 

These,  by  his  management,  consisted  of  the  mean- 
est and  most  fanatical  of  the  citizens,  one  of 


Little 
Parliament. 


whom,  a  leather-dealer  named  Praise-God  Barebone,  having 
made  himself  prominent  by  his  sanctimonious  cant  and  long 
prayers,  the  Parliament  was  called,  in  derision,  "Barebone's 
Parliament."  It  was  also  known  as  the  "  Little  Parliament." 
61.  Cromwell  soon  dissolved  this  ridiculous  assembly,  and 
caused  himself  to  be  appointed 

Lord  Protector.    He 

was   to   be  assisted 

by    a    Council     of 


Cromwell 
Protector. 


State,  and  was  bound  to  summon 

a  parliament  every  three  years 

(1653).       A  short  time  previous- 
ly, Van  Tromp,  the  distinguished 

Dutch  admiral,  had  been  killed 

in  an  action  with   the  English 

under   Blake;    and   the   Dutch, 

terrified  by  their  losses  and  over- 
whelmed with  the  expense  of  the  war,  now  so- 
licited peace.  Tins  was  at  last  granted  by  Crom- 
well,   and    a    defensive  league  was    established 


Milton. 


Peace  with  the 
Dutch. 


between  the  two  republics,  the  honor  of  the  flag  being  yield- 
ed to  the  English  (1654).  The  administration  of  Cromwell 
was  characterized  by  gi-cat  vigor  and  ability.  IIo 
boasted  that  he  would  make  the  name  of  English- 
man as  much  feared  and  respected  as  had  been  that 
of  Roman;  and  the  uniform  success  of  his  naval  and  military 
enterprises  went  far  to  realize  this  saying.     John  Milton,* 


Cromwell't 
government. 


•  "  In  the  character  of  Milton  the  noblest  qualitie8  of  every  party  were  combined 
In  harmonious  union.  From  the  Parliament  and  from  the  court,  from  the  conven- 
ticle and  from  the  Gothic  cloister,  tnnn  the  gloomy  and  sepiUchral  circles  of  the 


England.         ^  491 


the  poet,  acted  as  Foreign  Secretary  under  Cromwell,  and 
wrote  in  defense  of  the  Commonwealth. 

62i  Under  Blake,  the  English  fleets  achieved  an  uninter- 
rupted series  of  victories.  He  subdued  the  Barbary  Powers 
(1655),  and  defeated  the  Spaniards  in  several  im- 
portant actions  (1656-7).     His  death  occurred  in 


Admiral  Blake. 


1657.  Blake  was  an  inflexible  republican;  but  he  disapproved 
of  the  usurpations  of  Cromwell,  notwithstanding  the  honors 
which  the  latter  heaped  upon  him.  During  the  war  waged 
with  Spain,  the  island  of  Jamaica  was  captured  by 
an  English  squadron  under  Admirals  Penn  and 


Jamaica. 


Venables  (1655);  and  Dunkirk  was  captured  from  the  Span- 
iards by  the  combined  forces  of  France  and  England  (1658). 

63.  Cromwell,  although  prosperous  abroad,  was  at  homo 
involved  in  very  great  difficulties.  He  had  called  two  parlia- 
ments successively;  but  not  finding  them  subservient  to  his 
views,  he  had  promptly  dissolved  them  (1654-1656).  He  was 
threatened  with  conspiracies  against  his  government;  and, 
after  reading  a  book  published  by  one  Colonel  Titus,  and  en- 
titled '*  Killing  no  Murder,"  he  became  afraid  of 
assassination,  and  constimtly  wore  armor  under 
his  clothes,  and  carried  pistols  in  his  pockets. 


Death  of 
Cromwell. 


At  last  the  dreadful  anxiety  of  his  mind  brought  on  a  fever, 
of  which  he  expired  in  his  sixtieth  year  (September  3,  1658), 
— the  anniversary  of  tlie  day  on  which  he  had  gained  the  vic- 
tories of  Dunbar  and  Worcester.  He  was  of  a  robust  frame 
of  body,  and  of  a  manly,  though  not  an  agree- 
able aspect.     His  character  had  very  many  traits 


Character. 


of  greatness;  but  his  perverted  ambition  made  him  cruel  and 

Roundheads  and  from  the  Cliristraas  revel  of  the  hospitable  Cavalier,  his  nature 
selected  and  drew  to  itself  whatever  was  great  and  good,  while  it  rejected  aJl  the 
base  and  pernicious  ingredients  by  whicli  those  fine  elements  were  defiled.  Like 
the  Puritans,  he  lived  'as  ever  in  his  great  Taskmaster's  eye.'  Like  them,  he  kept 
his  mind  continually  fixed  on  an  Ahnighty  Judge  and  an  eternal  reward ;  and  hence 
he  acquired  their  contempt  of  external  circumstances,  their  fortitude,  their  tran- 
quillity, tlieir  in  flexible  resolution."— ilfaca(;Zay. 


492  Modern  History, 


unprincipled.  No  one  can  gainsay  the  splendid  talents  which 
he  displayed,  both  as  a  general  and  a  statesman;  and,  had  he 
rightfully  possessed  the  sovereign  power,  he  would  undoubt- 
edly have  compared  favorably  with  any  monarch  that  ever 
reigned. 

64.  Richard  Cromwell  succeeded  his  father  in  the  office  of 
Protector;  but  his  want  of  capacity  for  so  difficult  a  position 
was  soon  manifest,  notwithstanding  he  was  supported  by  Gen- 
eral Monk,  who  commanded  the  army  in  Scotland,  and  by  his 
brother  Henry,  as  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  A  parliament 
was  called,  but  it  having  given  offense  to  the  army 
officers,  the  latter  compelled  Richard  to  dissolve 
it  (1659).     Soon  after  this  he  signed  his  own 


Restoration 
effected. 


abdication,  and  thus  left  the  supreme  authority  to  the  army, 
who  then  ruled  by  a  council  of  officers.  The  country  being 
threatened  with  anarchy  and  civil  war.  General  Monk  marched 
his  army  into  England,  and  subdued  the  contending  factions. 
A  parliament  was  then  called,  and  Charles  IL  was  ])roclaimed 
king  (May  29,  1660).  This  event  is  known  in  English  history 
as  the  Restoration. 

66.  Charles  II  came  to  the  throne  with  the  universal  re- 
joicings of  the  people.     At  the  commencement  of  his  reign, 
an  act  was  passed  pardoning  all  who  hiid  taken 
part  in  the  Great  Rebellion,  except  the  regicide 


Amnesty. 


judges,  some  of  whom  were  tried  and  executed.  On  the  anni- 
versary of  the  late  king's  death,  the  bodies  of  Cromwell,  Ire- 
ton,  and  Bradshaw  were  disinterred,  hanged  on  the  gallows, 
then  decapitated,  and  their  heads  fixed  on  Westminster  Hall. 
With  this  exception  the  king  showed  great  moderation  and 
clemency,  and  admitted  into  his  council  both 
royalists  and  Presbyterians.     Sir  Edward  Hyde 


Clarendon. 


was  created  Earl  of  Clarendon,  and  made  prime  minister. 

66.  The  most  remarkable  feature  of  tins  period  was  the 
entire  change  which  took  place  in  the  sentiments  of  the  i>co- 
ple.     During  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  they  manifested  the  most 


England.  493 


intense  zeal  for  liberty;  but  now  they  seemed  eager  to  evince 
an    equally   extravagant    spirit    of    submission. 
Under  the  control  of  the  Puritans,  they  seemed 
to  think  that  religion  consisted  in  gloom,  auster- 


Change  in 
manners. 


ity,  and  the  sacrifice  of  all  social  gayety  and  pleasure;  but, 
going  to  the  opposite  extreme,  they  now  plunged  into  riot  and 
dissipation.  Everything  religious  or  serious  was  ridiculed; 
and  nothing  bat  scenes  of  gallantry  and  festivity  occupied  the 
general  attention.  The  monarch  set  the  example,  and  in- 
dulged himself  in  mirth  and  festivity,  while  those  who  had 
suffered  in  his  father's  cause  were  left  in  wretchedness  and 
neglect.*  This  profusion  and  reckless  self-indulgence  on  the 
part  of  the  king  considerably  abated  the  people's 
loyalty,  for  they  could  not  forbear  a  comparison 
between  this  slothful  and  licentious  monarch  and 


Conduct  of 
Charles. 


the  great  Protector  who  had  made  the  name  of  England  so 
glorious  throughout  the  world. 

67.  Dunkirk,  which  had  been  acquired  during  that  splen- 
did period,  was  now  sold  to  the  French  to  supply  means  for 
the  king's  extravagant  pleasures  (1664).  The 
same  year  war  was  commenced  against  the  Dutch; 


Dunkirk. 


and  the  English  took  possession  of  New  Netherlands  in  North 
America,  and  captured  some  of  the  Dutch  settlements  in  Af- 
rica. De  Ruyter  retaliated  by  attacking  Barba- 
does  and  some  of  the  other  English  dependencies. 


Outcli  war. 


A  great  naval  battle  was  fought  off  the  eastern  coast  of  Eng- 
land, in  which  James,  Duke  of  York,  brother  of  the  king, 
defeated  the  Dutch  fleet  with  immense  loss  (1665).  France 
then  took  sides  with  the  Dutch  republic;  but 
the  combined  fleets  of  the  allies,  commanded  by 


French  war. 


the  great  Admiral  De  Ruyter  and  the  Duke  of  Beaufort,  were 


*  In  the  third  year  of  his  veign,  Charles  had  married  Catharine  of  Braganza,  a 
Port;iignese  princess,  with  •vrliom  he  received  a  large  dowry;  but  finding  her  dis- 
position serious  and  her  manners  formal  and  grave,  he  entirely  neglected  her  for 
the  society  of  his  gay  and  dissolute  companions. 


494  Modern  History. 

defeated  by  the  English  under  the  Duke  of  Al'be-marle  (pre- 
Tiously  General  Monk)  and  Prince  Rupert.  This  battle  Listed 
four  days,  and  was  one  of  the  most  terrific  naval  engagements 
ever  fought  (16G6). 

68.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  Great  Plague  broke  out  in 
London;  and  such  was  its  virulence,  that  the  deaths  in  the 
City  alone  were  estimated  at  not  less  than  100,000 
in  one  year  (1665).     Close  upon  this  dreadful 


Great  Plague. 


calamity  followed  the  Great  Fire,  which  raged  for  three  days, 
and  destroyed  upward  of  13,000  dwelling-houses  and  ninety 
churches  (1G66).  The  desire  of  Charles  to  save  expense,  in 
order  that  he  might  have  means  for  his  extravagant  indul- 
gences, led  to  neglect  in  keeping  up  the  naval  force  of  the 
kingdom;  and  the  Dutch,  taking  advantage  of 
this,  defiantly  entered  the  harbors,  and  did  im- 
mense havoc  to  the  shipping.     They  even  sailed 


Attack  of  the 
Dutch. 


up  the  Thames,  extending  their  ravages  as  far  as  London 

Bridge  (1667).     Peace  was,  however,  declared  the  same  year. 
69.  The  disgraceful  close  of  this  war,  together  with  the 

previous  measures,  made  the  government  very   unpopular; 

and  Clarendon  was  impeached  and  banished.  Five  ministers, 
called  afterward  the  Cabal*  were  then  chosen, 
who  adopted  the  policy  of  restraining  the  French 


The  Cabal. 


king  Louis  XIV.  in  his  ambitious  scheme  of  seizing  the 
Spanish  Netherlands.!  A  league  was  formed  with  Holland 
and  Sweden,  called  the  Triple  Alliance;  and  Louis 
was  compelled  to  abandon  his  enterprise  (1668). 


Triple  Airinace. 


Charles  afterward  became  dissatisfied  with  the  alliance  and 
concluded  a  disgraceful  treaty  with  Louis,  in  which  he  agreed 
to  assist  the  latter  in  subjugating  Holland,  and  also  consented 

♦The  initial  lettcirs  of  the  names  of  these  ministers -Clifford,  Ashley,  Bucking- 
ham, Arlington,  and  I^udenlale-gave  point  to  tliis  term  of  reproach,  which  at 
that  period,  as  at  present,  was  used  to  signify  any  sc»cr"t  committee,  or  junto. 

t  That  part  of  Netherlands  which  rnmained  in  posnession  of  Spain  after  the 
nutch  provinces  had  revolted  and  achieved  their  independence.  It  iucluded  the 
present  kingdom  of  Belgium 


England.  495 


to  make  a  public  profession  of  the  Catholic  faith.  For  this 
he  was  to  receive  as  a  compensation  an  immense  sum  of  money 
yearly  from  the  French  coffers  (1670). 

70.  Shortly  afterward  (1672),  England  joined  France  in  a 
war  against  the  Dutch;  and  while  the  fleets  of  the  latter  con- 
tended with  those  of  the  English  commanded  by 
the  Duke  of  York,  the  French  army  invaded  the 


Dutch  war. 


territory  of  the  republic,  captured  many  of  its  cities,  and 
drove  it  to  the  extreme  measure  of  opening  the  sluices  and 
inundating  the  country.  In  these  perilous  circumstances 
the  Dutch  forces  were  commanded  by  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  who  gained  great  distinction 
by  his  determined  courage  and  patriotism.     The 


William  of 
Orange. 


war  continued  till  1674,  when  it  had  become  so  unpopular 
that  the  king  was  compelled  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
the  Dutch  provinces.* 

71.  While  this  war  was  in  progress,  the  Test  Ad  was 
passed  by  Parliament,  obliging  all  government  officers  to  take 
the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy,  and  to  ab- 
jure all  the  doctrines  of  the   Catholic   Church. 


Test  Act. 


The  Duke  of  York,  brother  of  the  king,  who  had  made  a 
public  profession  of  his  adherence  to  that  church,  resigned 
the  office  of  admiral,  and  was  succeeded  by  Prince  Rupert. 
Much  excitement  was  produced  by  an  alleged 
conspiracy  (called  the   ''Popish  Plot").     It  was 


Popish  Plot. 


rumored  that  the  Catholics  had  planned  to  set  fire  to  the  city 
of  London,  assassinate  the  king,  and  deliver  the  country  to 
the  French.  The  chief  witness  in  this  absurd  accusation  was 
one  Titus  Gates,  who  afterward  was  proved  to  be  a  most  in- 
famous character.  Before,  however,  the  impos- 
ture was  discovered,  many  innocent  persons  suf- 
fered death,  among  them  the  aged  and  illustrious  Earl  of 
Stafford  (1680). 

*  The  Dutch  republic  was  called  the  "  Republic  of  the  Seveu  United  Provincoi." 
It  included  the  present  kingdom  of  Holland. 


•  Death  of  Surrey. 


496  Modern  History. 


72.  In  the  year  1679,  was  passed  the  famous  Ha' be-as 
Cor' pus  *  act,  securing  all  subjects  from  imprisonment,  ex- 
cept where  it  can  be  shown  to  be  justified  by  law. 
This  was  designed  to  check  the  illegal  and  arbi- 


Habeas  corpus. 


trary  arrests  made  by  the  authority  of  the  king,  who  in  every 
respect  exercised  the  most  despotic  sway.  He  deprived  many 
of  the  cities,  London  included,  of  their  charters,  in  order  to 
extort  money  for  their  restoration;  and  no  one  felt  himself 
secure  from  the  numerous  gangs  of  spies  and  in- 
formers who  were  employed  by  the  court.     This 


Rye-House  Plot. 


state  of  things  led  to  a  very  remarkable  conspiracy,  called  the 

Eye-House  Plot  (1683). 

73.  The  members  of  this  plot  were.  Lord  William  Russell, 

Algernon  Sidney,  John  Hampden  (grandson  of  the  great 
patriot),  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  (the  king's 
natural  son),  and  others.  The  object  was  to 
restore  the  liberties  of  the  country  by  dethron- 


Members  and 
object. 


ing  its  present  arbitrary  monarch,  but  the  conspirators  did 
not  agree  as  to  the  mode  of  accomplishing  it.  Monmouth 
expected  the  throne  himself,  Russell  wislied  simply  reform, 
and  Sidney  was  enthusiastic  for  the  restoration  of  the  re- 
public. The  plot  having  been  discovered,  Russell  and  Sidney 
were  beheaded  (1683);  but  Monmouth,  who  had 
succeeded  in  making  his  escape,  was  afterward 
pardoned.    The  death  of  Charles  occurred  a  short 


Death  of 
Charles. 


time  afterward  (1685);  and  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York, 
succeeded,  under  the  title  of  James  IT. 

74.  James  11.,  notwithstanding  the  glory  he  had  acquired 
as  a  naval  commander,  was  very  unpopular  on  account  of  his 
religion,  to  which  ho  showed  the  greatest  attachment.  The 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  who  had  lied  to  Holland  during  the  pre- 


*  Hahecut  corpiut  means  "  have  the  body."  Tho  writ,  or  order  of  the  court  of 
Justice,  was  so  called  becau8<>  It  enjoins  any  person  n'sttiiinlnj?  another's  Iil)erty,  to 
have  his  body,  that  Is,  to  prmluee  the  prisoner,  before  the  court,  so  that  the  cause 
of  his  'ietention  may  be  ksiown. 


England.  497 


ceding  reign,  now  set  up  a  claim  to  the  throne,  and  landing 
in  England,  was  soon  joined  by  a  considerable 
force.     He  was,  however,  completely  defeated  at 


Insurrection. 


Sedge'moor,*  and  being  apprehended  after  the  battle,  was 
tried  and  executed  (1685).  The  most  dreadful  persecution 
followed  of  those  who  were  implicated  in  the  rebellion.  Trials 
were  held  under  the  infamous  Judge  Jeffreys; 
and  many  innocent  persons  were  condemned  and 


Jeffries. 


executed.     This  wicked  judge  boasted  of  the  large  number  of 
persons  (more  than  300)  whom  he  had  caused  to  be  hanged. 

75.  The  imprudent  zeal  of  the  king  in  promoting  the 
Catholics  to  power,  occasioned  great  excitement  and  dissatis- 
faction.    Having  issued  a  proclamation  allowing   | 

liberty  of  conscience,  and  declaring  that  non-con- 
formity to   the  established   religion   should  no 


Zeal  of  the 
king. 


longer  be  punished,  he  required  that  this  declaration  should 
be  read  in  all  the  churches.  The  clergy  refused  to  obey;  and  a 
petition  was  presented  against  the  proclamation  by  seven  bish- 
ops, including  Sancroft,  the  primate.  James,  exasperated  at 
this  opposition,  caused  the  bishops  to  be  arrested 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  (1688).  The  popular 
excitement  produced  by  this  act  of  the  king  was 


Arrest  of  the 
bishops. 


intense.  Crowds  attended  the  bishops  as  they  were  con- 
ducted to  the  Tower,  and  signified  their  sympathy  and  venera- 
tion in  every  possible  way.  The  acquittal  of  the  bishops  after 
their  trial  at  Westminster  Hall,  still  further  increased  the 
commotion,  even  the  soldiers  whom  James  had  collected  for 
his  protection  taking  part  against  him. 

76.  A  few  months  afterward,  William,  Pi'ince  of  Orange, f 
who  had  married  Mary,  eldest  daughter  of  James  II.,  taking 
advantage  of  the  popular  indignation  against  the  king,  set 

*  Sedgemoor,  a  wild  tract  of  country  in  the  southwestern  part  of  England,  not 
far  from  Bristol  Channel. 

t  William  was  the  son  of  Mary,  eldest  daughter  of  Charles  I.,  and  consequently 
was  a  nephew  of  James  II. :  and  Mary,  his  wife,  was  his  first  cousin.  Setting  aside 
tbe  family  of  James  II.,  William  was  thus  the  next  lawful  heir  to  the  throne. 


498 


Modern  History. 


sail  from  Holland  with  a  large  fleet  and  army,  and  proceeded 
to  England.  Having  el!ected  a  landing  at  Tor- 
bay,  he  marched  toward  London;  whereupon 
James,  finding  himself  without  support,  fled  to 

France.     A  convention  of  representatives  was   immediately 


Landing  of 
William. 


assembled  (January  1689);  and  the  crown  was  bestowed  on 
William  and  Mary  for  their  lives,  the  succes- 
sion being  settled  on  the  Princess  Anne,  second 


Convention. 


daughter  of  James  II.,  who  had  married  Prince  George  of 

Denmark.  The  convention  an- 
nexed to  this  settlement  a  Decla- 
ration of  Rights,  definitely  fixing 
the  extent  of  the  king's  preroga- 
tive, and  more  precisely  stating 
the  constitutional  principles  of 
the  government. 

77.  The  most  important  arti- 
cles of  this  instrument  were : 
1.  The  king  cannot  suspend  the 
laws  or  their  execution;  2.  He 
cannot  levy  money  without  the 
consent  of  Parliament;  3.  The  subjects  have  a  riglit  to  peti- 
tion the  crown;  4.  A  standing  army  cannot  be 
kept  in  time  of  peace  without  the  consent  of  Par- 
liament; 5.  Elections  and  parliamentary  debates 
must  be  free,  and  parliaments  must  be  frequently  assembled. 
These  acts  of  the  convention  were  afterward  confirmed  by  a 
l)arliament  regularly  summoned,  in  an  enactment 
called  the  Bill  of  Rights,  and  constituted  what  is 


William  III. 


Declaration  of 
rights. 


Revolution. 


called  in  English  history  the  Glorious  Revolution  of  1G88.* 

78.  William  and  Mary.  Although  the  crown  had  been 
conferred  jointly  upon  William  and  Mary,  the  administration 
of  the  government  was  exclusively  intrusted  to  the  former. 

*  So  called,  although  It  took  place  in  1689  (January);  because,  until  17&2,  the 
English  commenced  the  year  on  the  3&th  of  March. 


England,  499 


James  II.  having  received  a  considerable  naval  force  from 
the  French  king,  Louis  XIV.,  proceeded  to  Ire- 
land, where  the  people  were  generally  favorable 


James  II. 


to  his  cause.  He  was  received  with  great  demonstrations  of 
joy,  and  a  large  army  was  soon  collected  for  his  support.  He 
was,  however,  entirely  defeated  by  William  in  the  celebrated 
Battle  of  the  Boyne  (1690),  and  was  again  compelled  to  take 
refuge  in  France.  The  next  year  Ireland  was 
entirely  subdued;  and  the  Scottish  Highlanders, 
who  had  taken  up  arms  in  favor  of  James,  were 


Ireland  and 
Scotland. 


induced  to  submit  to  the  government.  In  connection  with 
the  pacification  of  the  Highlands,  occurred  the  dreadful  Mas- 
sacre of  Glencoe*  (1692). 

79.  The  war  with  France  still  continued;  and,  in  1692, 
the  French  fleet  was  defeated  by  the  combined  English  and 
Dutch  fleets,  under  the  command  of  Admiral 
Russell,  in  the  famous  battle  of  La  Hogue  {hog).  \ 


French  war. 


This  disastrous  defeat  decided  the  fate  of  James,  and  destj-oyed 
his  hopes  of  ever  regaining  the  English  throne.  The  war, 
however,  was  not  formally  terminated  until  the  treaty  of 
Rys'wick  (1697)4  William,  by  the  death  of  Mary,  in  1694, 
became  sole  ruler,  under  the  title  of  William  III. 
His  own  death  occurred  in  1702.     He  was  a  man 


William  III. 


of  great  abilities,  both  for  war  and  statesmanship,  and  a  most 
excellent  sovereign;  but  the  austerity  of  his  manners  made 
him  unpopular.  The  character  of  Mary  was  very  amiable 
and  exemplary. 

*  Mclan  of  Glencoe,  Chief  of  the  McDonalds,  had  delayed  taking  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  king;  and  the  enemies  of  the  clan,  taking  advantage  of  this  cir- 
cumstance, obtained  an  order  for  its  military  execution.  Accordingly,  a  body  of 
soldiers  entered  the  valley  of  Glencoe,  and  cruelly  put  to  the  sword  all  who  failed 
to  escape,  including  men,  women,  and  children.  The  signing  of  this  order  has  sub- 
jected Eang  William  to  very  severe  censure.  Glencoe  is  situated  at  Loch  Leven,  in 
the  western  part  of  Scotland. 

t  Cape  La  Hogue  is  in  the  northern  part  of  France,  a  short  distance  east  of  Cher- 
bourg, and  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  Cape  La  Hacfiie.  to  the  west  of  Cherbourg. 

t  Ryswick  is  a  small  town  in  the  western  part  of  Holland,  35  miles  southw<?§t 
from  Amsterdam. 


500 


Modern  History. 


80.  Anne.     This  reign  is  almost  wholly  occupied  with  the 
War  of  the  Spanish   Succession,  so  Ciilled  because  it  was 
waged  against  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  who,  in 
tlie  prosecution  of  his  ambitious  schemes,  at- 


War. 


tempted  to  obtain  control  of  Spain  by  placing  one  of  liis  own 
relatives  on  the  throne  of  that  country.  This  had  led,  in 
1701,  to  the  formation  of  a  league,  called  tlie 
Grand  Alliance,  between  England,  Holland,  and 


Grand  Alliance. 


Germany,  the  object  of  which  was  to  check  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  French  king.  Louis 
XIV.  had  given  additional  cause 
of  complaint  to  William  by  ac- 
knowledging, on  the  death  of 
James  II.,  the  son  of  tlie  latter 
king  of  England  (1701).  War, 
for  which  i)reparatio!is  had  been 
already  made,  was  formally  de- 
clared against  France  shortly 
after  the  accession  of  Queen 
Anne,  who  determined  to  pur- 
sue the  policy  of  King  William. 

The  chief  command  of  the  army  was  conferred  on  the  Duko 

of  Maryborough  (1702).* 

81.  During  the  first  campaign,  Marlborough  made  some 

conquests  in  Flanders;   and,  in  the   next,  he  defeated  the 

French  and  Bavarians  in  the  memorable  battle  of  Blenheim  f 


FlllNCE    El  OKNii. 


♦  John  Churchill,  Duke  of  Marlborough,  was  the  son  of  a  Cavalier,  who  was  in 
high  favor  with  the  Duke  of  York:  and  he  married  a  young  lady  who  was  the 
special  friend  and  favorite  of  Anne.  When,  therefore,  the  latter  Hscend»>d  the 
throne.  «he  was  so  much  under  the  influence  of  Lady  Marlborough  and  the  duke, 
her  husband,  that  these  were  regarded  as  virtually  almost  the  reigning  sovereigns, 
Pilnce  George  of  Denmark  making  no  interference  in  English  aiTairs.  The  corre 
spondence  of  the  queen  and  her  favorite  was  of  the  most  intimate  and  confidential 
character,  and  was  carried  on  under  the  names  of  Mrs:.  Morley  and  Mrs.  Freeman, 
the  latter  name  being  a.ssumed  by  the  duchess. 

t  Rlntheim  is  a  small  village  in  Bavaria,  on  the  Danube,  23  miles  W.  N.  W  of 
Augsburg. 


England.  501 


iblen'Mme)  (1704).  The  celebrated  Prince  Eugene*  com- 
manded the  imperial  troops  in  this  battle.  During  the  same 
year,  the  English  fleet  captured 'Gibraltar;  and 
this  strong  fortress  has  ever  since  remained  in 
the  possession  of  Great  Britain.     In  1706,  Marl 


Victories  of 
Marlborough. 


borough  gained  another  brilliant  victory  over  the  French  at 
Kamillies  {ram'e-leez),  and  by  means  of  it  made  almost  an 
entire  conquest  of  Flanders.  The  French  also  received  the 
same  year  a  terrible  overthrow  from  Prince  Eugene,  at  Tu'rin. 
The  year  1708  was  signalized  by  another  great  victory  over 
the  French  at  Ou'den-ar-de,  which  was  followed,  the  next 
year,  by  the  terrific  battle  of  Malplaquet  {mal-plah'ka),  in 
which  the  allied  army,  under  Marlborough,  routed  the  French, 
but  with  the  dreadful  loss  of  20,000  men.  This  decided  vic- 
tory finished  the  campaign  in  Flanders  (1709). 

82.  Shortly  afterward,  Marlborough,  being  accused  of  dis- 
honest practices  in  connection  with  the  army  contracts  and 
accounts,  was  dismissed  by  the  queen  from  all  his 
appointments.  The  parliament  also  having  passed 
a  vote  of  censure  of  his  conduct,  he  retired  from 


Dismissal  of 
Marlborough. 


England  in  disgust,  and  took  up  his  abode  in  the  Netherlands.! 
Peace  was  concluded  with  France  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
{u'trekt),  in  1713.  The  following  year  the  queen 
died.     She  was  very  popular,  receiving  the  title 


Death  of  Anne. 


of  the  Good  Queen  Anne;  but,  according  to  some  authorities, 
she  was  full  of  prejudices,  easily  influenced  by  flattery,  and 
blindly  guided  by  her  female  favorites.  Her  reign  was  not 
only  distinguished  for  military  achievements,  but  was  charac- 


*  Prince  Eugene  was  bom  in  Paris  in  1663.  He  was  the  son  of  Eugene  Maurice, 
Count  of  Soissons,  and  of  Olympia  Mancini,  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.  He  entered 
the  servioe  of  the  emperor,  and  soon  gained  great  distinction,  especially  in  the 
wars  with  the  Turks.  He  died  in  1736.  He  was  small  in  stature,  simple  in  dress 
and  manner,  and  kind-hearted  in  his  treatment  of  his  soldiers. 

t  Marlborough  was  afterward  restored  to  his  position  in  the  army.  He  died  In 
"!792.  He  is  said  to  have  been  so  illiterate  that  he  could  not  write  his  native  lan- 
guage with  tolerable  correctness.    Avarice  was  his  greatest  weakness. 


602  Modern  History, 

terized  to  such  an  extent  for  progress  in  literature,  that  it 
has  been  styled  the  **  Augustan  Age  of  Enghiud."  The  chief 
political  event  was  the  **  Constitutional  Union  of 
England  and  Scotland,"  in  1707.  These  two 
countries,  since  the  accession  of  James  I.,  had 


Character  and 
reign. 


acknowledged  one  sovereign,  each  having  its  own  separate 
legislature;  but,  since  the  union  of  1707,  they  have  both  sent 
representatives  to  the  same  parliament.  Queen  Anne  was 
the  last  sovereign  of  the  House  of  Stuart. 

State  of  Society  ik  England, 

During  the  Period  of  tite  Stuarts  (1603-1714). 

83.  This  period  is  particularly  noted  for  the  rapid  transit 

tions  that  occurred  in  moral  and  religious  sentiments  among 

the    people,    as   well   as   their    social    manners. 

Party  animosity   was   so  intense  that  no  mar- 


Party  strife. 


riages,  or  alliances  of  any  kind,  were  permitted  between  the 
members  of  the  hostile  factions.  **  Your  friends,  the  Cava- 
liers," said  a  parliamentarian  to  a  royalist,  **  are  very  disso- 
lute and  debauched."  *^True,"  replied  the  royalist,  "they 
have  the  infirmities  of  men;  but  your  friends,  the  Round- 
heads, have  the  vices  of  devils  —  tyranny,  rebellion,  and 
spiritual  pride." 

84.  The  Cavaliers  were  indeed  gay  in  their  manners  and 
dress,  being  commonly  men  of  birth  and  fortune,  and  they 
thus  presented  a  marked  contrast  to  the  gloomy 
fanaticism  of  the  Roundheads.     The  risrid  sever- 


CavalJers. 


ity  of  the  Puritans  permitted  no  recreations,  except  such 
as  were  afforded  by  the  singing  of  hymns  and 
psalms.      Plays,    dances,   and  all  other    merry- 


Puritant. 


makings  were  sinful  frivolities:  horse-racing  and  bear-baiting 
— popular  diversions  of  the  time — were  wicked  enormities. 
Hence,  Colonel  Hewson  with  pious  zeal  marched  his  regiment 
into  London  and  killed  all  the  boars  ;  on  which  incident 
Butler  based  a  part  of  his  burlesque  poem,  styled  **  Hudibnis." 


England. 


503 


86.  During  this  period  arose  also  the  Quakers  or  Friends 
— a  sect  founded  by  George  Fox,  who  was  born  in  1624.  He 
was  by  trade  a  shoemaker;  but  feeling  a  strong 
impulse    toward    spiritual    contemplations,    he 


Quakers. 


abandoned  this  occupation,  and  wandered  about  the  country, 
preaching  the  doctrines  which  had  been  suggested  to  his  mind 
during  his  solitary  meditations.  Proselytes  were  soon  gained, 
and  a  sect  formed,  peculiar  not  only  in  their  religious  views, 
but  in  all  their  social  habits  and  customs.  Their  zeal  was 
soon  tried  by  bitter  persecution. 
They  were  thrown  into  prison — 
sometimes  into  mad-houses;  they 
were  pilloried;  they  were  whipped; 
they  were  burned  in  the  face;  and 
their  tongues  bored  with  red-hot 
irons;  but  nothing  could  overcome 
their  fortitude,  or  quench  their  en- 
thusiasm. Driven  out  of  England, 
they  vainly  sought  an  asylum  among 
their  former  brethren  in  affliction, 
the  Puritans  of  New  England;  but,  under  William  Penn, 
found  it  in  the  wilds  and  among  the  wild  men  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, as  the  Catholitjs,  under  Lord  Baltimore,  had  previ- 
ously done  in  Maryland. 

86.  Commerce  and  navigation  flourished  greatly  during 
the  first  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  The  trade  to  Guinea, 
the  Levant,  and  the  East  Indies  was  quite  large; 
immense  quantities  of  cloth  were  annually  ex- 
ported to  Turkey;  and  the  English  possessed  al- 
most the  monopoly  of  the  traffic  with  Spain.  Interrupted 
during  the  civil  wars,  commerce  soon  recovered  after  the 
Restoration,  and  received  additional  encouragement  from  the 
losses  sustained  by  the  Dutch.  The  trade  with  the  American 
colonies  soon  became  considerable.  At  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury, about  five  hundred  vessels  were  employed  in  this  trade 


Cavalier  and  Puritan. 


Commerce  and 
navigation. 


604 


Modern  History. 


and  that  with  the  West  Indies.  Of  these  some  were  engaged 
in  the  slave-trade.  Tea  and  coffee  were  introduced  from  the 
East,  but  for  a  long  time  were  so  expensive  that  they  were 
used  only  as  luxuries.  Tobacco  became  extensively  an  article 
of  commerce,  notwithstanding  "The  Counterblaste  to  To- 
bacco," written  by  James  I.,  who  had  a  great  dislike  to  its 


6HIF8  OV  WAB  in  TBK  'i 


c;harles  II. 


use.  Whale-ships  visited  Greenland  and  Spitzbergen;  and 
Madras  and  Bombay  became  important  centers  of  the  East 
Indian  trade. 

87.  Next  to  the  capital,  the  chief  seaport  was  Bristol,  and 
Norwich  the  chief  manufacturing  town.     Manchester,  now 
the  great  center  of  the  cotton  manufacture,  was 
then  a  small  town  of  about  6,000  inhabitants; 


Chi«f  town*. 


Leeds,  the  great  woolen  mart,  was  but  a  little  larger;  Sheflficld 
and  Birmingham  were  very  small  towns;  and  Liverpool,  prob- 
ably, did  not  contain  200  seamen.  The  population  of  Ijon- 
don  at  the  death  of  Charles  II.  is  estimated  at  half  a  million. 


England.  505 


The  streets,  narrow,  dirty,  unpayed,  and  not  lighted  till  the 
last  year  of  that  monarch's  reign,  were  infested  with  ruffians 
and  robbers,  against  whom  the  watchmen,  generally  old  and 
feeble  men,  could  afford  no  protection. 

88.  Manufacturing  industry  began  to  assume  that  promi- 
nence in  England  which  it  at  present  possesses.  The  cotton 
manufacture  was  commenced  at  Manchester,  and 
the  art  of  dyeing  woolen  cloth  was  introduced 


Manufactures. 


from  Flanders,  thus  saving  the  nation  vast  sums  of  money. 
New  manufactures  were  also  established  in  iron,  brass,  silk, 
paper,  etc.  Tiie  trade  with  India  and  the  Levant  led  to  the 
introduction  of  many  articles  of  luxury,  both  in 
dress  and  furniture.  Carpets,  from  being  used 
only  as  covers  for  tables,  came  gradually  into 


Articles  of 
luxury. 


their  present  use;  although  during  most  of  this  period  rushes 
or  matting  constituted  the  only  covering  used  for  floors. 
The  manufacture  of  oil-cloth  was  commenced  in  1660.  The 
Duke  of  Buckingham  inti:oduced  the  making  of  glass  from 
Venice. 

89.  TJie  Stuarts  were  patrons  of  the  fine  arts.  The  value 
of  pictures  is  said  to  have  doubled  in  Europe  in  consequence 
of  the  competition  of  Charles  I,  and  Philip  IV. 
of  Spain   to   obtain   them.      The   distinguished 


Fine  arts. 


Dutch  painters,  Van  Dyke  and  Eubens,  were  invited  into 
England,  and  received  great  attention  from  the  Court.  Inigo 
Jones  and  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  renowned  architects, 
flourished  during  this  period.  The  former  built  the  beautiful 
banqueting-house  at  Whitehall;  the  latter  is  especially  cele- 
brated as  the  designer  of  St.  PauFs.  In  London  alone,  fifty- 
one  churches  were  erected  from  Wren's  designs. 

90.  During  the  reign  of  Charles  11. ,  there  arose  a  galaxy 
of  great  men,  distinguished  for  their  researches  in  every 
branch  of  knowledge.  Boyle,  by  his  improve- 
ments in  the  air-pump,  was  enabled  to  make  many 


Science. 


valuable  experiments  on  the  nature  and  properties  of  the  air; 


506 


Modern  History, 


Wallis  and  Hooke  made  some  valuable  improvements  in  op- 
tical instruments;  Flamsteed  and  llalley  wei'C  eminent  astron- 
omers— the  former  noted  for  the  catalogue  of  stars  which  he 
made;  the  latter  as  the  first  to  predict  the  return  of  a  comet. 
Harvey  also  announced  his  famous  discovery  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  (1628).  Above  all,  however,  towered  the  sublime 
genius  of  Newton,  the  discoverer  of  the  law  of  universal  gravi- 
tation. 

91.  The  number  of  printing-presses  in  the  kingdom  was 
quite  small;  and,  consequently,  books  were  scarce  and  dear. 
A  taste  for  reading  had,  however,  become  much 
more  general;  and  there  were  many  distinguished 


Books. 


writers  in  almost  every  branch 
of  literature.  In  the  first  part 
of  the  reign  of  James  I.,  the 
drama  continued  to 
be  enriched  by  the 


Literature. 


SBAKK8PKAR& 


contributions  of  Shakespeare, 
who  died  in  1616.  Beaumont, 
Fletcher,  and  Philip  Massinger 
were  noted  dramatists  of  this 
reign,  with  Ben  Jonson  (1574- 
1637),  who  was  poet-laureate.* 
Sir  Walter  Kaleigh  wrote,  while 
in  prison,  the  History  of  the  World;  and  Lord  Bacon  pub- 
lished those  great  philosopliical  works,  The  Advancement  of 
Learnmg  and  the  Novum  Organina  (New  Instrument),  wliich 
changed  the  methods  of  scientific  investigation.  Bacon  is 
sometimes  called  the  **  Father  of  the  Inductive  Philosophy."! 

♦  Laureate  means  crowned  with  laurel,  in  allusion  to  the  ancient  practice  of  thiig 
rewaixling  eminent  poets.  Traces  of  this  appointment  are  found  as  early  as  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.  The  office  was  made  a  patent  one  by  Charles  I.,  who  fixed  the 
salary  at  JBlOO  a  year,  and  a  tierce  of  wine. 

t  '*  The  power  and  compass  of  a  mind  which  could  form  such  a  plan  beforehand, 
and  trace  noc  merely  the  outline,  but  many  of  the  most  minute  ramifications  of 
sciences  whtch  did  not  yet  exist,  must  be  an  object  of  admiration  t*)  all  succeeding 
age»."-/^o/.  I'layfair, 


England,  ^iff 


92.  In  the  next  period,  including  the  reigns  of  Charles  I. 
and  Charles  II.,  the  most  prominent  poets  were  Sir  William 
Daveaant,  who  succeeded  Ben  Jonson  as  poet- 
laureate;    Abraham   Cowley,  who   at  his  death 


Noted  writers. 


(1667)  ranked  as  the  first  poet  of  England;  John  Milton 
(1608-1674),  the  illustrious  author  of  Paradise  Lost;  Kobert 
Herrick,  one  of  the  most  charm- 
ing of  the  early  English  lyric 
poets;  and  Samuel  Butler,  the 
author  of  the  satirical  poem  Hu- 
dibras.  The  famous  poet  and 
dramatist  John  Dryden  (1631- 
1700),  who  was  poet-laureate, 
belongs  to  the  close  of  this  period. 
The  other  most  noted  contri- 
butors to  the  drama  were  Ot- 
way,  Congreve,  and  Wycherly, 
who  lived   during  tlie   reign  of  baoon. 

Charles  II.,  in  whicli  the  drama,  taking  its  character  from  the 
court,  was  shamefully  immoral. 

93.  The  most  celebrated  prose  writers  of  the  period  were 
Thomas  Fuller,  the  quaint  and  Avitty  historian,  divine,  and 
essayist;  Lord  Clarendon,  the  famous  statesman, 
who  wrote  the  History  of  the  ReheUion,  one  of 


Noted  w'ters. 


the  most  interesting  historical  works  in  the  language;  John 
Bunyan,  the  author  of  Pilgrim'' s  Progress;  and  Jeremy 
Taylor,  the  writer  of  Holy  Living  and  Dyi7ig,  To  the 
''Augustan  period*'  of  Queen  Anne  belong  the 
celebrated  essayists  Addison  and  Steele,  the  prin- 
cipal contributors  to  the  Spectator;  De  Foe,  the 


Augustan 
period. 


author  of  Eobinsoji  Crusoe;  Alexander  Pope,  the  author  of 
many  beautiful  poems  and  the  translator  of  Homer;  and  Jon- 
athan Swift,  the  author  of  Gulliver^ s  Travels,  and  other  satiri- 
cal works.  The  last-mentioned  writers  belong  in  part  to  the 
succeeding  period. 


508  Modern  History. 


SECTION  III. 

The  House  of  Brunswick. 

94.  George  I.  was  the  son  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  Elec- 
tor of  Hanover,  and  of  Sophia,  gi'and daughter  of  James  I. 
He  was  fifty-four  years  of  age  when  he  commenced  to  reign, 
and  never  acquired  any  sympathy  for  tho  English  people  or 
their  institutions.  The  Stuart  party,  who  favored  the  placing 
of  James  the  Pretender,  son  of  James  11.,  on  the  throne  (hence 
called  Jac'o-Mtes)y  excited  an  insurrection  (1715); 
but  the  rebels  were  defeated;  and  many  of  their 


Jacob'tes. 


leaders,  among  them  the  Earl  of  Derwentwater,  were  executed. 

The  Pretender,  sometimes  styled  the  Chevalier  of  St.  George, 

escaped  to  France.     George  I.  died  of  apoplexy  while  on  a 

visit  to  his  native  country  (1727). 

95.  George  II.  succeeded  his  father  at  the  age  of  forty-four 

years.  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  who  had  been  prime  minister 
during  a  large  part  of  the  previous  reign,  was 
continued  in  office,  and  administered  the  govern- 
ment, in  a  manner  conducive  to  the  peace  and 


Robert 
Walpole. 


prosperity  of  the  country,  till  his  resignation,  in  1742.  A 
difficulty  occurred  with  Spain  during  his  administration, 
partly  on  account  of  a  dispute  with  respect  to  the  boundary 
of  Georgia,  an  American  colony  which  had  been 
settled  by  General  Oglethorpe  in  1733,  and  named 


Spanish  war. 


after  tho  king;  and  several  of  the  Spanish  cities  in  South 
America  were  taken  by  the  English  fleets.  It  was  during  this 
war  that  Anson's  famous  expedition  occurred,  which  lasted 
nearly  four  years,  and  in  which  this  admiral  sailed  round  tho 
world  (1740-1744). 

96.  England,  in  the  mean  time,  became  involved  in  a 
continental  war.  On  the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  emperor  of 
Germany  (1740),  Louis  XV.,  king  of  France,  setting  aside 
the  hereditary  claims  of  Maria  Theresa  {te-re'zah),  the  em- 


England.  609 


peror's  daughter,  had  caused  the  Elector  of  Ba-va'ri-a  to  be 
placed  on  the  imperial  throne,  and  had  raised  a 
large  army  for  his  defense.    Maria  Theresa  taking 
refuge  among  the  Hungarians,  was  acknowledged 


War  with 
France. 


by  them  as  their  queen;  while  England,  supporting  the  claims 
of  the  Austrian  princess,  was  involved  in  a  war  with  France. 
This  is  called  in  history  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. 
The  most  important  events  of  it  were  the  defeat  of  the  French 
at  Dettingen  {def  ting-en),*  by  the  allied  army  of  the  English 
and  Germans,  in  part  under  the  command  of  George  II.  in 
person  (1743);  and  the  defeat  of  the  allies  (England,  Hol- 
land, and  Austria),  under  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  by  the 
French,  under  Marshal  Saxe  {sax)  (1745),  in  the  memorable 
battle  of  Fontenoy  {fon-ta-mvah')  \.  The  operations  of  the 
war  also  extended  to  the  American  colonies;  and  Louisburg, 
an  important  French  fortress,  called,  from  its  strength,  the 
**  Gibraltar  of  America,"  was  captured  (1745). 

97.  While  these  events  were  in  progress,  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  invade  England  and  overturn  the  government  was 
made  by  Prince  Charles,  grandson  of  James  II. 
He  effected  a  landing  in  Scotland,  though  with- 


Prince  Charles. 


out  any  military  support  (1745).  Being  soon  joined  by  a 
small  army  of  Highlanders,  he  defeated  the  royal  forces;  and, 
having  taken  Edinburgh  and  some  other  cities,  he  caused  his 
father  to  be  proclaimed  king  of  Scotland,  under  the  title  of 
James  VIII.  He  next  marched  into  England,  but  was  soon 
compelled  to  retreat,  being  pursued  by  the  royal  army,  under 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  second  son  of  George  II.  The  two 
armies  at  length  met  at  Cul-lo'den;  and  a  battle 
was  fought,  in  which  the  Pretender  and  his  ad- 


Culloden. 


herents  were   entirely  defeated   (174G).      This  was  the  last 
battle  fought  on  the  soil  of  Great  Britain,  and  closed  the 

*  Dettingen  is  a  village  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Main  River,  east  of  Frankfort. 
+  Fontenoy  is  a  village  of  Belgium,  43  miles  southwest  from  Brussels,  about  half- 
way between  Oudenarde  and  Majplaquet,    (See  Map,  page  380.) 


610  Modern  History, 

struggle   made  by  the  Stuarts  to  regain  their  lost  throne. 

Prince  Charles  wandered  in  disguise  through  the  country  foi 

five  months;  but,  at  length,  succeeded  in  effecting  his  escape 

to  France. 

98.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  made  with  France  at  Aix-la- 

Chapelle,  in  1748,  by  which  Maria  Theresa's  claim  to  the 
throne  was  confirmed;  but  the  war  was  soon 
after  renewed  in  consequence  of  disputes  respect- 


French  war. 


ing  the  boundary  of  the  French  and  English  territories  in 
America.  In  1755,  General  Braddock  was  defeated  by  the 
French  in  an  expedition  against  Fort  du  Quesne  (doo-lcane*)\ 
but  General  Johnson  gained  a  victory  over  the  French  and 
Indians  at  the  head  of  Lake  George,  Baron  Dieskau  (dees'- 
koiu'),  tlieir  commander,  being  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 
An  expedition  under  Colonel  Monckton  {monh'tun),  the  same 
year,  drove  the  French  from  Nova  Scotia.  In  1759,  General 
Wolfe  succeeded  in  reaching  the  Plains  of  Abra- 
ham with  his  army,  and  defeated  the  French  forces 


Wolfe. 


under  the  Marquis  of  Montcalm  (mont-Jcam').  Both  generals 
were  mortally  wounded.  Quebec  capitulated  after  this  vic- 
tory, which  virtually  gave  to  the  English  possession  of  Canada. 
99.  Meanwhile,  England  had  taken  part  in  the  famous 
Seven  Years'  War,  brought  on  by  a  coalition  of  France  and 
several  of  the  other  European  states,  against 
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia.  Principally  witli 
the  object  of  defending  the  Electorate  of  Han- 


Seven  Years* 
War. 


over,  England  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Prussian  monarch; 
and,  under  the  able  r.d ministration  of  William  Pitt,  afterward 
Earl  of  Chatham,  the  government  displayed  great  vigor  and 
enterprise.  The  want  of  success,  however,  of  the'Duko  of 
Cumberland  enjibled  the  French  to  overrun  Hanover  (1757), 
it  which  the  king  was  so  indignant  that  he  treated  his  son 
with  the  greatest  coldness.  Offended  by  this  treatment,  the 
yictor  of  CuUoden  resigned  all  his  offices,  and  went  into 
retirement,     Hanover  was  recovered  the  next  year  after  its 


England, 


511 


conquest,  and  important  advantages  were  gained  by  Ered- 

erick.     Lord  Olive  also  won  a  series  of  splendid   i 

victories  over  the  French  m  Inaia,  achieving  the 

conquest  of  Bengal.*     Before  the  war  was  brought  to  a  close. 


Gkographicai.  Study. 
What  is  tJie  situation  of:  Bengal?    Dkccan?    Bombay?    Madras?    Afghanis 
TAN?     ScrNDE?     Punjab?    Nkpaul?     Bootan?    Calcutta?    Benares?     Lucknowt 
Meerut?   Delhi?    Cawnpore?  Arcot?    Tanjore?    Pondicherry?    Lahore?   CaboolJ 

the  king  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  under  the 
title  of  George  III.  (1760). 

♦"CUve  was  indeed,  as  Chatham  once  called  him,  a  *  Heaven-bom  general,* 
who,  with  no  military  training,  had  shown  consummate  military  genius.  With 
nearly  as  little  study  cf  politics,  he  displayed  nearly  ac  great  abilities  for  govern- 


512  Modern  History, 


100.  George  III.  was  twenty-two  years  old  when  he  as- 
cended the  throne,  and  was  the  first  king  of  the  House  of 
Brunswick  that  was  born  in  England.  Pitt  soon  afterward 
retired  from  the  government,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Lord  Bute,  a  man  of  indifferent  merit,  but  an 


Lord  Bute. 


especial  favorite  of  the  king.  The  arms  of  Great  Britain  and 
her  allies  continued  to  be  successful  in  Europe,  notwithstand- 
ing her  enemies  were  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  Spain; 
but  the  government  desired  peace,  which  was  finally  attained 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  made  in  1763.  The  most  important 
conquests  made  by  the  English  during  this  long 
war  were  those  in  North  America  and  India.     In 


Conquests. 


the  latter  country,  the  genius  of  Olive  had  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  British  power  so  firmly,  that  the  French  could 
never  afterward  regain  their  influence. 

101.  Shortly  after  this  peace,  the  famous  Stamp  Act  was 
for  the   purpose   of  raising  a  revenue  in  America 
(1765).      The  measure  was  greatly  opposed  in 
Parliament  by  the  Earl  of  Chatham  and  others, 
as  impolitic  and  unjust;  but  the  government  in- 


American 

revolution. 


sisted  on  its  right  to  tax  tlie  colonies;  and  the  latter,  after 
a  resistance  of  ten  years,  were  finally  driven  into  the  War  of 
the  Revolution,  which  commenced  at  Lexington,  in  Massa- 
chusetts  (April   19,    1775).*      The  next  year,  the  thirteen 


ment.— Energy,— which  perhaps,  of  all  human  qualities,  is  the  one  most  conducive 
to  success,— energy  and  fearlessness,  were  peculiarly  his  own.  Whatever  RT^titude 
Spain  owes  to  her  Cortes,  or  Portugal  to  her  Albuquerque,  tliis,  and  in  its  resijlta 
more  than  this.  Is  due  from  Enprland  to  Clive.  Had  he  never  been  Iwm,  I  do  not 
believe  that  we  should,  at  least  in  that  generation,  have  conquered  Hindostan :  had 
he  lived  longer,  I  doubt  If  we  should,  at  least  in  that  generation,  have  lost  North 
America."— Lord  Mahon'a  History  of  England. 

Olive's  conduct  In  India,  a  short  time  after  his  return  to  England,  In  1787,  was 
brought  under  parliamentary  censure,  and,  smarting  with  disgrace,  he  i3ommitted 
suicide  (1774). 

•  "  In  order  to  enforce  the  monstrous  claim  of  ta.dng  a  whole  people  without 
their  consent,  there  was  waged  agixinst  America  a  war  ill  ronductod.  nnsuccpssful, 
and,  what  Is  far  worse,  accompanied  by  crueltios  disgraceful  to  a  ci>*Ilizp<l  nation. 
To  this  may  be  added,  that  an  Immense  trade  was  nearly  annihilated;  eveiy  brannb 


England. 


513 


colonies,  through  their  representatives  in  Congress,  declared 
their  independence  (July  4),  which,  after  a  determined  strug- 
gle of  nearly  seven  years,  they  successfully  achieved,  the 
British  general  Cornwallis  being  compelled  to  surrender  his 
army  to  George  Washington,  at  Yorktown  (October  19,  1781). 
Previous  to  this  event,  the  Americans  under  General  Gates 
had  compelled  the  surrender  of  a  British  army  under  Bur- 
goyne,  at  Saratoga  (1777);  and  the  French  king,  Louis  XVL, 
taking  advantage  of  this  suc- 
cess, had  acknowledged  the 
independence  of  the  colonies. 
A  war,  therefore,  ensued  be- 
tween England  and  France, 
which  continued  until  1783, 
when  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded  at  Paris,  one  of  the 
conditions  of  which  was,  that 
the  independence  of  the  Ameri- 
can colonies  should  be  acknowl- 
edged by  England. 

102.    During   this  period, 
important  advantages  had  been 
gained  by  the  British  in  India 
under  Warren  Hastings;  but  the  measures  which  he  adopted 
to  obtain  money,  in  order  to  make  the  large  re- 
mittances expected  by  the  East  India  Company, 
were  characterized  by  great  oppression  and  injus- 
tice against  the  natives  and  their  rulers.     On  his 


Washington. 


Warren 
Hastings. 


return  to 

England,  articles  of  impeachment  were  presented  against  him 
in  Parliament  by  the  celebrated  Edmund  Burke,  and  the  trial 
that  ensued  is  one  of  the  most  memorable  in  history.  It  com- 
menced in  1788,  and  lasted  till  1795,  resulting  in  the  acquit- 

of  commerce  was  thrown  into  confusion;  we  were  disgraced  in  the  eyes  of  Europe; 
we  incurred  an  expense  of  £140,000,000;  and  we  lost  by  far  the  most  valuable  col* 
onies  any  nation  has  ever  possessed. "~Z?ucfc'e's  History  of  Civilization. 


514  Modern  History. 


tal  of  Hastings.  This  trial  is  not  only  remarkable  for  its 
length,  but  for  the  brilliant  displays  of  oratory  to  which  it 
gave  occasion,  on  the  part  of  the  managers  of  the  impeach- 
ment, Burke,  Sheridan,  Fox,  Windham,  and  others — a  gal- 
axy of  great  men  unsurpassed  for  splendor  in  the  annals  of 
Great  Britain.* 

103.  Meanwhile  the  great  French  revolution  had  broken 
out  (1789),  and  in  its  progress  all  Euro])e  was  convulsed. 
The  British  Government,  under  the  administration  of  William 
Pitt,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  took  an  active 
part  against  the  revolutionists  in  France.     After 


French  war. 


the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.,  in  1793,  Great  Britain,  Hol- 
land, Russia,  and  Spain  formed  a  coalition  to  restore  the 
DQonarchy  in  France.  Few  victories  were,  however,  gained 
over  the  French  armies;  but  the  English  fleets,  under  Nelson 
and  others,  acquired  great  glory.  In  1798,  Nel- 
son fought  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  in  which  ho 
destroyed  the  ships  that  had  conveyed  Napoleon 


Nelson's 
victory. 


and  his  army  to  Egypt;  and,  in  1801,  he  fought  the  battle  of 
Copenhagen,  and  partially  destroyed  the  Danish  fleet.  Tiiis 
had  the  effect  to  prevent  a  threatened  alliance  of  the  north- 
ern powers  against  England.  In  this  year  (1801),  Ireland 
was  constitutionally  united  to  Great  Britain,  its  legislature 
being  abolished. 

104.  An  important  victory  was  gained  (18C1)  by  Sir  Rnlph 
Abercromby  over  the  French  forces  left  by  Nai)oleo^i  in 
Egypt  to  menace  the  power  of  Great  Britain  in  tlie  East; 
after  which  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  at 
Amiens  (rim'c-enz)  with  the  French  Government, 
then  under  the  control   of   Napoleon   as  First 


Treaty  of 
Amiana. 


Consul  (1802);  but  the  next  year  hostilities  were  resumed, 
and  England  was  threatened  with  a  French  invasion.  It  was 
during  this  war  that  Nelson  gained  his  most  splendid  victory, 

♦  TTnstinp?  lived  twenty-four  years  after  his  acquittal.    His  death  occurred  on 
the  !&Jd  of  August,  1819,  in  the  eighty-sixth  year  of  his  age. 


England.  515 


over  the  combined  French  and  Spanish  fleets  off  Cape  Traf- 
ai-gar';  but  the  great  admiral  was  mortally  wounded  in  the 
action  (1805).* 

105.  In  1808,  the  Peninsular  War  was  commenced,  being 
caused  by  the  unjust  attempt  of  Napoleon,  then  emperor  of 
France,  to  place  his  brother  Joseph  on  the  throne  of  Spain, 
in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  of  that 
country.    Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  afterward  created 


Peninsular  War. 


Duke  of  Wellington,  was  sent  with  an  army  to  prevent  the 
consummation  of  this  project;  and  he  defeated  the  Frencli 
(1808)  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Vimeira  {ve-ma'e-rali).\  Sir 
John  Moore,  who  had  been  sent  to  co-operate  with  the  Span- 
iards against  the  French,  was  compelled  to  retreat,  receiving 
no  aid  from  the  inhabitants.  He  afterward  fell  in  the  battle 
which  took  place  at  Co-run'na,  where  the  French  were  re- 
pulsed; and  the  English  troops  made  their  escape  from  the 
country,  with  the  assistance  of  the  fleet  (1809). 

106.  Under  Wellington  the  war  was  continued  in  the  Pen- 
insula until  1814;  and  the  victories  at  Ta-la-ve'ra  (1809),  at 
Sa-la-man'ca  (1812),  and  Vit-to'ri-a  (1813)  re- 
flected great  glory  on  the  British  general's  name. 


Wellington. 


Meanwhile  Great  Britain  had  been  active  in  the  opposition 
made  by  the  great  European  powers  against  the  ambitious 
schemes  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon;  and,  both  by 
her  counsels  and  pecuniary  as  well  as  military  aid, 
contributed  not  a  little  to  his  downfall  in  1814. 


Fall  of 
Napoleon. 


During  this  period  war  had  also  been  waged  with  the  United 

*  "Nelson's  whole  career,  from  his  first  entrance  into  the  navy  to  the  battle  of 
Trafalgar,  exhibited  a  pattern  of  every  manly  virtue.  Bold  in  conception,  cautious 
in  construction,  firm  in  execution,  cool  in  danger,  he  was  the  most  successful, 
because  the  most  profound  and  intrepid  of  leaders.  The  most  triumphant  death 
is  that  of  the  martyr;  the  most  splendid,  that  of  the  hero  in  the  hour  of  victory; 
and  if  the  chariot  and  horses  of  fire  had  been  vouchsafed  for  Nelson's  translation, 
he  could  scarcely  have  departed  in  a  brighter  blaze  of  glory."— ^Zison's  History  of 
Europe. 

t  Vimeira  is  a  small  town  near  the  western  coast  of  Portugal,  about  30  miles 
Dorthwest  from  LisDon.    (See  Map  No.  XIX.) 


516  Modern  History. 


States,  brought  on  principally  by  the  unjust  claims  of  Great 
Britain  to  the  right  of  searching  American  ves- 
sels for  deserters  and  British  seamen,  in  order 
tiiat  she  might  seize  them  or  impress  them  into 


United  States 
war. 


her  service.     This  war  was  formally  closed  by  the  treaty  of 

Ghent  (December  14,  1814). 

107.  Napoleon,  escaping  from  Elba,  to  which  he  had  been 

banished,  and  resuming  the  throne  of  France,  again  roused 
the  European  nations  against  him.  This  led  to 
the  memorable  battle  of  Waterloo,  in  which  Wel- 


Waterloo. 


lington  gained  his  most  splendid  victory  (June  18,  1815). 
Thus  was  ended  the  great  struggle  which  for  nearly  twenty- 
five  years  had  been  made  by  Great  Britain  to  check  the  con- 
quests of  the  French,  and  preserve  the  **  balance  of  power" 
in  Europe.  To  accomplish  this  end  immense  sacrifices  of 
men  and  money  had  been  made,  tlie  national  debt  having 
been  increased  to  nearly  nine  hundred  millions  sterling. 
George  III.  died  in  1820,  after  a  reign  of  sixty 
years — the  longest  in  English  history.  It  was 
distinguished  not  only  for  its  remarkable  mili- 


Reig^n  of 
George  III. 


tary  events,  but  for  its  i)rogress  in  commerce,  science,  and 
the  useful  arts,  for  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and 
for  its  splendid  productions  of  literary  genius.  The  i)nvate 
character  of  George  III.,  in  every  relation  of  life,  was  wortliy 
of  esteem;  but  his  moderate  abilities,  narrow  views,  and  ob- 
stinacy as  a  king,  have  subjected  his  name  to  a  great  deal  of 
obloquy  and  contempt. 

108.  George  IV.,  who  succeeded  his  father  at  the  age  of 
fifty-eight,  had  been  noted  for  his  profligacy  and  cxtr.iva- 
ganco  in  the  previous  ])art  of  liis  life.     Ho  was  a 
man  of  polished  manners,  but  was  jjcrfoctly  un- 


Character. 


principled  and  heartless.      As  Prince  Regent  lie  had  been 
virtually  king  for  ten  years  before  his  accession,  George  III 
having  become  incapable  of  governing  on  account  of  insanity. 
Almost  the  first  act  of  the  new  monarch  was  an  attempt  to 


England,  517 


obtain  a  divorce  from  his  wife,  Caroline  of  Brunswick.     The 
accusations  brought  against  her  were  believed  to 
be  unfounded,  and  popular  sympathy  was  strongly 


Queen  Caroline. 


in  her  favor;  so  that  when,  on  account  of  the  able  defense  of 
her  by  Henry  Brougham  [afterward  Lord  Brougham  {hroo'^ 
ww)],  the  king  failed  in  his  object,  the  public  joy  was  so 
great  that  there  was  a  general  illumination.  She  died  a  short 
time  afterward. 

109.  The  Greeks  having  for  some  years  struggled  to  throw 
off  the  Turkish  yoke,  finally  secured  the  aid  of  Eugland, 
France,  and  Russia,  whose  combined  fleets  de- 
feated and  destroyed  the  Turkish  and  Egyptian 
fleet  in  the  battle  of  Navarino  {nah-vah-re' no) 


Greece  and 
Turkey. 


(1827).  By  this  event  the  independence  of  Greece  was 
achieved;  after  which  it  was  erected  into  a  separate  kingdom, 
the  crown  being  conferred  upon  Prince  Otho  of  Bavaria. 
During  this  contest  Lord  Byron  went  to  Greece 
to  render  assistance  to  the  oppressed  people;  but 


Byron. 


he  did  not  live  to  witness  the  triumph  of  the  cause,  dying  at 
Mis-so-lon'ghi  {-ghe)  in  1824.  Among  the  most  important 
events  of  this  reign  was  the  removal  of  civil  and 
political  disabilities  from  the  Catholics,  a  measure 


O'Connell. 


greatly  aided  by  the  efforts  of  the  great  Irish  orator  and 
patriot  Daniel  O'Connell.  The  death  of  George  IV.  occurred 
in  1830;  and  he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  the  Duke  of 
Clarence,  with  the  title  of  William  IV. 

110.  William  IV.  Near  the  beginning  of  this  reign,  mea- 
sures of  parliamentary  reform  were  loudly  called  for  by  the 
people,  and  a  Reform  Bill  was  brought  in  by  Lord 
John  Russell,  which  passed  in  1832.     The  effect 


Reform  BilL 


of  this  law  was  to  extend  the  right  of  suffrage,  and  distribute 
the  representation  more  equitably  among  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  kingdom.     The  year  1834  is 
memorable  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  through- 


Abolition  of 
slavey. 


out  all  the  British  colonies.     The  sum  of  £20,000,000  was 


518 


Modern  History. 


awarded  by  Parliament  to  the  planters  as  a  compensation  for 
the  loss  of  the  slaves  emancipated;  and  nearly  three-fourths 
of  a  million  of  human  beings  were  set  free.  William's  reign 
was  terminated  by  his  death  in  1837;  but,  brief  as  it  was,  it 
was  replete  with  beneficent  measures  which  have  made  it  dear 
to  the  memory  of  the  English  people. 

111.  Victoria,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Kent,  and  niece 
of  William  IV.,   suc- 


Hanover. 


ceeded  the 
latter  on 
the  throne,  which  she 
has  continued  to  oc- 
cupy up  to  the  present 
time  (1882).  The  con- 
nection between  Great 
Britain  and  Hanover, 
which  had  lasted  123 
years,  was  dissolved  on 
her  accession,  since  the 
laws  of  the  latter  coun- 
try exclude  females 
from  the  throne.  Iler 
uncle,  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland,  accord- 
ingly succeeded  Wil- 
liam IV.  as  king  of 
Hanover.  In  1837,  an 
insurrection  broke  out 
in  Canada.  Distur- 
bances were  also  caused 


York  Mihbtcr. 


Chartists. 


by  the  Chartists,  an  association  of  radical  reform- 
ers, who  demanded  a  "  new  charter,"  embodying 
universal  suffrage,  vote  by  ballot,  and  the  entire  abolition  of 
the  property  qualification  of  members  of  Parliament.  Great 
mass-meetings  of  the  people  were  held,  at  one  of  whicb  as 


England,  519 


many  as  200,000  persons  were  computed  to  have  been  present. 
The  demands  of  the  Chartists  being  refused,  riots  ensued, 
which,  however,  were  soon  put  down  (1839). 
The  next  year  the  queen  was  married  to  Prince 
Albert,  of  Saxe-Co'burg-Go'tha  (one  of  the  Ger- 


Queen's 
marriage. 


man  states).  A  portion  of  the  famous  York  Minster,  among 
the  finest  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  in  the  world,  was 
partly  consumed  by  fire  this  year  (1840),  but  was  restored  at 
acost  of  $100,000.* 

112.  The  prominent  events  in  the  next  thirteen  years 
were  the  insurrection  in  Cabul  {kah-hooV),  in  which  the  Eng- 
lish were  driven  out  of  Af-ghan-is-tan',  and  the 
retreating  army  nearly  all  perished  (1841);  with 


Cabul. 


the  recapture  of  the  city  in  1842;  the  reduction  of  Scinde 
(sind),  a  district  on  the  lower  Indus,  by   Sir 
Charles  Na'pi-er  (1843);  and  the  war  with  the 


Scinde. 


Sikhs  of  the  Pun-jab',  who,  after  a  severe  contest,  were  sub- 
dued (1849).     (See  map,  page  511.)     The  most 
important  measure  of  Parliament  was  the  repeal 


Corn  laws. 


of  the  corn  laws,  by  wliich  the  country  was  opened  to  the 
free  importation  of  grain  (1846). 

113.  The  Russians  having  seized  upon  the  Danubian  prin- 
cipalities, Wal-la'chi-a  and  Mol-da'vi-a,  England  formed  an 
alliance  with  France,  to  protect  Turkey  from  the 
encroachments  of  the  czar  (1853).     This  led  to 


Crimean  War. 


the  Crim-e'an  War,  during  which  the  allied  fleets  blockaded 
the  harbor  of  Sebastopol,  and,  after  a  siege  of  eleven  months, 
captured  the  city  (1855).  During  this  siege  were  fought 
the  celebrated  battles  of  Al'ma,  Balakla'va,  and  Inkerman', 
in  the  second   of  which  the    "Six   Hundred"   made  their 

*  This  structiire  was  built  chiefly  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
Its  length  is  524  feet,  and  its  extreme  breadth  250  feet,  being  considerably  longei 
than  Westminster  Abbey  or  Sr.  Paul's  Cathedral.  It  was  set  on  fire,  in  1829,  by 
a  maniac;  and  the  repairs  from  this  conflagration  were  not  completed,  when, 
through  the  carelessness  of  a  workman,  that  in  1&40  occurred,  destroying  the  south 
west  tower,  with  its  fine  peal  of  bells,  and  the  roof  of  the  nave. 


520 


Modern  History, 


famous  charge.  The  fortifications  defending  the  city  were  of 
immense  extent  and  strength,  and  the  French  greatly  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  the  vigor  and  gallantry  of  their 
assaults.  The  Mal'akoff  and  Redan',  two  of  the  strongest 
works,  were  stormed  by  them,  after  the  English  troops  had 
failed  in  the  attempt.  Peace  was  signed  with  Russia  in  185G. 
In  the  same  year,  the  kingdom  of  Oudo  (pivd) 
was  annexed  to  British  India:  and  a  war  with 


Oude. 


Persia,  after  the  taking  of  Bushire   {boo-sheer')   and   other 

towns,  was  ended  by  a  treaty  (1857). 

114.  The  year  1857  is  remarkable  for  the  Indian  mutiny, 

Thich  broke  out  at  Mee'rut,*  and  was  followed  by  the  massacre 
of  the  English  officers  and  residents,  by  the  in- 
human monster  Kana  Sahib  (sah'eeb)  at  Cawn- 


(ndian  mutiny. 


jore.f    Delhi  {deVle)  was  seized  by  the  Sepoys  (native  troops); 

but  was  retaken  after  a 
two  months'  siege  and  the 
most  desperate  fighting.  At 
Luck'nowf  50,000  rebels 
besieged  an  English  force 
of  less  than  500  persons  for 
nearly  three  months;  but 
they  were  at  last  relieved 
by  General  Hav'e-lock,  who 
with  a  small  force  acliieved 
Map  of  the  Crimea.  several   victories   over    the 

rebel  armies.  Nana  Sahib  was  defeated  by  Sir  Col'in  Camp- 
bell, and  the  insurrection  was  subdued  (1859).  The  dreadful 
atrocities  perpetrated  on  men,  women,  and  children  during 
this  war  by  the  native  troops,  and  the  horrible  punislimcnts 
afterward  inflicted  on  the  latter  by  the  British,  find  scarcely  a 


♦  Meerut  is  situated  about  as  miles  northeast  from  Delhi,  a  noted  city  of  HIndo- 
Stan,  on  the  Jumna,  an  affluent  of  the  Ganf^ea    (See  map,  pAf^e  511.) 

t  Caumpore  and  Luchiow  are  important  towns  In  Hindostan,  the  former  on  the 
QaD(?es,  the  latter  on  a  tributary  to  it.    They  are  some  distance  east  Qf  Delhi. 


England. 


521 


parallel  in  history.  The  East  India  Company  was  deprived 
of  its  power  at  the  close  of  this  war,  aad  the  goyernment 
vested  wholly  in  the  queen,  being  administered  by  a  viceroy. 
Later  the  queen  was  by  act  of  Parliament  proclaimed  Empress 
of  India  (1876). 

115.  Wars  were  also  waged  against  the  Chinese.  The  first 
was  caused  by  the  seizure  of  opium  imported  into  China  con- 
trary to  her  laws  by  British  merchants.  At  the 
close,  China  was  compelled  to  cede  Hong  Kong  " 


Chinese  wars. 


to  Great  Britain,  and  to  open  five  of  her  seaports  to  British 
commerce,  besides  paying  twenty-one  millions  of  dollars  as 
indemnity  for  the  expenses  of 
the  war  (1842).  In  1856  hos- 
tilities were  renewed;  and  Can- 
ton was  bombarded  and  occu- 
pied. Some  time  afterward  the 
combined  forces  of  the  French 
and  English  took  Pekin,  and  the 
emperor  was  compelled  to  flee. 
The  Chinese  then  submitted  to 
the  demands  of  the  English,  one 
of  which  was  that  China  should 
be  open  to  the  commerce  of  the 
world,  and  that  a  British  minister  should  be  permitted  to 
reside  at  Pekin  (1860). 

116.  Toward  the  close  of  1861,  the  British  nation  was 
filled  with  mourning  by  the  sudden  death  of  Prince  Albert, 
who,  by  his  earnest  efforts  in  behalf  of  useful 
enterprises  and  his  many  virtues,  had  endeared 
himself  to  the  whole  people.     Other  interesting 


Victoria. 


Dealh  of 
Prince  Albert 


events  in  the  following  period  were  the  laying  of  the  Atlantic 
cable  (1866);  the  passage  of  the  Second  Eeform  Bill  (1867),  by 


*  Hong  Kong  is  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  estuary  which  loads  to  Canton,  va 
>Ji8  sonthe^stem  part  of  China, 


522  Modern  History, 


which  the  elective  franchise  was  greatly  extended;  the  Abys' 
sinian  war,  in  which  King  Theodore  was  defeated  (1868);  the 
disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church  (1869);  and 
the  passage  of  the  first  Irish  land  bill  (1870), 


Other  events. 


designed  to  regulate  the  relations  between  landlords  and  ten- 
ants, and  giving  to  the  latter  several  privileges. 

117.  In  the  same  year  (1870),  popular  education  in  Great 
Britain  was  placed  on  a  more  efficient  basis  by  the  passage  of 
a  law  under  which  school  boards  were  elected 
throughout  the  country,  and  great  improvements 


Education. 


effected.  Later  a  war  broke  out  with  the  Ashantees  in  Africa, 
growing  out  of  their  attacks  upon  a  tribe  friendly 
to  the  English  (1872).     Under  Sir  Garnet  Wol- 


Ashantee  war. 


seley  (wool'zlee),  the  English  army  defeated  the  barbarous 
king,  and  burned  his  capital,  Coomassic.  This  was  soon 
followed  by  a  treaty  of  peace  (1873).  In  1872,  the  Ballot 
Act  was  passed,  which  prescribed  a  closed  ballot  for  members 
of  parliament.  Dr.  Livingstone,  the  celebrated 
African    explorer,    died    this    year,    in   Central 


Dr.  Livingstone. 


Africa,  and  his  remains  were  ta>kcn  to  England  and  buried 
with  great  ceremony  in  Westminster  Abbey.  In  1875,  Great 
Britain  purchased  from  the  Khedive  of  Egypt  a 
one-half  ownership  of  the  Suez  Canal,  with  tlie 


Suez  Canal. 


view  to  protect  its  route  to  India. 

118.  lu  1877,  a  British  force  entered  and  took  possession 

of  the  Transvaal  Republic,  in  South  Africa.  This  subsequent- 
ly led  to  a  difficulty  with  the  Bvoers,  living  in  the 
Transvaal,    by   whom   a   British  force  was   dis- 


Trantvaal. 


astrously  defeated  (1880);  but  the  matter  was  afterward 
amicably  settled,  a  treaty  being  made  with  the  Boers.  The 
British  interests  were  involved  in  the  war  be- 
tween Russia  and  Turkey — the  Eastern  War  of 


Eastern  war. 


1877-8 — and,  during  the  negotiations  under  the  administra- 
tion of  tl)e  Englisli  prime  minister,  the  Earl  of  Boaconsfield, 
Turkey  ceded  the  government  of  Cyprus  to  Great  Britain, 


England. 


523 


which  cession   was   afterward   confirmed   by   the   Treaty   of 
Berlin  (1878). 

119.  In  1878  occurred  the  war  in  Afghanistan,  in  which 
the  country  was  invaded  by  the  British  from  India,  some  of  its 
chief  cities  occupied,  and  full  submission  to  British  demands 
compelled.  In  the  same  year  a  war  broke  out  with  the  Zulus 
(zoo'looz),  a  fierce  and  barbarous  tribe  of  South  Afrion;  and, 
in  January,  1879,  a  British  force  was  attacked  by 
the  savages,  and  almost  destroyed.  This  led  to  de- 


Zulu  war. 


cided  measures,  and,  under  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  the  war  was 
brought  to  speedy  termination,  many  of  the  villages  of  the  Zu- 
lus being  burned  and  their  king 
captured  (1879).  In  a  skirmish 
in  this  war,  the 
French  Prince  Im- 


Prince  Imperial, 


perial,  son  of  Napoleon  III., 
who  had  gone  out  to  Africa  to 
witness  the  operations  of  the 
war,  was  killed.  The  admin- 
istration of  Glad- 
stone*   succeeded 


Gladstone. 


that  of  Beaconsfieldjf  and  was 

Gladstonk.  signalized   by   the   ]iassage    of 

the  Irish  Land  Bill  (1881),  rendered  necessary  by 

disturbances    in   Ireland,    growing    out    of    the 


Ireland. 


oppressive  relations  existing  between  the  landlords  and  the 
peasant  tenantry.  Some  of  the  evils  complained  of  were  re- 
moved by  the  measure  which  the  minister  introduced  and 
carried  through  Parliament,  after  a  great  struggle. 

*  William  E.  Gladstone,  celebrated  not  only  as  a  statesman  and  orator,  but  as  a 
scholar  and  author,  was  born  in  1809.  He  has  been  connected  with  some  of  the  mo&' 
important  measures  of  the  British  Government  during  the  last  thirty  years. 

+  jfTie  Earl  of  Beaconsfield,  better  kno\vn  as  Benjamin  Disraeli,  son  of  the  cele. 
brated  writer  Isaac  Disraeli,  was  born  in  1805,  of  a  Jewish  family.  He  won  dis- 
tinction r)oth  in  the  field  of  literature  and  politics.  His  course  in  Parliament  was 
a  very  distinguished  one,  both  as  a  Tory  leader  and  minister.  In  1877.  he  becam#» 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Lords  with  his  title  as  earl.    He  died  in  1881. 


624  Modern  History. 


State  of  Society  in  England, 

During  the  Brunswick  Period,  from  1714  to  the  Present  Time. 
120.  During  the  period  of  the  first  three  Georges  (1714- 
1820),  the  British  Government  assumed  a  settled  character, 
and,  as  the  people  advanced  in  intelligence,  be- 
came more  and    more    dependent    upon    their 


Government. 


wishes.  The  king  ruled  through  his  ministers,  who  could 
continue  in  office  only  as  long  as  they  retained  the  support  of 
Parliament.  The  royal  authority  in  England  has  ever  since 
been  subordinate  to  public  opinion.  In  the  present  century 
this  has  been  illustrated  by  the  repeal  of  the  corn  and  naviga- 
tion laws,  parliamentary  reform,  and  other  liberal  measures.* 
121.  During  the  first  part  of  this  period,  religion  was  at  a 
yery  low  ebb  among  all  classes.  The  clergy,  often  ordained 
without  any  regard  to  their  intellectual  and  spirit- 
ual attainments,  but  simply  as  a  provision  for  the 


Religion. 


younger  sons  of  aristocratic  families,  neglected  the  duties  of 
their  sacred  calling  to  indulge  in  fox-hunting,  gaming,  and 
the  pleasures  of  the  table.  The  preaching  of 
George  Whitefield  t  and  John  Wesley  |  did  much 
to  infuse  into  the  public  mind  ahiglier  regard  for 


Whitefield  and 
Wesley. 


spiritual  matters.     The  religious  society  which  they  founded 
received,  at  first  as  a  nickname,  the  appellation  of  **Metliod- 

*  The  emancipation  of  the  Catholics  from  the  political  disabilities  under  which 
they  suflfered  so  long,  and  the  admission  of  Jews  to  Parliament  (18r>8),  are  additional 
indications  of  the  progress  of  enlightened  sentiments,  and  the  extinction  of  those 
prejudices  which  are  the  offspring  of  ignorance  and  bigotry. 

t  Oeorye  Whitefield  was  particularly  celehrate<l  for  the  fervid  cloqiionce  with 
which  he  preached  to  the  people.  He  was  ordained  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, but  subsequently  joined  Wesley  and  the  Methodists.  He  spent  part  of  his 
life  In  A.merica,  where  he  died  while  on  a  visit  to  the  churches  in  New  Kngland  (1770). 

X  John  Wesley,  the  celebrated  founder  pf  Methodism,  was  an  ordainet!  minister 
of  the  Church  of  England,  but  soon  became  disgusted  with  the  coldness  and  want 
of  spirituality  which  prevailed  among  both  clergy  and  laity.  Like  Whitefield,  he 
was  a  powerful  popular  preacher,  and  lilce  him,  also,  he  preached  to  the  people  of 
both  hemispheres,  residing  some  years  in  the  colonies.  For  more  than  half  a  cen- 
tury he  exercised  the  most  complete  authority  over  his  numerous  followers  both  io 
England  and  America.    He  died  in  1791,  at  the  age  of  eighty-eight. 


England.  '  525 


ists,"  from  the  strictness  of  their  religious  principles  and  ob- 
servances. It  rapidly  gathered  within  its  ranks  vast  multi- 
tudes, particularly  of  the  middle  and  lower  orders  of  the 
people.  The  writings  of  Watts,  Doddridge,  and  others  also 
contributed  to  raise  the  religious  tone  of  society.  Sunday- 
schools  were  founded  about  the  close  of  1781  by  Robert 
Raikes.  In  later  years,  the  progress  of  pure  religious  senti- 
ment hafe  t)een  strikingly  manifested  by  tlie  establishment  of 
very  many  societies  for  the  propagation  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  diffusion  of  religious  knowledge,  and 


Christianity. 


the  philanthropic  aid  as  well  as  instruction  of  the  ignorant, 
the  destitute,  and  the  suffering  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

122.  Much  has  also  been  done  to  promote  the  cause  of 
general  education  by  improvements  in  the  national  school 
system,  especially  by  the  important  school  law  of 
1870,  supplemented  by  others  passed  in  1873  and 


Education. 


1876,  by  means  of  which  elementary  education  throughout 
the  kingdom  has  been  greatly  extended  and  facilitated. 
Various  educational  institutions  have  been  established,  of 
every  grade,  including  colleges  for  the  education  of  women 
(ladies'  colleges),  and  schools  of  science.  The  most  impor- 
tant institutions  of  a  higher  character  are  the  University  of 
Durham,  founded  in  1832;  the  University  of  London,  char- 
tered in  1836;.  and  University  College,  Bristol,  established  in 
1876,  for  the  instruction  of  both  sexes. 

123.  Commerce  and  navigation  made  vast  and  rapid  strides 
during  the  period  of  the  Georges.    The  trade  with 
the  American  colonies  had  become  very  consider- 
able previous  to  their  independence;  but  with  the 


Commerce  and 
navigation. 


States  it  was  much  more  extensive,  the  principal  imports  from 
them  being  tobacco,  rice,  and  cotton.  The  importation  of 
the  last-mentioned  article  from  America  commenced  in  1770, 
the  first  shipment  being  about  2000  pounds.  At  the  close  of 
the  period  the  annual  import  amounted  to  120,000,000  pounds. 
The  same  product  was  also  imported  from  Brazil  and  the  East 


526  Modern  History, 


Indies.  The  English  West  Indies  exported  large  quantities 
of  sugar,  together  with  mahogany  and  logwood.  The  gradual 
introduction  of  steam  navigation  was  a  marked 
feature  of  the  period.  Experiments  with  the 
view  to  this  application  of  the  steam-engine  had 


Steam 

navigation. 


been  early  made;  but  it  was  not  until  nearly  the  end  of  the 
period  that  serviceable  steam-vessels  were  constructed.  In 
1820  a  line  of  steam-packets  was  established  to  ply  between 
Holyhead  and  Dublin.* 

124.  The  material  progress  made  by  the  nation  during 
Queen  Victoria's  reign  has  been  truly  amazing.    The  achieve- 
ments in  science  and  art  perhaps  surpass  those  of 
all  the  preceding  centuries  combined,  and  bring 
to  the  poorest  classes  comforts  and  conveniences 


Material 
progress. 


which  could  not  previously  have  been  enjoyed  by  kings  and 
nobles.  The  country  has  been  crossed  in  every  direction  by 
railroads  of  the  very  best  construction;  ocean  steam-vessels 
ftave  revolutionized  commerce  and  navigation;  the  electric 
telegraph  has  brought  every  part  of  the  kingdom  into  instant 
communication  with  all  other  parts  of  the  civilized  world; 
while  the  building  of  iron-clad  war-steamers  has  rendered 
obsolete  all  former  achievements  in  naval  architecture,  and 
changed  entirely  the  character  of  maritime  warfare. 

125.  In  the  industrial  arts,  many  valuable  inventions  have 
been  made.     Previous  to  1718,  England  was  entirely  dci)en- 
dent  upon  foreigners  for  silk  thread;  but  in  that 
year  a  large  mill  was  erected  at  Derby  for  its 


Inventions. 


manufacture,  by  Mr.  Lombe,  who  had  gone  to  Italy  in  the 
disguise  of  a  common  workman,  and  taken  drawings  of  the 
silk-throwing  machinery  in  use  in  that  country.  Immense 
quantities  of  organzine,  or  twisted,  thread  were  thereafter  pro- 


♦  Robert  Fulton,  an  American,  in  1807,  made  the  first  successful  voyaj?e  by  steam 
from  New  York  to  Albany,  in  a  steamboat  called  the  Clermont.  Five  years  Inter  a 
steamboat  was  started  on  the  Clyde  by  Ilonry  Bell,  a  former  associate  of  Fulton; 
and  thus  was  commenced  steam  navigation  in  Oreat  Britain. 


England.  527 


duced.  The  cotton  manufacture  now  took  precedence  of 
that  of  wool,  which  previously  had  been  the  chief  material  of 
English  fabrics.  This  change  was  largely  due  to  the  carding- 
machine  and  the  spinning-jenny  invented  by  James  Har- 
greaves,*  but  principally  to  the  invention  of  the  spinning- 
fi-ame  by  Sir  Richard  Arkwright.f  In  1771,  Ai-kwright 
erected  a  large  factory  which  was  worked  by  water  power. 
The  World's  Fair  of  1851,  and  similar  exhibitions 
since,  have  illustrated  the  progress  of  Great  Brit- 


Industrial  arts. 


ain  in  the  industrial  arts,  including  the  inventions  of  ma- 
chinery and  mechanical  appliances  during  the  present  cen- 
tury. She  has  occupied  a  leading  position  in  this  respect 
among  the  nations  of  tlie  world.  The  metallic  wares  of  Bir- 
mingham, the  cutlery  of  SheflBeld,  the  cotton  fabrics  of  Man- 
chester, and  the  various  manufactured  articles  of  Glasgow  and 
other  large  towns,  supply  the  markets  of  the  world. 

126.  To  all  these  branches  of  manufacturing  industry  a 
wonderful  impulse  was  given  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century  by  the  application  of 


Steam-engine. 


steam.     James  Watt  J  made  his  celebrated  invention  of  the 


*  James  Hargreaves  was  an  illiterate  artisan,  supporting  himself  and  family  by 
spinning.  In  1760  he  invented  the  carding-machine  as  a  substitute  for  carding  by 
hand.  The  spinning-jenny,  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  spin  a  large  niraiber  of 
threads  at  the  same  time,  was  invented  by  accident  in  1764.    He  died  in  1768. 

+  Richard  Arkwright,  born  in  1732,  was  originally  a  barber.  In  1767  he  devoted 
himself  to  making  improvements  in  cotton-spinning;  and  the  next  year  produced 
the  spinning-frame,  which  consisted  chiefly  of  two  pairs  of  rollers,  the  first  pair 
moving  slowly  in  contact,  and  passing  the  cotton  to  the  other  pair,  which  revolved 
with  such  increased  velocity  as  to  draw  out  the  thread  to  the  required  degree  of 
fineness.  He  was  at  first  very  poor,  and  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  artisans  by 
his  labor-saving  machines.  He  however  rapidly  rose  to  opulence  and  fame,  and 
received  in  1786  the  honor  of  knighthood  from  George  IH.  At  his  death,  in  1792,  his 
property  amounted  to  more  than  half  a  million  sterling. 

t  James  Watt  was  bom  in  Scotland  in  1736;  died  in  1819.  He  was  first  a  mathe- 
matical-instrument maker,  and  subsequently  a  surveyor.  He  began  his  experiments 
on  the  steam-engine  about  1763,  and  soon  discovered  the  cause  of  the  ineflficiency  of 
that  in  general  use  at  the  time.  This  was  worked  by  atmospheric  pressure,  steam 
being  used  only  to  produce  a  vacuum.  In  1765  he  hit  upon  the  idea  of  a  separate 
condenser,  and  of  using  steam  as  the  motive  power;  and  in  1769  his  model  was 
completed. 


528  Modern  History. 

condensing  steam-engine  in  1769,  and  introduced,  during 
the  next  sixteen  years,  improvements  in  it  of  great  practical 
value.  The  working  of  the  coal-mines  was  greatly  facilitated 
by  the  application  of  Watt's  invention.  The  inventions  of 
Wedgewood  *  also  made  so  many  improvements 
in  pottery,  that  he  may  be  considered  the  founder 


Wedgewood. 


of  this  branch  of  manufacture  in  Great  Britain.  His  first 
success  was  the  production  of  a  beautiful  cream-colored  por- 
celain, called,  in  honor  of  Queen  Charlotte,  who  greatly 
admired  it,  *' Queen's  Ware"  (1763). 

127.  Through  the  sagacity,  energy,  and  liberality  of  the 
Duke  of  Bridgewater,  and  his  celebrated  engineer,  James 
Brindley,  ca7ial  navigation  assumed  considerable 
importance  in  England.     An  act  of  Parliament 
for  the  construction  of  his  first  canal  was  obtained 


Canal 
navigation. 


in  1758.  The  roads,  too,  gradually  improved;  and  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  period  travelers  were  conveyed  by 
means  of  rapid  stage-coaches  to  the  various  parts  of  the  king- 
dom. The  construction  of  the  first  locomotive, 
or  steam-carriage,  in  1804,  commenced  a  wonder- 


Locomotive. 


ful  revolution  in  this  respect;  though  railways  had  been  used 
to  a  limited  extent  some  time  previously.  Locomotive  power 
was  employed  on  a  railway  by  George  Stephenson  f  in  1814; 
but  it  was  not  until  1821  that  passengers  were  transported  in 
this  way. 

128.  The  fine  arts  were  also  cultivated  with  great  success. 
Among  painters  the  most  prominent  were  Hogarth  %  and  Sii 

♦  Josiah  WedgevxHjd,  bom  In  1780,  was  early  onpraped  in  the  business  of  pottery. 
His  many  Improvements  In  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  porcelain  realized  him 
a  vast  fortune.  He  was  a  man  of  benevolence  and  culture;  and  besides  his  own 
8i)ecial  kind  of  knowledge,  studied  natural  philosophy  with  much  Bucceas.  He  died 
lnlT95. 

t  George  Stephenson,  at  first  a  workman  in  a  colliery,  rose  to  jrroat  distinction  by 
his  singular  genius  as  a  machinist  and  engineer.  Through  his  efforts  the  locomo- 
tive became  a  success,  the  first  railroads  being  constnicted  under  his  supervision. 
He  died  in  1848,  at  the  age  of  67. 

t  William  Hogarth  was  bom  in  London  in  1097.  His  first  employment  as  an  artist 
«afc  in  engraving.    His  moral  paintings  attracted  considerable  attention  from  their 


England.  529 


Joshua  Eeynolds.*     The  latter  was  the  first  president  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Arts,  founded  in  1768.    George 
III.  was  a  generous  patron  of  the  fine  arts,  and 


Fine  arts. 


conferred  on  Reynolds  the  honor  of  knighthood.  In  music, 
Handel,  t  by  birth  a  German,  achieved  an  enduring  renown. 
The  first  oratorio  was  produced  by  him  in  1733; 
but  it  was  not  until  1749  that  his  sublimest  com- 


Music. 


position,  '^The  Messiah,"  appeared.  Very  many  operas  were 
also  composed  and  brought  out  by  him.  One  of  the  most 
successful  works  of  this  kind  was  the  '^  Beggars'  Opera," 
composed  by  the  poet  Gay,  to  whom  it  was  suggested  by 
Swift  in  17^6.  Among  other  musical  composers  of  this 
period  were  the  celebrated  Dr.  Arne,|  and  Dr.  Charles  Bur- 
ney§ — the  latter  distinguished  particularly  as  the  author  of 
the  '*  General  History  of  Music." 

129.  In  scientific  discovery  quite  remarkable  progress  was 
also  made.  Sir  Humphry  Davy,||  the  great  chemist,  in- 
vented the   safety-lamp  (1816),   one    of   the   most   valuable 

humor  as  well  as  artistic  excellence.  The  most  celebrated  of  his  paintings  is,  per- 
haps, the  "  Enraged  Musician,"  which  was  finished  in  1741.    He  died  in  17G4. 

*  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  generally  placed  at  the  head  of  the  English  school  of 
painting,  was  bom  in  England  in  1723.  His  portraits  were  of  unsurpassed  merit, 
eclipsing  everything  that  had  been  executed  since  the  time  of  Van  Dyke.  He  was 
the  companion  and  friend  of  Johnson,  Burke,  Goldsmith,  Garrick,  the  famous  actor, 
and  other  literary  men  of  the  time.    He  died  in  1781. 

+  George  Frederick  Handel  was  bom  in  Saxony  in  1684.  At  the  age  of  fourteen, 
he  produced  his  first  opera  at  Hamburg.  He  went  to  England  in  1710,  and  soon 
became  exceedingly  popular.  A  liberal  pension  was  settled  on  him  by  George  I., 
and  his  oratorios  were  frequently  attended  by  the  king  and  the  royal  family.  He 
died  in  1759,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  where  a  handsome  monimaent 
was  erected  to  his  memory. 

t  Thomas  Augustine  Arne  was  one  of  the  best  of  English  composers.  He  was 
bom  at  London  in  1710,  and  died  in  1778.  The  celebrated  national  air,  "Rule 
Britannia,"  was  composed  by  him. 

§  Charles  Bumey,  noted  for  his  literary  and  musical  talents,  was  the  father  of 
the  celebrated  Frances  Burney,  who  -svrote  "  Evelina,"  and  some  other  popular 
works  of  fiction.    Dr.  Bumey  died  in  1815,  at  the  age  of  eighty -nine. 

B  Sir  Humphry  Davy  was  born  in  Cornwall  in  1778.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  chemistry  during  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  His  lectures  in  the  Royal  In- 
stitute of  London  attracted  crowded  and  brilliant  audiences.  He  was  also  very 
fond  of  fishing,  and  wrote  "  Salmonia,  or  Days  of  Fly-fishing."  His  death  occurred 
in  1829. 


530 


Modern  History. 


presents  ever  made  by  science  to  humanity.     Sir  William 

Herschel*  discovered  in  1781  a  new  planet,  to 

which  he  gave  the  name  Georgium  Sidus,  in 

honor  of   George  III.,  but  now  generally  called 

He  also  made  many  other  valuable  discoveries  in 

His  monster  telescope,  forty  feet  in  length,  com- 


Scientific 
Discovery, 


Uranus, 
astronomy. 

pleted  in  1787,  was  the  wonder  of  his  age,  but  it  was  ex- 
ceeded by  that  of  Lord  Rosse  constructed  at  a  later  period. 
Medical  science  was  greatly  enriched  by  the  labors  and  pub- 
lications of  the  celebrated  John  Hunter,  the  greatest  physi- 
ologist and  surgeon  of  his  time.  Edward  Jenner,  who  had 
studied  under  him,  gave  to  the  world 
the  discovery  of  vaccination  in  1796. 
The  discoveries  of  Priestley  (including 
that  of  oxygen),  of  Black  (carbonic- 
acid  gas  and  the  theory  of  latent  heat), 
of  Cavendish  (the  composition  of  wa- 
ter and  the  levity  of  hydrogen  gas), 
and  of  John  Dalton  (the  founder  of 
the  atomic  theory),!  as  well  as  the 
later  researches  of  Michael  Faraday, 
gave  chemistry  a  high  rank  among 
physical  sciences.  The  researches  of 
Dr.  Franklin  in  America  gave  a  decided  impulse  to  electrical 
discovery  about  the  middle  of  the  eigliteenth  century,  and  led 
the  way  to  the  invention  of  the  electric  telegraph  by  Profes- 
sor Morse  and  others  in  the  Jnitcd  States. 

♦  Sir  Williayn  Herschel,  the  world-renowned  astronomer,  was  bom  at  Tlanover, 
in  1738,  and  was  by  profession  a  musician.  He  went  to  England  In  17r)7,  and  at  first 
devoted  himself  to  music.  His  astronomical  discoveries  were  very  numerous  and 
valuable.  He  died  in  1822.  His  sister,  Carolhie  Herschel,  also  attained  ^reat  dis- 
tinction as  an  astronomer,  as  likewise  did  his  son,  Sir  John  Herachel,  to  whom  we 
are  indebted  for  many  important  discoveries. 

t  John  Dalton  was  born  in  Cumberland  In  1766,  and  died  In  1844.  He  waa  early 
Intere8te<l  in  the  study  of  mathematics  and  physics,  and  first  conceived  this  theory 
while  making  some  chemical  researches.  The  otomic  theory  explains  the  laws 
according  to  which  the  elemi^ntary  substances  enter  Into  chemical  combination 
with  each  other.    He  llrst  published  a  complete  statement  of  this  theory  in  181Q. 


Fbamkum. 


England, 


531 


130.  The  improvements  in  printing,  including  the  gen- 
eral use  of  stereotype  and  electrotype  plates,  with  the  steam 
printing-press,  have  gi'eatly  facilitated  the  diffu- 
sion of  knowledge,  and  augmented  the  number  of 


Printing. 


Literature. 


journals,  periodicals,  and  books  of  all  kinds.  English  litera- 
ture during  this  long 
period  was  enriched  with 
works  of  genius  in  every  department 
of  prose  and  poetry.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century,  the  most  conspicuous 
name  is  that  of  Samuel  Jolmson,  the 
author  of  the  English  Dictionary. 
The  history  of  English  literature 
since  the  Augustan  Age  of  Queen 
Anne,  may  be  divided  into  three 
periods:  I.  The  eighteenth  century, 
succeeding  Anne,  which  we  may  call 
the  age  of  Johnson;  II.  The  first  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  which  we  may  call  the  age 


MOBSE. 


Periods. 


of  Scott;    III.  The  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  or 
the  Victorian  age.     We  give  a  brief  sketch  of  each. 

131.  The  first  period  includes  the  following  poets: 
Edward  Young  (1684-1765),  by  profession  a  clergyman,  the 


author  of  Night  TJiovghts  and  some  other  poems.                     Poets. 
John  Gay  (1688-1732),  who  wrote  the  Beggars'  Opera  and 

the  Fables,  considered  the  finest  composition  of  tlie  kind  in  the  lan- 

giiaire.     He  was  the  friend  of  Pope  and  Swift. 
James  Thomson  (1700-1748),  author  of   The  Seasons,  the  best  known  of 

his  works ;  also  of  the  Castle  of  Indolence,  in  tlie  style  of  Spenser's 

Faene  Queene.      The  latter  is  considered  the  most  finished  of  his 

poems. 
William  Collins  (1720-1756),  author  of  the  Ode  to  the  Pasdom,  and  other 

lyrical  poems,  remarkable  for  their  beautiful  imagery  and  exquisite 

purity  of  style.     He  died  insane. 
Oliver  Goldsmith  (1728-1774),  one  of  the  renowned  galaxy  of  genius,  of 

which  Johnson  was  the  central  luminary.     Goldsmith  was  a  poet, 

a  dramatist,  an  essayist,  a  humonst,  aud  a  general  literary  compiler. 


532 


Modern  History, 


His  chief  writings  are  poems  entitled  The  Traveler  and  Tlce  Deserted 
Village;  a  novel  called  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield;  two  comedies.  She 
Stoops  to  Conquer  and  The  Good-Natured  Man;  and  a  charming  col- 
lection of  essays,  under  the  general  title  of  Letters  from  a  Citizen  of 
the  World. 
Thomas  Gray  (1716-1771),  a  man  of  learning  and  genius,  author  of  the 

well-known    Elegy    written    in    a 
Country   Churchyard,    and    other 
poems. 
Mark  Akenside  (1721-1770),  author  of 
a    beautiful    poem    entitled    TJie 
Pleamres  of  the  Imagination. 
Thomas  Chatterton  (1752-1770),  noted 
for  his  imitations  of  old  English 
poetry,   which    he    published    as 
genuine  specimens  under  the  name 
of  Rowley;  and  for  his  mournful 
end  in  his  eighteenth  year.    Camp- 
bell said  of  him;  *'  No  English  poet 
Goldsmith.  eyej.  equaled  him  at  the  same  age." 

Eobert  Bums  (1759-1796),  the  illustrious  Scottish  poet,  unsurpassed  as  a 
songwriter.     Some  of  his  longer  pieces  are:    I'Jie  Cotter's  Satur- 
day Night  and  Tarn  O'Shanter. 
William  Cowper  (1731-1800),  noted  for 
his  morbid  sensitiveness  and  mel- 
ancholy, verging  on   insanity,  as 
well  as  his  poetical   gcMiius.      His 
Table  Talk  and  The  Tank  contain 
many  power*'ul  and  brilliant  pas- 
sages. He  ulso  wrote  the  humorous 
poem  John  Gilpin.     He  was,  more- 
over, an  inimitable  letter-writer. 
James  Beattie  (1735-1803),  author  of 
27ie  Minntrel,  and  a  celebrated  prose 
work  against  the  skeptical  philoso- 
phy, entitled  an  PJmty  on  Truth. 
132.  The  chief  prose  writers  of  this  ])eriod  are: 
Philip  Doddridge  (1703-1751),  a  clergyman,  who  wrote  the  well-known 

devotional  work,  Th4S  Rise  and  Progress  of  lieligion  in  Vie  SouL 
Samuel  Johnson  '1709-1784),  renowned  especially  as  an  essayist  and  poet 
His  chief  works  are:  A  collection  of  essays  called  The  Bambler,  a 


BuRira. 


England, 


romance  styled  Baaselas,  several  poems,  the  Lives  of  the  Poets,  besides 
his  great  work,  the  English  Dictionary. 


Edmund  Bnrke  (1730-1797),    a  noted  orator  as  well  as       Prose  writer*. 

writer.     His  best  known  works  are:   An  Essay  on    

tlie  Suhlitne  and  Beautiful  and  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution- 

David  Hume  (1711-1776),  author  of 
the  History  of  England,  and  sev- 
eral philosophical  works. 

William  Robertson  (1721-1793),  a  na- 
tive of  Scotland,  noted  for  his  his- 
tories, of  Charles  V.  of  Germany, 
of  Scotland,  and  of  Amenca. 

Edward  Gibbon  (1737-1794),  author 
of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire. 

Laurence  Sterne  (1713-1768),  a  clergy- 
man by  ptofession,  the  author  of 
Tristram  Mandy  and  the  Senti- 
mental Journey,  noted  for  their 
humor,  satire,  and  original  style. 

Richardson,  Fielding,  and  Smollett  were  the  most  noted  novelists  of  the  pe- 
riod.    Horace  Walpole  (1717-1797),  the  author  of  The  Castle  of  Otranto, 

may  also  be  mentioned  here. 
133.    The  second  period  in- 
cludes the  following  poets: 
John   Keats    (1796-1821),    author    of 
Endymion  and  Ey- 


Btron. 


perion,  with  several       Second  period. 

minor  poems.  ' 

Lord  Byron  (George  Gordon  Noel) 
(1788-1824)  was  perhaps  the  most 
brilliant  genius  of  this  period;  his 
chief  poems  are  Ghilde  Harold, 
The  Cd'sair,  Don  Juan,  and  the 
dramas  Cain  and  Manfred.  His 
poems  contain  lofty  flights  of 
imagination,  with  splendid  diction  and  imagery,  but  are  greatly  dis- 
figured by  his  moody,  misanthropic  turn  of  mind. 
Percy  Bysshe  Shelley  (179^1822),  author  of  many  splendid  poems  and 
dramas.  His  genius  was  of  the  highest  order;  but  he  was  very 
eccentric  both  as  a  writer  and  a  man. 


WORDSWOBTH. 


634 


Modern  History. 


Scott. 


Thomas  Moore  (1779-1852),  noted  particularly  for  his  melodies.     His 
longest  piece  is  Lalla  Bookh,  an  Oriental  romantic  poem,  abounding 
in  beautiful  passages. 
Thomas  Campbell  (1 777-1844),  author  of  Pleasures  of  Hope,  Gerirude  of 

Wyoming,  IloJienlinden,   and  sev- 
eral smaller  pieces.     His  odes  are 
especially  admired. 
"William     Wordsworth     (1770-1850), 
Poet-Laureate  of  England,  author 
of  The  Excursion,  Ode  on  the  Inti- 
mations of  Immortality,  and  many 
other  poems. 
Kobert  Southey  (1774-1843),  the  writer 
of  many  poems,  as  well  as  prose 
works. 
Samnel    T.    Coleridge    (1772-1834),    a 
writer  of  genius  both  in  prose  and 
poetry.     Coleridge,   Southey,  and 
Wordsworth  were  called  the  "  Lake  poets,"  because  they  resided  for 
a  time  in  the  picturesque  region  of  northwestern  England,  which 
abounds  in  lakes. 
James  Montgomery  (1771-1854),  author  of  many  beautiful  poems,  in- 
cluding hymns. 
Eobert  Pollok  (1799-1827),   author  of 

Vie  Course  of  Time. 
FeUcia  D.  Hemans  (Mrs.)  (1794-1835), 
authoress  of  many  popular  poems. 
Letitia  E.  Landon  (1802^1838),  a  poetess 
and  novelist  of  remarkable  genius. 
Thomas  Hood    (1798-1845),    the    far- 
fumed   humorist,   author  of  many 
pathetic     pieces,     The    Bridge    of 
Sighs,  Song  of  the  Shirt,  etc. 
J.  Sheridan  Knowles  (17H4-18G2),  a  dia- 
linguisluMl   dramatist,   who   wrote 
william  Tvll,  The  HnnrMaek,  etc.  Tennyson. 

Sir  Walter  Scott  (1771-1832),  more  noted  as  a  novelist  than  a  poet,  was 
the  author  of  many  poems  of  great  merit,  as  The  Lay  of  the  Last 
Afinsfrcl,  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  and  Mannion. 
Samuel  Rogers  (1763-1855).  author  of  Pkamrei  qf  Memory ^  also  Italy 
ftli^  otbor  roucb-adroired  poems, 


England. 


535 


134.  The  principal  prose  writers  of  this  period  are: 
Fraiices  Barney  (Countess  D'Arblay)  (1752-1840),  daughter 


Macaulay. 


of  Dr.  Charles  Burney;  she  was  noted  for  her  novels.       Prose  writars. 
particularly  Evelina,  and  for  her  Diary.  - 

Anna  Letitia  Barbauld  (Mrs.)  (1743-1825),  celebrated  for  her  books  for 

children, — Early  Lessons,  Hymns  in 
Prose,  etc. 
Maria  Edgeworth  (1767-1849),  a  writer 
of  moral  fiction,  and  many  inter- 
esting works  for  children. 
Dugald  Stewart  (1753-1828),  author  of 
several  works  on  moral  and  intellec- 
tual philosopbj'. 
Sir  James  Mackintosh  (1765-1832),  bril- 
liant as  a  statesman,  a  lawyer,  and 
a  writer. 
Henry  Hallam  (1777-1859),   author   of 
the    History   of  the   Middle  Ages, 
Literature  of  Europe,  etc. 
John  Lingard  (1771-1851),  author  of  the  History  of  England. 
Thomas  Arnold  (1795-1842),  of  Rugby  fame,  author  of  the  Histoi-y  of 
Borne,  and  Lectures  on  Modern 
History. 
lord  Jeffrey  (1773-1850),   editor  of 
the   Edinburgh  Bemew,  and  dis- 
tinguished  as   an  essayist    and 
critic. 
Lord  Brougham  (1779-1868),  brilliant 
as  a  statesman  and  an  orator, 
and  a  very  versatile  writer. 
Charles  Lamb  (1775-1834),  a  humor- 
ist   and     original    writer,    best 
known  for  his  Essays  of  Eiia. 
Thomas   de   Quincey     (1786-1859), 
known   as   the   English    Opium 
Eater,   one  of    the    most    bril- 
liant and  versatile  writers  of  his  age, 
language. 

135.  The  Victorian  Age  includes  the  following  poets: 
Alfred  Tennyson  (1800-1892),    author  of   In  Memoriam,  Locksl^y  HaU^ 
Jdyls  of  the  King,  etc.    Most  of  his  poems  are  much  admired, 


Oeoroe  Eliot. 
-a  great  master  of  the  English 


536 


Modern  History, 


Elizabeth  B.  Browning  (1809-1861),  a  poetess  of  great  power  and  origi- 

luility.     Her  best  known  poem  is  Aurora  Leigh. 


Victorian  Age. 


Eobert  Browning  (1813-1889),  husband  of  E.  B.  Brown- 
ing, considered  by  some  one  of  the  greatest  poets  of 
His  chief    writings 


the  time, 
are  dramas. 
Jean  Ingelow  (Miss)  (born  1830),  a 

lyric  poet  of  great  genius. 
Algernon  C.  Swinburne  (born  1843), 
author  of  many  fine  poems. 
136.  The  prose  writers  of 
this  period  are  very  numerous 
in    every    depart- 
ment.   Only  a  few 


Prose  writers. 


Dickens. 


can  here  be  mentioned. 
Thomas  B.  Macanlay  (1800-1859),  a 
brilliant  essayist,  critic,  and  his- 
torian; his  Miscellaneous  Essays 
and  the  Histoid  of  Englamd  are  tlie  best  known  of  his  works. 
Lord  Lytton  (Bulwer)  (1805-1873),  especially  noted  as  a  noveli.st;  author 
of  liiemi,  Last  Bays  of  Pompeii,  etc.,  besides  many  poems. 

George  EUot  (Mrs.  Lewes)  (1820-1880), 
among  the  most  gifted  writers  of 
her   time;    her    chief   works    are 
novels,  among  which  Adam  Bede, 
Jlomola,  and  Middlcmarch  are  per- 
haps llie  most  celebrated. 
Charles  Dickens  (1812-1870).  one  of  the 
greatest   of   novelists;    his  works 
are     numerous    and    exceedingly 
popular. 
Charles  Kingsley  (1819-1875),   aiithor 
of  Alton  l/tckc  and  other  novels  of 
great  merit. 
Charlotte  Bronte  (1816-1855).  a  novelist 
of  great  fame,  author  of  Jane  Eyve  and  other  works  of  merit. 
William  M.  Thackeray  (1811-1803),    am  eminent  novelist,   author    of 

Vanity  Fair,  Henry  Esmond,  The  Virgininns,  etc. 
Archibald  Alison  (Sir)  (1792-1867),  author  of  Uistary  of  Europe,  and  Life 
of  Marlborough. 


THAfKKRAY. 


England. 


537 


George  Grote  (1794-1871),  author  of  History  of  Greece,  and  oilier  histori- 
cal works,  showing  profound  scholarship  and  research. 
Charles  Merivale  (Rev.)  (1808-1874),  author  of  Uistory  of  tlie  Bomam 

and  other  historical  works. 
James  A.  Froude  (born  1818),  author  of  the  History  of  England,  etc. 
Jolm   Stuart  Mill  (1806-1873),  one  of  the  profoundest  thinkers  of  his 

time,  author  of  System  of  Logic,  etc. 
Henry  T.  Buckle  (1821-1862),  author  of  History  of  Civilization,   a  very 

great  work,  which  he  did  not  live  to  complete. 
Benjamin  Disraeli  (Earl  of  Beaconsfield)  (1805-1881),  a  writer  of  great 
eminence,  particularly  in  the  field  of  fictitious  literature.     His  best 
known  novels  are  Vivian  Grey,  Venetia,  and  Lothair. 
John  Kuskin  (born  in  1819),  a  noted  writer  on  art.     His  great  works  are 

Modern  Painters,  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture,  Stones  of  Venice. 
William  E.  Gladstone  (born  1809),  a  writer  of  great  scholarship  and  cul- 
ture, author  of  Juventus  Mundi,  Homeric  Studies,  etc. 
Thomas  Carlyle  (1795-1881),  a  very  powerful  and  original  writer,  author 

of  27ie  t^-ench  Revolution,  lAfe  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  and  many 
other  works. 

137.  Among  scientific  writers 
may  be  enumerated 


Carltlb 


,,        „    --         .  Scientific  writers 

the  following: 

David  Brewster  (1781-1868),  author  of 

Natural  Magic,  etc. 
Sir  Charles  Lyell    (1797-1875),  noted 

for  his  geological  writings. 
Hugh  Miller  (1802-1856),   also  noted 
for  his  works  on  geological  sub- 
jects. 
William    Whewell,  D.D.   (1795-1866), 
author  of  the  History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences. 
John  Tyndall  (boi-n  1820),  author  of  many  works  on  physical  science. 
Herbert  Spencer  (born  1820),  one  of  the  most  distinguished  scientists  and 

philosophers  of  his  time. 
Charles  Darwin  (1809-1882),  an  eminent  naturalist,  author  of  The  Origin 
of  Species  and  other  works  presenting  various  original  scientific 
theories,  constituting  what  has  been  called  the  "Darwinian  Philos- 
ophy." 
Thomas  H.  Huxley  (born  1825),  noted  for  his  researches  in  zoOlogy,  and 
his  lectures  and  writings  on  different  branches  of  physical  science. 


538  Modern  History. 


Sovereigns  of  England, 

From  Hknry  VII.  (1485)  to  the  Present  Time  (1881). 


Line.  Name.  Date  of  reign ^ 

f  Heury  VU 1485-1509 

c      Henry  VIII 1509-1547 

I  J  Edward  VI..... 1547-1553 

H      Mary 1553-1558 

L  EUzabeth 1558-1603 

James  1 1603-1625 

t 

3 


Line.  Name.  Date  of  reign. 

(James  II 1685-1689 
William  and  Mary 1689-1094 
William  m 1694-1702 
Anne 1702-1714 

(-George  1 1714-1727 

ii    I  George  II 1727-1760 

Charles  1 1625-1649  j  ?  J  George  III 1760-1820 

Cromwell  (Protector) 16.53-1658  j  5    j  George  IV 1820-1830 

R.  Cromwell  (Protector). . .  1658-1660  !  |    |  WilUam  IV 1880-1837 

Charles  n 1060-1685  I       L  Victoria 1837 

Summary  of  Principal  Events  and  Dates. 

A.D. 

Defeat  of  the  Scots  in  the  battle  of  Flodden  Field 1513 

Separation  of  the  English  Church  from  tlio  Roman  Catholic  Church 1534 

Sir  Francis  Drake's  voyage  round  the  globe 1579 

Execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 1587 

Translation  of  the  Bible  under  King  James  1 1611 

Execution  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh ." 1618 

The  Covenant  signed  by  the  Scots 1638 

Commencement  of  the  Civil  War.    Battle  of  Edge  Hill 1642 

Execution  of  Charles  I.    The  Commonwealth  declared 1649 

Great  Plague  in  England 1665 

The  famous  battle  of  the  Boyne.    James  II.  defeated 1690 

Battle  of  Blenheim.  The  French  defeated  by  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene.  1704 

Treaty  of  peace  with  France  signed  at  Utrecht 1713 

Battle  of  Culloden.    Prince  Charles  defeated 1746 

Capture  of  Quebec,  and  death  of  General  Wolfe  1759 

Independence  of  the  American  colonies  acknowledged  by  England 17K3 

Legi.slatlre  union  of  Great  Biitain  and  Ireland  1801 

Battle  of  Waterloo.     Victory  of  Wellington  over  Napoleon 1815 

Battle  of  Navarino.     Independence  of  Greece  declai-ed 1S27 

Slavery  abolished  in  all  the  British  colonies IRi  I 

Afghan  War.    Cahul  taken.    Chinese  War IHli 

The  Com  I^iws  repealed 18-ji. 

The  C^riniean  War 1853-1855 

Indian  Mutiny.    Delhi  taken.    ChlneseWar 1867 

Abolition  of  the  East  India  Company 1868 

Death  of  Prince  All)ert 1861 

Abyssinian  War.    Defeat  of  King  Theodore 1868 

ARhant>ee  War.    Cooniassie,  the  capitiil,  burned 1873 

Treaty  of  Berlin.    Cypnis  ce<led  to  England  by  Turkey 1878 

War  with  the  Zulus.    Capture  of  the  king «... 18^ 

The  Irish  Land  BlU  pws^ • 1881 


Topical  Memew. 


539 


Topical  Eeview. 


HISTORICAL    OHABAOTERS. 

Who  were  they? 

For  what  noted? 

With  what  events  connected?       page 

Henry  Tudor  (VII.) 461,  463 

Perkin  Warbeck 462,  463 

John  and  Sebastian  Cabot 463 

Catharine  of  Aragon 463,  465 

Thomas  Woisey 463,  465 

Anne  Boleyn 465,  467 

Archbishop  Cranmer 465,  466,  469 

Sir  Thomas  More  466,  478 

Henry  Howard 467 

Lady  Jane  Grey 468,  477 

Queen  Mary 468,  469 

Queen  Elizabeth 469,  478 

Cecil,  Lord  Burleigh  470,  477 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh 471,  478,  506 

Sir  Francis  Drake 471 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots 472 

Earl  of  Essex 474 

Earl  of  Leicester 477 

Villiers,  Duke  of  Buckingham..  480,  482 

Charles  1 481,  488 

Sir  Thos.  Wentworth  (Strafford)  482,  4a3 

Sir  John  Eliot 432,  483 

Archbishop  Laud 483,  48i 

John  Hampden 484,  485 

Prince  Rupert 485,  486,  495 

Lord  Falkland 486 

Sir  Henry  Vane 486 

Sir  Thomas  Fairfax 486 

Oliver  Cromwell 486,  491 

Admiral  Blake 489,  490,  491 

CharlesH 488,  489,492-496 

General  Monk 489,  492,  494 

Sir  Edward  Hyde 492 

William  of  Orange 495,  499 

Lord  William  Russell 496 

Algernon  Sydney 496 

Duke  of  Monmouth 496 

Duke  of  York  (James  XL) 495,  498 

Judge  Jeffreys. 497 

Duke  of  Marlborough. 500,  501 

Sir  Robert  Walpole 508 

General  Oglethorpe 508 

Charles  the  Pretender 509 

General  Braddock ...  510 


PAGE 

General  Wolfe 510 

Earl  of  Chatham 510,  512 

George  Washington 513 

Warren  Hastings 513 

William  Pitt  (Younger) 514 

Nelson 514 

Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie 514 

Duke  of  W^ellington 5!5 

Sir  John  Moore 515 

Lord  Brougham 517,  535 

Daniel  O'Connell 517 

Prince  Albert 519,  521 

Sir  Charles  Napier 519 

General  Havelock — 520 

Sir  Colin  Campbell 520 

Dr.  Livingstone 522 

Sir  Garnet  Wolseley 522,  523 

William  E.  Gladstone 523,  537 

Earl  of  Beaconsfleld 523,  537 

GREAT  EVENTS. 

When  did  they  occur? 

What  led  to  them? 

What  resulted  therefrom? 

Discover}'  of  North  America 463 

Battle  of  the  Spurs 464 

Battle  of  Flodden  Field 464 

Separation  of  the  English  Church..  466 

Translation  of  the  Bible 467,  481 

Opening  of  trade  with  Russia..  469,  475 

Rise  of  the  Puritans 470 

Discovery  of  Virginia 471 

Circumnavigation  of  the  globe 471 

Destruction  of  the  Great  Armada. . .  471 

Settlement  of  Virginia 480 

Emigration  of  the  Puritans 481,  483 

Execution  of  Strafford  and  Laud  483,  4S4 

Civil  War  in  England 484,  488 

Battle  of  Naseby 486 

Execution  of  Charles  1 487 

Battle  of  Dunbar 488 

Battle  of  Worcester 489 

Restoration  of  the  Stuarts 492 

Taking  of  New  Netherlands .....  493 

Great  Plague  in  England 494 

Great  Fire  In  London 494 

Passage  of  the  Test  Act 495 


540 


Modern  History, 


PAGE 

Rye  House  Plot 4% 

Revolution  of  1688 498 

Battle  of  the  Boyne 499 

Battle  of  LaHogue 499 

Treaty  of  Ryswick 499 

Battle  of  Blenheim 500 

Treaty  of  Utrecht "...  501 

Union  of  England  and  Scotland  388,  502 

Anson's  Expedition 508 

Battle  of  Dettingen 509 

Battle  of  Fontenoy 509 

Battle  of  Culloden 509 

Passage  of  the  Stamp  Act 512 

American  Revolution 512,  513 

Battle  of  the  Nile 514 

Union  of  England  and  Ireland 514 

Treaty  of  Amiens 514 

Battle  of  Trafalgar 515 

Peninsular  War 515 

Battle  of  Waterloo 516 

Abolition  of  Slavery 517 

Sikh  War,  Crimean  War 519 

Victoria  made  Empress  of  India —  521 

Chhiese  War 521 

I  of  the  Irish  I^nd  Bill 523 


PERSONS    OF    GENIUS. 

When  did  they  live? 

For  what  notedi 

William  Tyndale 467 

Roger  Ascham 468,  477 

John  Hey  wood 478 

Edmund  Spenser 478 

Sir  Philip  Sidney .' 478 

John  Milton 490,  607 

Sir  Christopher  Wren 606 

Newton 606 

Shakespeare 606 

Philip  Masslnger 506 

Lord  Bacon 606 

Sir  William  Davenant 607 

Ben  Jon  son 607 

Samuel  Butler 607 

John  Dryden 507 

Thomas  Fuller 607 

Lord  Clarendon 607 

John  Bunyan 607 

Jeremy  Taylor 507 

Addison 607 

DeFoe 607 


PAOB 

Alexander  Pope 507 

Jonathan  Swift 507 

Edmund  Burke 513,  533 

Lord  Byron 517,  533 

Su- Richard  Arkwright 527 

James  Watt 527 

Gteorge  Stephenson 628 

William  Hogarth 628 

Sir  Joshua  RejTiolds 629 

George  Frederick  Handel  529 

Sir  Humphry  Davy 629 

Frances  Bumey 529,  585 

Sir  William  Herschel 580 

John  Dalton,  John  Hunter 530 

Edward  Jenner 630 

Samuel  Johnson 631,  582 

Edward  Young,  John  Gay 531 

James  Thomson 531 

Oliver  Goidsmith 531 

Thomas  Gray 532 

Thomas  Chatterton 532 

Robert  Bums 53£ 

William  Cowper,  James  Beattie....  63S 

Philip  Doodridge 63> 

David  Hume 638 

William  Robertson 633 

Edward  Gibbon 533 

Laurence  Sterne,  John  Keats. 683 

Percy  Bysshe  Shelley 683 

Thomas  Moore 584 

Thomas  Campbell 684 

William  Wordsworth 684 

Robert  Southey 534 

Samuel  T.  Coleridge. 631 

Thomas  Hood 5»» 

J.  Sheridan  Knowles 634 

Sir  Walter  Scott 684 

Dugald  Stewart 685 

Sir  James  Mackintosh. 686 

Lord  Jeffrey 685 

Charles  Lamb 635 

Thomas  De  Quinoey 685 

Alfred  Tennyson 685 

Thomas  B.  Macaulay 686 

Lord  Lytton  (Bui wer) 686 

Mrs.  Lewes  (Geonre  EUot) 688 

Charles  Dickens 688 

William  M.Thackeray 686 

John  Stuart  Mill 687 

Thomas  Carlyle 687 


No.  17. 


CHAPTER  X. 
France, 

From  1483  to  the  Present  Time. 


SECTION  I. 

The  Valois-Orleans  Branch. 

1.  Louis  XII  Charles  VIII.  dying  without  heirs,  Louis, 
puke  of  Orleans,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  being  the  great- 
grandson  of  Charles  V.  The  nobleness  of  his 
character  was  displayed  in  his  generous  forgive- 


Character. 


ness  toward  his  former  enemies,  for  he  said  '*it  did  not  be- 
come the  king  of  France  to  resent  the  injuries  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans."  Most  of  this  reign  was  occupied  in  wars  waged 
for  the  possession  of  territories  in  Italy.  Milan 
was  taken  (1500),  and  also  Naples,  with  the  aid 


War  in  Italy. 


of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon;  but  the  latter  afterward  disputed 
the  French  claim,  and  the  French  were  defeated  by  the 
Spanish  forces  under  Gon-sal'vo  de  Cordova,  called  the 
**  Great  Captain,"  and  Ferdinand  thus  gained  almost  ex- 
clusive possession  of  the  Neapolitan  States  (1503).  Louis 
attempted  to  retrieve  his  loss;  but  Gonzalvo  inflicted  upon 
the  French  one  of  the  severest  disasters  that  ever  befell  their 
arms  (December,  1503).  This  defeat  excluded  the  French 
from  Naples,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  made  the  next  year. 

Geographical  Study,  Map  No.  XVII. 
What  is  the  sittLation  of ;  Ykxsck^  Belgium?  Germany?  Switz'^rland?  Italy? 
Austria?  Paris?  Rouen?  Havre?  Dieppe?  Bologne?  Amiens?  Sedan?  Rheims? 
Nancy?  Luneville?  Strasburg?  Troyes?  Chalons?  Versailles?  Orleans?  Tours? 
Nantes?  La  Rochelle?  Boraeaux?  Toulouse?  Avignon?  Marseilles?  Toulon? 
Brussels?  Waterloo?  Ghent?  Metz?  Leipsic?  Munich?  Hohenlinden?  Augs- 
burg? Jena?  Dresden?  Prague?  Sadowa?  Milan?  Campo  Formio?  Turin? 
Marengo?    Lodi?    Solferino?    Magenta?    Ravenna?    Areola?    FJba? 


642 


Modern  History, 


League  of 
Cam  bray. 


2.  Louis,  some  time  afterward,  entered  into  the  celebrated 
League  of  Cambray,  formed  by  France,  Germany,  Spain,  the 

Pope  (Julius  II.),  and  the  minor  states  of  Italy, 
in  order  to  check  the  power  of  Venice,  then  at 
the  height  of  its  glory  and  influence.      Under 
the  command  of  the  illustrious  Chevalier  Bay'ard,  the  French 

completely  defeated  the 
Venetians  in  the  battle 
of  Agnadello  {aii-yah- 
deVIo);  and  the  other 
allies  were  also  success- 
ful (1509).  But  the 
intrigues  of  Julius  II. 
soon  afterward  divert- 
ed the  force  of  the 
alliance  from  Venice 
and  turned  it  against 
France,  with  the  view  to 
deprive  the  latter  of  all 
her  possessions  in  Italy. 
In  this  way  the  Holy 
League,  consisting  of 
the  Pope,  Ferdinand  of 
Spain,  and  the  Venetian  Republic,  was  formed  (1511);  but 
the  French,  under  the  command  of  the  renowned 
Gaston  de  Foix  (fwah)y  gained  two  brilliant  vic- 
tories over  the  allies.  That  heroic  general  having  fallen  in 
one  of  these  battles  (1512),  Louis  was  soon  afterward  obliged 
to  succumb  to  the  power  of  the  League,  and  surrendered  all 
his  acquisitions  in  northern  Itidy. 

3.  Louis  then  formed  an  alliance  with  Venice  to  recover 
these  possessions  (1513),  and,  at  first,  gained  some  successes; 

"I 1   but  was  finally  defeated  with  severe  loss  by  the 

, I    Swiss,  who  had  been  hired  by  the  Italians  for 

their   defense.      This  disaster   encouraged    the  enemies  of 


Pope  Julius  IJU 


Holy  League. 


France,  543 


France  to  attack  it;  and  while  it  was  threatened  by  Ferdinand 
of  Spain,  the  Swiss  invaded  it  from  the  west,  and  Henry  VIII. 
landed  with  a  large  army  at  Calais.  The  latter, 
a  short  time  afterward,  fought  the  noted  Battle 
of  the  Spurs,  in  which  several  of  the  French 


Battle  of  the 
Spurs. 


officers,    including    Bayard,    were    taken    prisoners    (1513) 
Louis,  wearied  with  these  harassing  wars,  shortly 
afterward  succeeded  in  making  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  his  enemies,  but   survived   it   only  a  few 


End  of  the 
reign. 


months.      His  virtues  had  made  him  exceedingly  popular, 
and  he  died  universally  regretted  by  his  subjects  (1515). 

4.  Francis  I.,  Duke  of  Angouleme  (ang-go-ldm)^  and 
cousin  of  Louis  XIL,  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one  years.  He  was  of  a  very  chivalrous  disposition, 
and  was  eager  to  distinguish  himself  by  military 
achievements.  His  first  enterprise  was  to  re- 
cover Milan,  which   had  been  lost  during  the 


First 
enterprise. 


previous  reign;  and,  at  the  head  of  40,000  men,  command- 
ed by  Bayard,  tlie  Constable  Bour'bon,  and  other  illus- 
trious generals,  he  invaded  Italy.  There,  in  the  battle  of 
Marignano  (mah-reen-yali' no),  he  totally  defeated  the  Swiss 
mercenaries,  10,000  of  whom  were  left  dead  upon  the  field 
(1515).  Milan,  therefore,  surrendered;  and  Francis  wisely 
augmented  his  influence  by  establishing  a  lasting  alliance 
with  the  Swiss  Eepublic  (1516). 

5.  On  the  death  of  Maximilian,  emperor  of  Germany, 
Francis  became  a  competitor  with  Charles  of  Spain  for  the 
vacant  throne.  The  election  of  the  latter  ex- 
cited the  anger  of  Francis,  and  gave  rise  to  a 
series  of   wars    that    lasted    nearly  twenty-five 


Wars  with 
Charles  V. 


years,  between  him  and  his  great  rival,  afterward  so  illus- 
trious as  Charles  V.  of  Germany.     Both  parties 
gought  the  alliance  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England, 
^nd,  on  the  occasion  of  the  interview  which  took 


Hen7  ar>d 
Francis. 


place,  between  the  English  and  French  monarchs,  fUes  cf 


544 


Modern  History. 


such  extraordinary  splendor  were  given,  that  the  place  of  the 
interview  was  called  the  "  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold."  Owing, 
however,  to  the  intrigues  of  Wolsey,  Henry  declared  in  favor 
of  the  emperor. 

6.  Francis  unwisely  quarreled  with  his  great  general,  the 
Constable  of  Bourbon,  and  the  latter  was  gladly  taken  into 
the  service  of  the  emperor.     The  first  step  of  the  French 


Field  of  the  Cborn  op  Gold.    (From  an  old  bas-relief.) 

king  was  to  invade  Italy;  but  his  army  wiis  under  the  com. 
mand  of  an  incompetent  genenil,  and  Bourbon 
soon  drove  it  into  a  disastrous  retreat,  during 
which   the   gallant  and   cliivalrous   Bayard  was 


Defeat  in 
Italy. 


killed.  Francis  then  conducted  the  army  in  ])er8on;  but,  at 
Pavi'a,  suffered  a  dreadful  defeat,  all  his  most  distinguished 
generals  being  slain,  and  he  himself  made  ])risoner  (1525). 
He  remained  in  captivity  more  tlian  a  year,  dur- 
ing which  he  suffered  considerable  indignity  from 


Captivity. 


Charles  V.,  who  extorted  from  him  an  assent  to  the  most 
humiliating  conditions  before  he  would  grant  his  release. 
These,  on  regaining  his  liberty,  he  refused  to  fulfill, and  con- 


France, 


545 


sequently  the  war  was  renewed,  Francis  having  formed  an 
alliance  with  Venice  and  the  Pope. 

7.  Bourbon  marched  to  Rome  with  a  large  army,  consist- 
ing partly  of  German  troops,  whose  minds  had  been  excited 
by  the  new  doctrines  of  Luther,  and  partly  also 
composed  of  a  multitude  of  adventurers  and  ban- 
dits, as  ferocious  as  the  Huns  or  Vandals.    Bour- 


Taking  of 
Rome. 


bon  was  slain  in  the  first  assault;  but  Rome  was  taken,  and  for 
seven  months  became  a  scene 
of  the  most  remorseless  vio- 
lence and  pillage,  the  Pope 
(Clement  VII.)  being  kept  a 
prisoner,  and  treated  with  the 
grossest  indignities  (1527).* 
This  led  to  an  alliance  be- 
tween the  kings  of  France  and 
England;  and  Charles,  em- 
barrassed by  the  movements 
of  the  German  Protestants, 
and  threatened  by  the  Turks 
under  their  great  sultan,  Soly- 
man  the  Magnificent,  agreed 
to  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Fran- 
cis, made  at  Cambray  (1529). 

8.  Twice,  however,  was  the  war  renewed;   and  Francis 
degraded  himself  and  shocked  Christendom  by  forming  an 

*  "It  is  impossible  to  describe,  or  even  to  imagine,  the  misery  and  horror  of  the 
scenes  which  followed.  Whatever  a  city  taken  by  storm  can  dread  from  military 
rage  mirestrained  by  discipline;  whatever  excesses  the  ferocity  of  the  Germans, 
the  avarice  of  the  Spaniards,  or  the  licentiousness  of  the  Italians  could  commit, 
these  the  wretched  inhabitants  were  obliged  to  suffer.  Churches,  palaces,  and  the 
houses  of  private  persons  were  plundered  without  distinction.  No  age,  or  charac- 
ter, or  sex  was  exempt  from  injury.  Cardinals,  nobles,  priests,  matrons,  virgins, 
were  all  the  prey  of  soldierr,  and  at  the  mercy  of  men  deaf  to  the  voice  3f  humanity. 
Nor  did  these  outrages  cease,  as  is  usual  in  towns  which  are  carried  by  assault, 
when  the  first  fury  of  the  storm  was  over.  The  imperialists  kept  possession  of 
Rome  several  months;  and,  during  all  that  time,  tho  insolence  and  brutality  of  tho 
soldiers  hardly  abated."— i2o6erfeon'«  Charlea  the  Fifth. 


Francis  I. 


646  Modern  History. 

alliance  with  the  Turkish  sultan.  In  1544,  he  wiped  out  the 
disgrace  of  his  defeat  at  Pavia,  by  a  splendid  vic- 
tory in  Italy  over  the  imperial  army;  but  Charles 
formed  an  alliance  with  Henry  VIII.,  both  mon- 


English 
alliance. 


archs  engaging  to  invade  France,-  capture  Paris,  and  divide 
the  French  dominions  between  them.  The  French  king 
made  a  successful  defense  against  the  invading  armies  of 
these  two  powerful  foes,  and  finally  succeeded  in 
making  peace  with  both.      His  death  occurred 


End  of  reign. 


the  next  year  (1547).  Francis  was  a  liberal  patron  of  litera- 
ture and  the  arts,  both  of  which  made  very  great  progress 
during  his  reign. 

9.  Henry  II.,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  was  in  the 
twenty-ninth  year  of  his  age.     He  was  slothful  and  luxuri- 
ous in  his  disposition,  and  possessed  but  few  of 
the  talents  of  his  father.     Before  he  commenced 


Character. 


to  reign,  he  married  Catharine  de'  Medici  {med'e-che),  a  de- 
scendant of  the  illustrious  Lorenzo  de'  Medici, 
of  the  Florentine  Republic,  who,  on  account  of 


Marriage. 


his  accomplishments  and  his  liberal  patronage  of  learning  and 
art,  was  styled  the  Magnificent.* 

10.  Hostilities  between  France  and  Charles  V.  were  re- 
sumed soon  after  the  commencement  of  Henry's  reign;  and 
the  latter  allied  himself  with  the  great  Protestant 
champion,  Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  at 
once  declared  war  against  the  emperor  as  tlie 


War  with 
Charles  V. 


enemy  of  the  civil  and  religious  liberty  of  Germany.  Charles 
v.,  prudently  yielding  to  the  force  of  so  })owerful  a  combina- 
tion, concluded  with  the  Germans  the  treaty  of  Passau,  con- 
ceding to  the  Protestants  freedom  of  worsliij)  (1552).  Henry 
II.,  however,  having  refused  to  be  included  in  the  treaty,  the 

♦  Pope  Leo  X.  was  a  son  of  Lorenzo,  and  Clement  Vn.  a  nephew;  and  when, 
through  the  influence  of  the  latter  and  Charles  V.,  Florence  lost  her  lllierty,  a 
membi'r  of  this  celebrated  family  was  made  the  first  Duke  of  Florence  (l.'VSfl);  and 
its  descendants,  for  a  century  afterward,  continued  to  occupy  the  duoal  throne  of 
Tuacany. 


France,  547 


imperial  army  was  repulsed  with  severe  loss  at  Metz,  defended 
by  the  French  under  Francis,  Duke  of  Guise  (gweez). 

11.  Charles  V.  having  i-esigned  his  throne  to  his  son 
Philip,  the  French  king  embraced  the  occasion  to  invade  the 
Netherlands  and  Italy;  but  sustained  severe  dis- 
asters in  each  of  these  enterprises.  In  the  for- 
mer, the   Constable    Montmorency   sustained   a 


Battle  of 
St.  Quentin. 


total  defeat  at  St.  Quen'tin,  where  the  flower  of  his  army 
were  either  slain  or  taken  prisoners  (1557).  Queen  Mary  of 
England  had  given  assistance  to  her  husband  Philip;  and, 
through  tne  energy  of  Guise,  the  French  gained  possession 
of  Calais  (1558).  This  was  soon  followed  by  a 
treaty  of  peace  between  the  contending  parties. 


Calais. 


and  a  little  later  by  the  king's  death,  which  was  occasioned 
by  a  wound  received  at  a  tournament  (1559). 

12.  Francis  II.,  a  youth  of  sixteen  years,  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  The  year  before,  he  married  Mary  Queen  of  Scots; 
and,  being  of  feeble  intellect,  he  was  entirely 
ruled  by  his  fascinating  queen,  who  herself  was 


Marriage. 


under  the  control  of  her  uncles,  the  Duke  of  Guise  and  his 
brother.  Cardinal  of  Lorraine.  These  two  noblemen  thus 
acquired  the  supreme  power  in  the  government;  which  they 
proceeded  to  employ  for  the  destruction  of  the  Protestants, 
or  Huguenots,  the  persecution  of  whom  had  com- 
menced in  the  previous  reign.     The  Huguenots 


Huguenots. 


had,  nevertheless,  rapidly  increased  in  number  and  influence, 
and  now  included  within  their  ranks  the  king  of  Navarre,  his 
brother  Louis,  Prince  of  Conde  {hon^da).  Admiral  Coligni 
{Jco-leen'ye),  with  many  others  of  high  rank  and  great 
ability. 

13.  On  account  of  the  tyrannical  administration  of  the 
Guises,  a  conspiracy  was  formed,  under  Conde;  which  prov- 
ing unsuccessful,  the  Duke  of  Guise  took  the 
opportunity  of  executing  a  dreadful  vengeance 


Duke  of  Guise. 


Qn  those  w|ip  had  been  concerned  in  it,  executing  upward 


648  Modern  History, 


of  twelve  liundred  persons  with  the  most  revolting  cruelty 
(1560).  This  was  soon  followed  by  the  arrest  of  the  king  of 
Navarre  and  the  Prince  of  Conde,  the  latter  of 
whom  was  convicted  of  high  ti-eason  and  sen- 


Cond^. 


tenced  to  be  executed;  but  the  king's  death  taking  j)lace  soon 
afterward,  he  was  released.  The  reign  of  Francis  II.  lasted 
less  than  eighteen  months;  and  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Charles,  a  youth  ten  years  and  a  half  old  (15G0). 

14.  Charles  IX.  The  government  was  now  administered 
by  the  Queen-mother,  Catharine  de'  Medici,  who  had  pre- 
viously selected  for  her  chief  friend  and  adviser  the  moderate 

and  virtuous  Chancellor  de  rH6pital(o-/?e-^rt/ir); 

and  the  leaders  of   both   religious  parties  wei*e 


L'Hdpital. 


placed  in  the  great  offices  of  state.  The  States- General  were 
assembled,  and  proclaimed  entire  freedom  of  religion,  which 
was  afterward  confirmed  by  a  ro3al  edict.  These  excellent 
measures,  however,  proved  ineffectual,  in  consequence  of  the 
excesses  and  bitter  feelings  of  both  parties;  and  the  country 
was  soon  plunged  into  the  miseries  of  a  civil  war. 

16.  The  Prince  of  Conde  at  first  assumed  the  command 
of  the  Protestants,  who  were  assisted  by  the  English  queen 
Elizabeth,  while  the  government  was  aided  by  Philip  of  Spain. 
This  war  was  carried  on  with  great  fury,  and 
with  various  successes  on  both  sides,  till  1570, 
when   peace  was   obtained   by   granting    to   the 


War  with 
Protestants. 


Huguenots  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  in  all  parts  of 
France,  except  Paris;  and  the  administration  placed  in  their 
power,  as  a  guarantee,  four  cities,  one  of  which  was  I^)chello 
(ro-sheV).  While  this  arrangement  gnve  great  dissatisfaction 
to  the  Catholic  party,  it  did  not  restore  confidence  to  the 
Protestants,  who  entertained  a  mistrust  of  the  sincerity  of 
Catharine,  by'  whose  counsels  and  intrigues  the  king  was 
entirely  controlled. 

16.  Admiral   Coligni   and   the  other   Protestant    leaders 
finally  repaired  to  the  court;  and  the  former  gained  so  much 


France.  549 


influence  over  the  young  king,  that  Catharine  entered  into  a 
plot  to  remove  him  by  assassination.  The  admiral,  however, 
was  but  slightly  wounded;  and  Catharine  and  her  political 
accomplices  resolved  on  a  general  destruction  of 
the  Protestant  party.  The  dreadful  **  Massacre 
of  St.   Bartholomew's  Day"  followed,  in  which 


St. 

Bartholomew  s 

Day. 


many  of  the  Huguenots  throughout  France  were  butchered 
without  distinction  of  age  or  sex,  Coligni  being  the  first 
victim.  The  number  of  those  who  fell  in  Paris  alone  has  been 
estimated  at  10,000;  but  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  num- 
ber of  victims  with  accuracy.  This  shocking  event  occurred 
August  24,  1572.  The  Huguenots  were  not, 
however,  entirely  crushed.      They  repelled  the 


Huguenots. 


assaults  made  on  Rochelle,  and  finally  wrested  favorable  terms 
of  peace  from  the  government.  Charles  soon  afterward  died, 
having  suffered  the  most  poignant  remorse  for  the  atrocities 
perpetrated  with  his  sanction. 

17.  Henry  III,  brother  of  the  late  king,  succeeded  to  the 
throne;  although,  in  the  preceding  year,  he  had  been  elected 
king  of  Poland.  He  was  a  ^eak  and  dissolute 
prince,  neglecting  his  duties  to  indulge  in  the 


Character. 


most    infamous    debauchery.      The   Huguenots,   under    the 
leadership  of  Henry  of  Navarre  and  the  Prince 
of  Conde,  became  very  powerful;  and  the  king 


Huguenots. 


and  Catharine  were  compelled  to  make  the  most  humiliating 
concessions  (1576).  This  led  to  a  contest  which  has  been 
styled  the  ''War  of  the  Three  Henries" — Henry  the  king, 
Henry  of  Guise,  and  Henry  of  Navarre.  It  was  commenced 
in  1587;  and  the  king,  in  union  with  the  Leaguers,  gained 
some  advantages  over  their  opponents. 

18.  At  last^  disgusted  and  enraged  at  finding  himself  at 
the  mercy  of  the  Guises,  and  being  treated  with  considerable 
indignity  by  them,  he  caused  them  to  be  assassi- 
nated.    This  crime  excited  a  violent  outbreak  of 


Guises. 


popular  fury  against  the  king,  who,  in  order  to  resist  the 


650  Modern  History. 


opposition  which  he  had  created,  allied  himself  to  Henry  of 
Navarre  and  tlie  Huguenots.  A  few  months  after  this,  he 
was  assassinated  by  a  Dominican  monk,  named 
Clement,  who  was  prompted  to  the  deed  by  feel- 
ings of  religious  enthusiasm  (1589).    Thus  ended 


Assassination  of 
the  king. 


the  royal  dynasty  of  Valois,  the  throne  passing  to  the  House 
of  Bourbon,  in  the  person  of  Henry  III.,  king  of  Navarre, 
who  therefore  assumed  the  title  of  Henry  IVo 

State  of  Societt  vr  Fbance, 

Dunng  the  Valms-Orleans  Period. 

19.  The  wars  with  Italy  during  this  period  led  to  the 
introduction  of  Italian  art  and  artists  into  France,  particu- 
larly in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  who  gave  great 
encouragement  to  literature  and   art.     His  pa- 


Art. 


tronage  of  men  of  science  and  letters,  as  well  as  artists,  was 
so  earnest  that  he  associated  with  some  of  the  most  eminent 
as  his  personal  friends.  Among  these  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  the 
Italian  painter,  was  es])ecially  distinguished.  During  this 
]^criod,  called  the  Renaissance  (new  birth), 
French  architecture  was  modified  by  the  sub- 


Architecture. 


etitution  of  the  lighter  and  more  graceful  Italian  style.* 
This  was  true  not  only  of  the  churches,  but  of  domestic 
architecture. 

20.  Hunting  and  hawking  were  favorite  amusements  of 
the  noble  and  wealthy.     Each  king  had  a  large  establishment 
specially  devoted  to  the  chase,  for  the  support  of 
which  a  large  sum  was  annually  appropriated. 


Annusements. 


Packs  of  hounds,  also  leopards,  panthers,  and  falcons,  were 

•"Four  enormous  walls,  pierced  promiscuously  with  small  windows,  flanked 
with  ten  small  towers,  and  in  the  middle  a  larpre  tower  servinK  for  a  prison  and 
treasury— such  was  the  habitation  of  our  ancient  kincrs.  Upon  the  ruins  of  this 
edifice  of  a  past  a(?e  was  erected,  little  by  little,  a  palace  which,  notwithstanding 
all  its  transformations,  is  still  the  most  complete  expression  of  tl»e  French  Renais- 
{Wince.  Pierre  I^scot  constructed  pnly  a  part  of  the  fagade,  lu  which  is  placed  the 
pavilion  called  the  Jiorologe,"-^l*tii-ui^'(\  History  o^  fYat^^ 


France,  551 


employed;  and  a  hunting  party,  especially  of  the  monarch  or 
of  a  great  lord,  brought  together  a  numerous  and  gay  com- 
pany, among  them  many  ladies,  who  shared  with  eagerness  in 
the  excitement  of  the  chase.  Catherine  de'  Medici  was  espe- 
cially noted  for  her  fondness  for  hunting. 

21.  The  dress  of  both  sexes  also  underwent  much  change 
during  this  period.  The  love  of  luxury  introduced  by  Fran- 
cis I.  led  to  the  adoption  by  the  ladies  of  elegant 
and  costly  dresses,  made  of  the  richest  fabrics. 


Dress. 


and  covered  with  lace  and  jewelry.  The  hair  also  was  elabo- 
rately dressed,  and  decorated  with  nets  of  rare  tissues;  and 
ruffed  collars,  worn  at  first  by  women,  at  a  later  day  be- 
came common  for  men.  The  heightening  of  the  complexion 
by  paint,  and  the  use  of  patches  and  perfumes,  were  in- 
troduced from  Italy.  The  men  wore  broad-brimmed  hats 
decorated  witli  jewels  and  costly  plumes,  short  mantles  em- 
broidered with  gold  thread  or  trimmed  with  fur,  and  close- 
fitting  slashed  doublets  with  a  belt  at  the  waist  in  which  was 
carried  a  rapier.  Tliey  also  wore  trunk-hose  and  tights.  Silk 
stockings  are  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  Catharine  de' 
Medici,  who  first  wore  them  from  motives  of  vanity;  and 
gloves,  though  afterward  common,  were  at  first  a  royal  lux- 
ury. 

22.  Tlie  influence  of  women  at  court  received  a  powerful 
impulse  in  the  time  of  Francis  I.  Long  before  his  time, 
indeed;  Anne  of  Brittany  had  gathered  around 
her  the  daughters  of  the  nobility  for  education 
and  instruction   in   manners;   but  these  consti- 


Influence  of 
women. 


tuted  rather  her  private  court,  and  the  wives  of  the  nobles 
remained  at  home  to  superintend  the  affairs  of  the  household* 
Francis  I.,  however,  invited  the  wives  of  his  nobles  to  attend 
their  husbands  at  court;  and,  at  one  time,  their  number 
amounted  to  three  hundred.  From  this  time  they  began  to 
take  part  in  public  affairs,  their  jealousies  and  rivalries  enter- 
ing largely  into  almost  all  political  agtion,     Ministers  and 


65!!*  Modern  History, 


generals  were  sometimes  deposed  at  their  pleasure,  and  their 
favor  came  to  be  considered  the  stepping-stone  to  jiower. 

23.  Schools  had  begun  to  increase  in  number  during  tlifs 
period,  though  the  instruction  given  in  them  was  largely  re- 
ligious, and  the  discipline  strict.     The  hours  of 
study  were  unusually  long,  and  the  rod  was  used 


Schools. 


unsparingly.  Latin  and  Greek  were  especially  studied,  the 
remainder  of  the  time,  after  these  were  disposed  of,  being 
devoted  principally  to  music  and  religious  and  physical  exer- 
cises. Science  began  to  assume  a  more  rational 
character  toward  the  close  of  this  period.  The 
College  of  France  was  founded  by  Francis  I.,  in 


College  of 
France. 


1530,  designed  especially  to  give  instruction  in  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Latin,  hence  called  the  College  of  the  Three  Languages. 

24.  Among  the  most  noted  men  of  influence  and  genius 
of  the  time  may  be  particularly  mentioned  Michel  de  THo- 
pital  {me-sheV  de  lo'pe-tal),  Cliancellor  of  France 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  U.     Such  was  his 
tolerance  and  aversion  to  violence,  that  he  re- 


Michet  de 
i'Hopital. 


fused  to  sign  the  death-warrant  of  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and 
he  successfully  prevented  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition 
in  France.  At  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's,  the  court 
sent  a  special  guard  for  his  protection;  but  supposing  them 
to  be  assassins,  he  had  his  doors  thrown  open,  saying  that  ho 
was  ready  to  meet  death  whenever  it  was  the  will  of  God. 

25.  Distinguished  among  the  men  of  genius  of  the  time 
may  be  mentioned  also  Francis  llabelais  {rah'be-Id),  the  fa- 
mous satirist,  who  attacked  the  religious  and  i)riv- 
ileged  orders;  Clement  Marot  (mah-ro'),  noted 
for  his  ballads  and  otlier  ])oems,  which  were  very 


Other  noted 
men. 


popular;  Pierre  Lcscot  {les-co'),  the  architect  of  tlie  Louvre 
(1510-1571);  Philibert  Delorme  {duh-lorm')y  an  eminent 
architect,  the  designer  of  the  Tuileries  (1518-1677);*  Michel 

•  The  palace  of  the  Tullleries  was  commenced  by  Catharine  de'  Medici  in  lfi64. 
AD(}  was  continued  by  Henry  lY.,  who  added  n  rangre  of  buildings  with  a  splendid 


France,  553 


de  Montaigne  (1533-1594),  the  celebrated  essayist;  Aiiguste 
de  Thou  ifoo),  who  wrote  a  general  history  of  Europe  during 
his  time  (1553-1617);  and  others  who  contributed  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  French  language  as  it  now  exists. 


SECTION  n. 

The  House  of  Bourbois". 

26.  Henry  IV.  was  in  his  thirty-sixth  year  when  he  came 
to  the  throne,  from  which,  the  Catholic  nobles  at  first  at- 
tempted to  exclude  him,  except  on  condition  of 
his  renouncing  his  religion,  which  he  refused  to 
do;  but  he  promised  to  give  security  to  the  Catho- 


War  with  the 
League. 


lies  and  their  religion,  and  to  abide  the  decision  of  a  national 
Council.  This  not  being  satisfactory  to  the  League,  now 
commanded  by  the  Duke  of  May-enne',  brother  of  the  late 
Duke  of  Guise,  a  war  ensued,  in  which  Henry  defeated  his 
enemies  in  the  famous  battle  of  Ivry  (eev're)  (1590);  but  the 
fruits  of  this  victory  were  afterward  lost,  and  the  Duke  ot 
Mayenne  entered  Paris  in  triumph. 

27.  The  war  was  continued  for  some  time  with  varied  suc- 
cess, Henry  being  aided  by  the  English  troops  under  the 
Earl  of  Essex.  At  last,  the  States -General  were 
called;  and  Henry,  to  satisfy  the  prevailing 
party,  and  to  secure  a  recognition  of  his  right 


Henry  a 
Catholc. 


to  the  throne,  abjured  Protestantism  and  declared  himself 
satisfied  with  the  truth  of  the  Catholic  faith  (1593).  By  this 
act  he  delivered  France  from  a  condition  of  the  most  dreadful 


pavilion  at  each  end.  The  whole  front  was  more  than  1000  feet  in  extent,  with  a 
depth  of  about  100  feet.  Henry  IV.  also  commenced  a  gallery  to  connect  the 
Louvre  and  the  Tuileries.  This  was  continued  by  Louis  Xni.,  and  completed  by 
Louis  XIV.  Napoleon  I.  added  to  this  splendid  edifice,  and  Napoleon  HI.  further 
enlarged  it. 


554  Modern  History, 


anarchy;*  and  on  patriotic  considerations,  it  was  approved  bj 
many  of  the  Huguenots  themselves.  The  next  five  years  wer^ 
occupied  by  the  king  in  securing  his  possession  of  the  throne, 
and  in  a  war  with  Philip  of  Spain,  which  was  concluded  by  a 
treaty  in  1598,  a  year  memorable  for  the  grant  by  the  king 
of  the  celebrated  Edict  of  Nantes  \71ants),  in 
which  he  confirmed  the  rights  and  privileges  of 


Edict  of  Nantes. 


the  Huguenots,  conferred  upon  them  entire  liberty  of  con- 
science, and  admitted  them  to  all  offices  of  honor  and  emolu- 
ment. 

28.  He  next  directed  his  attention  to  the  internal  condi- 
tion of  the  kingdom,   wliich,   on  account  of  the  long  con- 
tinuance of  civil  wai-,  liad  become  entirely  dis- 
organized.     By  the  construction  of  roads  and 


Internal  affairs. 


canals,  he  brought  all  parts  of  the  country  into  ready  com- 
munication, encouraged  traffic  and  commerce,  and  thus  opened 
new  sources  of  wealth  and  intelligence  to  tlie  people.  Manu- 
factures, mining,  and  every  other  department  of  industrj^ 
were  fostered  by  liis  beneficent  measures,  in  devising  which 
he  was  greatly  aided  by  the  wise  and  upright 
Duke    of    Sul'ly.      The  latter    leorganized   the 


Sully. 


finances;  and,  although  many  of  the  taxes  were  remitted,  the 

national  debt  was  almost  entirely  liquidated. 

29.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  Henry  IV.  formed  a 

project  to  rearrange  the  various  states  of  Europe,  and  form 
them  into  an  association,  so  as  more  completely 
to  secure  the  balance  of  power,  and  to  diminish 


Henry's  plan. 


the  influence  of  the  imperial  house  of  Austria.  A  disjiuto 
having  arisen  between  the  emperor  and  sorno  of  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany,  Henry  took  sides  with  the  latter,  and 
thus  gave  great  offense  to  his  Catholic  subjects.     He  was  on 

•  "  A  contemporary  estimated  In  1.580  that  at  least  800.000  persons  had  perished 
by  the  war  or  by  maspacret  that  9  cities  had  been  destroyed;  250  villages  burned; 
and  128,000  dwellings  demolished.  The  work-shops  were  unoccupied,  commerce 
vas  suspended,  farms  desolated,  and  everywhere  brigandage.  Such  was  the  stat* 
Crom  which  Henry  IV.  was  tQ  rescue  France."— />urM^'«  Bistorjf  of  France. 


France. 


555 


the  point  of  setting  out  to  commence  the  war,  when  he  was 
assassinated  (1610),  in  the  streets  of  Paris,  by  a  half-insane 
fanatic,  named  Ravaillac  {rah-val-yak').  The 
death  of  the  king,  who  was  the  idol  of  the  people, 
occasioned  the  utmost  grief  and  indignation;  and 


Death  and 
character. 


his  murderer  was  put  to  death  with  every  refinement  of  torture. 

Henry  was  possessed  of  great  abilities  and  force  of  character; 

and,  as  a  monarch,  was  deserving  of  very  high  praise;  but  his 

private  life  was  sullied  with  many  vices  and  immoralities. 
30.  Louis  XIII   succeeded  his  father  at  the  age  of  nine 

years,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  Mary  de'  Medici. 

Sully,  the  great  min- 
ister of  Henry  IV., 


Sully. 


Richelieu. 


becoming  disgusted  with  the 
measures  of  the  regent,  and  par- 
ticularly her  attention  to  Italian 
favorites,  resigned,  and  went  into 
retirement.  An  assembly  of  the 
States-General,  in  1614,  is  noted 
for  the  first  great  occasion  on 
which  the  celebrated  Richelieu 
(rees/iVZ^^)  made  dis- 
play of   his  extraor- 


Richelieu. 


dinary  talents.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1622;  and,  two 
years  afterward,  became  the  chief  adviser  of  the  king.  Deter- 
mined to  subdue  the  Huguenots,  he  laid  siege  to 
their  chief  city,  Rochelle;  and  though  Charles  I. 


Huguenots. 


of  England  sent  a  considerable  force  to  its  assistance,  it  was 
compelled,  after  a  vigorous  defense  of  fifteen  months,  to  sur- 
render (1628).  Richelieu  himself  took  an  active  part  in  this 
siege.  The  other  towns  in  the  possession  of  the  Huguenots 
were  soon  afterward  obliged  to  submit,  and  the  Protestant 
power  in  France  was  completely  crushed. 

31.  Richelieu's  next  object  was  to  humble  the  power  of 
the  imperial  house  of  Austria,  to  effect  which  he  took  part  in 


656 


Modern  History, 


the  Thirty  Years'  War,  on  the  side  of  the  Protestants,  against 
Spain  and  the  empire  (1635).     The  war  was  be- 
gun in  the  Netherlands,  where  the  king's  generals 
gained  a  victory  near  Liege,  but  the  next  year  the 
suffered  some    reverses,  the    imperialists    invading 


Thirty  Years' 


iirtyY( 
War. 


French 

France,  devastating  the  country,  and  penetrating  to  within 
three  days'  march  of  the  capital.  The  persevering  energy  of 
Richelieu,  however,  finally  triumphed  over  all  his  enemies; 
and  the  French  made  conquest  of  Alsace  and  other  territories. 
32.  The  vigor  of  Richelieu's  government  excited  much 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  princes  and  nobles  of  France, 
and  many  conspiracies  were  formed  to  destroy 
him.      All    tliese    schemes    he  was   enabled   to 


Conspiracies. 


thwart  by  his  consummate  vigilance  and  address,  and  several 

of  those  who  liad  engaged  in  them 
he  caused  to  bo  executed.  The 
most  conspicuous  among  his  ene- 
mies were  Mary  de'  Medici,  tlio 
queen-mother ;  Gtiston,  Duke  of 
Orleans,  the  brother  of  the  king; 
and  the  Duke  of  Montmorency. 
The  last  was  executed,  having 
been  taken  prisoner  in  a  conflict 
with  the  government  forces.  Not- 
withstanding these  difficulties,  the 
great  minister  maintained  tlie  influence  of  France,  and  made 
it  resi)ected  by  every  foreign  power.  Beneath  liis 
comprehensive  genius  and  indefatigable  energy, 
the  king  was  a  mere  cipher.  Riclielicu  was  also 
a  patron  of  science  and  literature,  and  to  him  France  owes 
the  foundation  of  the  French  academy.  His  death  occurred 
in  1643,  and  was  followed  the  next  year  by  that  of  the  king. 

33.  Louis  XIV.  was  scarcely  five  years  of  age  when  his 
father  died;  and  the  regency  was  intrusted  to  his  mother, 
Anne  of  Austria,  who  selected  as  her  prime  minister  Cardinal 


Mary  dk'  Medici. 


Richelieu's 
influence. 


France-  557 


Maz'a-rin,   a  former    disciple    and    associate  of    Richelieu. 
France  was  again  drawn  into  the  Tliirty  Years' 
War,  by  the  renewal  of  hostilities  on  the  part  of 


Regency. 


the  house  of  Austria;  but  several  splendid  victories  were 
gained  by  the  French  army,  under  the  Prince  of  Conde, 
afterward  so  illustrious  as  the  Great  Conde,  and 
by  the  celebrated  Marshal  Tu-renne'.  This  long 
war  was  closed  by  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  in 


Conde  and 
Turenne. 


1648,  by  which  the  boundaries  of  France  were  settled,  nearly 
as  they  exist  at  present. 

34.  Meantime,  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde*  had  broken 
out  (1648),  caused  by  the  resistance  of  the  people,  represented 
in  the  parliament  of  Paris,  to  the  unjust  and 
oppressive  measures  of  taxation  adopted  by  the 


Fronde. 


government,  and  probably  incited  by  the  rebellion  of  the 
English  against  their  king,  Charles  I.,  which  had  just  been 
brought  to  a  successful  issue.  In  these  commotions,  the 
court  was  opposed  by  many  of  the  nobles;  and,  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  war,  the  Great  Conde  also  took  sides  against 
the  government.  The  principal  leader  of  the  revolt,  how- 
ever, was  Cardinal  de  Retz  (rates).  With  much  difficulty  it 
was  subdued  in  1653,  having  lasted  about  five  years. 

35.  The  death  of  Mazarin,  who  had  accumulated  enor- 
mous wealth,  occurred  in  1661,  after  which  date  Louis  XIV., 
from  whom,  on  account  of  his  neglected  educa- 
tion, little  had  been  expected,  suddenly  assumed 


Reign  of  Louis. 


the  reins  of  government.  He  at  once  exhibited  great 
sagacity  and  talent  as  a  ruler;  and  during  his  subsequent 
reign,  which  lasted  more  than  half  a  century,  the  vastness  of 
his  military  enterprises,  the  grandeur  of  his  plans  for  the 
internal  improvement  of  his  kingdom,  his  magnificent  court 
ceremonial,  and  his  enlightened  patronage  of  literature  and 

*  "  The  members  of  the  political  faction  opposed  to  the  government  were  called, 
in  derision,  Frondeurs,  that  is,  Slingers,  being  compared  to  the  vagrant  boys 
(gamins)  of  Paris  who  fought  with  slings  (fronde). 


558 


Modern  History, 


the  arts  and  sciences,  obtained  for  him  the  title  of  the  Great 
King.  His  government  was,  however,  a  complete  desjiotism, 
its  fundamental  principle  being  comprehended  in  his  famous 
saying,  "I  am  the  state."  The  prosperity  of  France  was  at 
this  time  greatly  promoted  by  the  wise  financial 
measures    of   Colbert   {kole-hare')y   and    by    the 


Colbert. 


ability  with  which  the  foreign  affairs  were  administered  by 

the  prime  minister  Louvois  {loo-vwaW). 

36.  The  first  military  enterprise  of  Louis  was  the  seizure 

of  Flanders  and  Franche  Comte  (fransh  kong'ta);  but  the 
Triple  Alliance  (England,  Holland,  and  Sweden) 
arrested  his  career  of  conquest  (1668).     This  ex- 


Triple  Alliance. 


cited  the  anger  of  Louis  against 
Holland ;  and,  having  bribed 
Charles  IL  of  Eng- 
land to  aid  him,  and 


War  in  HoUand. 


obtained  promises  of  neutrality 
from  the  other  European  powers, 
he  directed  his  armies  under  Tu- 
renne  and  Conde  against  the 
Dutch,  the  king  in  person  cross- 
ing the  Rhine  with  the  army. 

37.  Holland  was  at  first  power- 
less against  this  formidable  com- 
bination.     Her  people  were  divided  into  two 
parties,  one  composed  of  the  nobility,  with  tlio 
Prince  of  Orange,  afterward  William  IIL,  King 


Louis  XIV. 


Prince  of 
Orange. 


of  England,  as  their  leader;  the  other,  of  the  merclianis  and 
burghers,  who  formed  a  republican  party,  at  the 
head  of  which  were  the  brothers  John  and  Corne- 


DaWItt 


lius  De  Witt.  The  country  was,  however,  rich,  and  was  pos- 
sessed of  a  powerful  navy,  commanded  by  the  two  most  re- 
nowned admirals  in  Europe,  De  Kuyter  (ri'lcr)  and  Van  Tromp. 
38.  In  their  first  movements,  the  French  were  successful. 
Several  of  the  Dutch  provinces  were  occupied,  and  Amsterdam 


France,  559 


was  threatened.     Party  dissensions  became  more  bitter;  the 
republicans  demanding  peace,  while  the  Prince 
of  Orange  declared  for  war.     A  struggle  ensued 
in  which  the  De  Witts  were  killed  by  the  enraged 


Events  of  the 
war. 


populace,  and  the  Prince  of  Orange  was  appointed  Stadt- 
holder  (1672).  The  tide  of  war  then  rapidly  turned  in  favor 
of  the  Dutch.  Amsterdam  was  relieved  from  its  besiegers  by 
cutting  the  dikes  and  flooding  the  surrounding  country;  De 
Ruyter  and  Van  Tromp  destroyed  the  allied  fleets;  and  the 
Stadtholder,  by  his  skillful  negotiations,  dissolved  the  Eng- 
lish and  French  alliance,  and  obtained  the  aid  of  Austria  and 
Germany.  Thus  in  two  years,  the  greater  part  of  Europe 
became  involved  in  the  war,  and  France  stood  alone. 

39.  But  Louis,  through  the  genius  of  his  great  general 
Turenne,  gained  several  victories  over  the  allied  forces;  and, 
in  the  Mediterranean,  the  French  fleets  defeated 
those  of  Holland,  De  Ruyter  being  slain  in  one 
of  the  battles.     At  last,  however,  beset  on  all 


French 
successes. 


sides,  he  sued  for  peace,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded  in  1678. 
The  war  had  brought  him  no  advantages.     He 
gave  up  all  his  conquests  in  Holland.     Turenne 
had  fallen  in  battle  (1675);  and  Conde,  enfeebled 


Treaty  of 
peace. 


by  age,  had  retired  forever  from  the  army.  Still  great  honors 
were  conferred  upon  him  at  Paris,  triumphal  arches  were 
erected  to  commemorate  his  victories,  and  he  received  the 
title  of  The  Great  {Louis  le  Grand). 

40.  The  free  city  of  Strasburg  was  taken  by  the  French 
a  short  time  afterward  (1681);  and  through  the  engineering 
skill  of  the  celebrated  Vauban  {vo-hahng^)  it  was 
made  an  impregnable  bulwark  of  France  on  its 


Strasburg. 


eastern  frontier.    In  1683,  the  queen  died,  and  Louis  afterward 
married  secretly  Madame  de  Maintenon  (nialin- 
ta-nong')i  who  had  obtained  a  singular  influence 
over  him,  which  she  ever   afterward  retained. 


Madanne  de 
Maintenon. 


It  was  by  the  advice  of  this  woman  that  the  king  adopted 


660  Modern  History, 


the  impolitic  measure  of  revoking  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685), 
which  was  followed  by  a  fierce  persecution  of  the 
Huguenots,  an  immense  number  of  whom  were 

driven  from  the  country.* 


Edict  of  Nantes. 


41.  The   Catholic   king  of  England,  James  II.,  having 
been  dethroned,  took  refuge  at  the  French  court;  and,  Louis 
supporting  his  cause,  war  was  declared  between 
France  and  England  (1689).    All  the  great  powers 


War  renewed. 


of  Europe  were  combined  against  the  French  monarch,  who 
at  once  put  his  forces  in  motion  to  forestall  the  action  of  his 
enemies.  He  sent  an  army  into  Germany,  captured  several 
cities,  and  ruthlessly  devastated  a  large  tract  of  country  in 
order  to  prevent  it  from  being  used  by  his  adversaries.  For 
over  seven  years  was  this  mighty  struggle  maintained  by  sea 
and  land;  and,  France  being  utterly  exhausted,  Louis  was 
compelled  to  assent  to  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick,  and  thus  sub- 
mit to  humiliating  conditions  of  peace  (1697). 

42.  A  few  years  afterward,  followed  the  great  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  (1701).  On  the  death  of  Charles  II.  of 
Spain,  Louis  claimed  the  throne  of  that  country  for  his  grand- 
son Philip  v.,  whilst  the  emperor  supported  the 
claim  of  his  son,  afterward  the  Emperor  Charles 
VI.    This  led  to  an  alliance  between  Holland  and 


War  of  the 

Spanish 
Succession. 


Germany  against  the  French  king;  which  was  joined  ])y  Wil- 
liam of  Orange,  Louis  having  recognized  the  son  of  James  II. 
as  king  of  England.  The  war  was  carried  on  in  Spain,  Bel- 
gium, Germany,  and  Italy;  and  the  French  experienced  a  scries 
of  disastrous  defeats,  having  to  contend  against  the  genius  of 

♦  "  It  can  never  be  known,  with  anything  approaching  to  accuracy,  how  many 
persons  fled  from  France  In  consequence  of  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 
Vauban,  writing  a'few  years  after,  said  that '  France  had  lost  a  iuindred  thousand 
Inhabitants,  sixty  millions  of  money,  nine  thousand  sailors,  twelve  thousand  tried 
soldiers,  six  hundred  oflRcers,  and  its  most  flciuishing  manufactures.'"— Smffe«'« 
Huguenots. 

A  whole  district  of  Ix>ndon  is  peopled  by  the  descendants  of  the  FTiiguenots,  who 
transported  their  silk  manufactories  fnun  Franco  to  Spitalflelds.  Many  found  a 
home  m  northern  Germany,  carrying  thither  their  arts,  their  thrift,  and  their 
industry. 


France.  561 


Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene.  The  Treaty  of  Utrecht 
closed  the  war  (1713),  according  to  which  Louis  gave  up  some 
of  his  American  possessions  to  England,  but  obtained  the 
recognition  of  Philip  V.  as  king  of  Spain.   • 

43.  The  condition  of  France  was  now  most  deplorable, 
through  the  ambition,  pride,  and  bigotry  of  her  despotic 
monarch.  He  sustained,  however,  his  haughty 
mien  and  pompous  state  ceremonial  to  the  last, 
notwithstanding  he  had  lost  by  death  his  son. 


Condition  of 
France, 


the  Dauphin,  his  eldest  grandson,  and  many  others  of  his 
kindred.     He  died  in  1715,  after  a  reign  of  more 
than  seventy-two  years,  and  was   succeeded  by 


King's  death. 


Louis,  his  gi-eat-grandson.*  Louis  XIV.  left  several  volumes 
of  writings,  containing  his  *^  Instructions  to  his  Sons,"  and 
his  letters,  which  give  valuable  information  respecting  the 
events  of  his  reign.  This  period  is  regarded  as  the  Augustan- 
age  of  French  literature. 

44.  Louis  XVc  was  only  five  years  of  age  on  his  accession, 
and  the  regency  fell  into  the  hands  of  tlie  dissolute  Duke  of 
Orleans,  who  was  controlled  by  his  shameless  and 
unprincipled  minister,  the  infamous  Abbe  Dubois 


Regency. 


{du-hwah').  The  education  of  the  young  king  had  been  in- 
trusted from  an  early  age  to  Fleu'ry,  noted  for  his  scholar- 
ship and  the  prominent  position  which  he  subse- 
quently occupied  in  the  government  of  France. 
During  the  regency  occurred  the  famous  Missis- 


Mississippi 

Scheme. 


sippi  Scheme,  devised  by  a  Scotch  adventurer  named  John 

*  **  At  eight  o'clock  on  the  following  morning,  Louis  XIV.  expired.  As  he  ex- 
haled his  last  sigh,  a  man  was  seen  to  approach  a  window  of  the  state  apartment 
which  opened  on  the  great  balcony,  and  throw  it  suddenly  back.  It  was  the 
captain  of  the  body-guard,  who  had  no  sooner  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
populace,  by  whom  the  courtyard  was  thronged  in  expectation  of  the  tidings  which 
they  knew  could  not  be  long  delayed,  than,  raising  his  truncheon  above  his  head, 
he  broke  it  in  the  center,  and  throwing  the  pieces  among  the  crowd,  exclaimed  in 
a  loud  voice, '  The  king  is  dead ! '  Then,  seizing  another  staff  from  an  attendant, 
without  the  pause  of  an  instant,  he  flourished  it  in  the  air  as  he  shouted,  '  Long  live 
the  king! '  And  a  multitudinous  echo  from  the  depths  of  the  lately  deserted  apart/ 
ment  answered  as  buoyantly,  '•  Long  live  the  king  I '  "— Pardee's  Louis  Xn^. 


662  Modern  History. 


Law,  who  proposed  to  issue  paper-money  on  the  security  of 
certain  gold  and  diamond  mines  said  to  exist  near  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  in  Louisiana,  and  in  this  way  to  extinguish  the 
vast  debt  of  the  country.  Such  was  the  rage  for  speculation 
excited  by  this  project,  that  the  shares  sold  for  forty  times 
their  par  value.  Thousands  were  ultimately  ruined  by  this 
scheme. 

46.  In  1726  Fleury  was  made  prime  minister  and  a  cardinal, 
in  the  seventy-second  year  of  his  age;  and  the  country  greatly 
prospered  under  his  prudent  and  skillful  ad- 
ministration, which  lasted  seventeen  years.     His 


Fleury. 


policy  was  peaceful;  but  the  marriage  of  Louis  XV.  with  the 
daughter  of  the  dethroned  king  of  Poland,  involved  him  in 
a  war  with  Kussia,  Austria,  and  Denmark,  to  reinstate  his 
father-in-law,  Stan'is-las,  on  the  throne;  but  in  this  object 
he  was  unsuccessful.  The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession 
followed  soon  after,  during  which  Fleury  died  (1743).  The 
most  important  victory  gained  by  the  French  during  this  war 
was  that  of  Fontenoy,  under  Marshal  Saxe  (1745). 

46.  The  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chajielle  gave  a  brief  rest  to 
Europe,  which  was  broken  by  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  175G. 
During  this   struggle,  France  lost  Canada  and 
some  of  her  West  Indian  possessions;   and  her 
army  was  severely  defeated  at  Min'den,  by  the 


Seven  Years' 
War. 


English  aiid  Hanoverians,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick (1759).  The  Treaty  of  Paris  deprived  France  of  many 
important  possessions,  and  left  her  heavily  laden  witli  debt 
(1763).  The  year  1769  is  remarkable  for  the  conquest  of 
Corsica,  after  a  brave  struggle  for  its  independence,  under 
Paoli.  During  the  same  year  was  born  on  this  island  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte,  destined  to  play  so  great  a  part 
in  the  subsequent  history  of  France.  Louis 
XV.  died  in  1774,  after  having,  by  a  long  course 


Death  and 
Character. 


of   tyranny,   debauchery,   and   reckless   profusion,   disgusted 
his  subjects,   and   plunged   the  country  into  anarchy  an4 


France,  563 


ruin.*  Indeed,  he  partly  realized  the  consequences  of  his 
reckless  course,  but  joined  with  his  favorite  Madame  de 
Pompadour  in  the  well-known  saying,  "After  us  the  del- 
uge!" 

State  of  Society  in  Feance, 

jyuring  the  Bourbon  Period  (1589-1774). 

47.  Absolutism  characterizes  this  period  of  French  his- 
tory, for  the  king  absorbed  all  the  powers  of  the  government. 
The  Parliament  of  Paris  sometimes  tried  to  assert 
the  power  of  the  people,   but  the  king  could 


Government. 


always  crush  its  refractory  spirit  by  a  prompt  dismissal  of  its 
members  to  their  homes.  The  States-General  gave  place  to 
the  Assembly  of  the  Notables,  called  to  sanction  the  decrees 
of  the  monarch.  Louis  XIV.  ruled  with  arrogance  as  well  as 
supreme  power.  To  one  who  spoke  of  the  state  in  his  pres- 
ence, he  haughtily  exclaimed:  ''  The  state, — /  am  the  state!" 
48.  The  nobles,  except  those  connected  with  the  court, 
were  poor  and  helpless;  for,  though  their  castles  were  in  rums, 
their  fields  uncultivated  and  unproductive,  and 
they  themselves  with  scarcely  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence,  their  pride  of  rank  forbade  that  they 


Condition  of  the 
people. 


should  labor  to  improve  their  condition.  The  middle  classes 
(bourgeoisie),  merchants,  trades-people,  artisans,  etc.,  were 
often  affluent,  sometimes  rivaling  the  nobility  in  the  richness 
of  their  houses,  in  their  dress,  and  in  their  equipages.  The 
general  condition  of  the  peasantry  of  France,  during  this 
whole  period,  was  one  of  wretchedness  and  squalor,  f 


*  "  A  strong,  firm  hand  was  needed  to  grasp  the  scepter  so  triumphantly  borne 
by  Louis  XIV.  for  seventy  years;  but  Louis  XV.  was  as  weak  as  he  was  vicious. 
His  reign  is  the  most  humiliating,  the  most  deplorable,  in  French  history.  It  was  a 
reign  unredeemed  by  any  splendor  or  by  any  virtue."— Henri  Martin's  History  oj 
France. 

+  The  noble  exercised  absolute  power  over  the  peasants  living  on  his  estate,  and 
there  were  thousands  of  serfs  who  were  bought  and  sold  with  the  land.  Large 
tracts  of  land  were  set  apart  for  hunting:  and  the  starving  peasant  was  often  »'or- 
biUdeiL  to  till  his  ground  lest  it  miVht  disturb  or  injure  the  gam©.    The  gabelle  waf 


664  Modern  History, 


49.  Under  the  first  of  the  Bourbons,  who  cherished  the 
love  of  his  country,  great  improvements  were  made;   while 
the  freedom  granted  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes  gave 
an  impulse  to  every  kind  of  industry,  fostered  also 
by  the  wise  measures  of  the  Duke  of  Sully.     The 


State  of  the 
nation  under 
the  Bourbons, 


successors  of  Henry  IV.  were  selfish,  dissolute,  and  vain- 
glorious; and  while  they  encouraged  science  and  art,  they 
were  utterly  regardless  of  the  interests  of  the  people.  The 
ontire  substance  of  the  nation  was  wasted  in  their  costly  wars, 
their  extravagant  enterprises,  and  their  luxurious  excesses. 
Splendid  buildings  and  works  of  art  commemorated  their 
taste  and  refinement,  while  the  great  mass  of  their  subjects 
lived  in  penury  and  servitude.  *The  ostentation  and  pride  of 
the  Grand  Monarque  reduced  about  one  tenth  of  the  people 
to  hopeless  beggary. 

50.    Commerce   and   manufactures  of  various  kinds  were 
encouraged  by  Henry  IV.;  but  it  was  during  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.  and  under  the  administration  of  Col- 
bert, that  every  department  of  industrial  and  com- 
mercial enterprise  received  its  greatest  impulse. 


Connnnerce  and 
manufactures. 


He  established  companies  to  trade  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  thus  forming  a  rival  to  the  Dutch;  he  promoted  the 
manufacture  of  fine  cloths,  encouraged  the  cultivation  of  mul- 
berry-trees, and  the  art  of  making  plate-glass,  which  had 
previously  been  imported  into  France  from  Venice.  The 
manufacture  of  porcelain  at  Sevres  {shr)^  and  the  world- 
renowned  Gobelin  tapestry,  date  from  this  period.  Machin- 
ery for  weaving  stockings  was  imported  by  Colbert  from  Eng- 
land, and  lace-making  was  introduced  from  Fhmdcrs  and 
Venice.     Commerce  was  greatly  promoted  by  the  construc- 

a  moRt  oppressive  tax,  each  family  being  required  to  buy  a  certain  quantity  of  salt 
at  least  four  times  a  year  whether  it  was  needed  or  not.  The  i>easants  were  also 
compelled  to  labor  upon  the  public  works— building  roads,  bridjces,  etc.,  any 
required  time  without  comi>ensntion,  and  sometimes  to  i">erforra  the  most  menial 
and  dejH'adinp  services  for  their  tyrannical  masters,  who  trampled  under  their 
feet  even  the  most  sacred  rights  of  their  dejjendenta. 


France, 


{)m 


tioii  of  the  Canal  of   Languedoc,   connecting  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  with  the  Mediterranean  (1664-1681). 

51.  Among  the  most  important  reforms  introduced  during 
the  same  reign  was  the  re-organization  of  the  army  and  navy, 
accomplished  under  the  direction  of  the  great  war 
minister  Louyois.     For  the  army,  schools  of  artil- 


Reforms. 


lery  were  founded  at  Metz,  Doiiai  {doo-a),  and  Strasburg;  and 

the  art  of  fortification 

was   carried    to  a  high 

degree  of  perfection  by 

Vauban.  The  bayonet  as 

now  used  was  invented 

at    Bayonne    (hence  its 

name),  in  1640.    Marme 

arsenals    were   built    at 

various  ports.  The  navy 

of  France  at   this  time 

was  large,  and  powerful 

enough    to    cope    with 

the  Dutch.      One  hun- 


Paviuon  of  Henky  IV.  at  St.  Germain. 


dred  vessels  of  war  were  built  in  the  year  1672  alone. 

62.  Numerous  buildings  of  great  magnificence  were  erected 
during  this  period:   only  a  few  can  be   here  referred  to. 

Without  loving  the  arts  as  did   his   immediate    i \ • 

predecessors,  Henry  IV.  was  not  wanting  in  a  ' 

taste  for  splendid  architecture.  He  caused  a  beautiful  pa- 
vilion to  be  constructed  at  St.  Germain,  where  Francis  I.  had 
built  rather  a  fortress  than  a  royal  residence;  and  finished  the 
fagade  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  which  had  been  commenced  by 
Francis  I.,  besides  erecting  or  completing  many  other  struc- 
tures. Kichelieu  had  a  great  love  and  taste  for  architecture. 
The  erection  of  the  Palais  Cardinal  occupied  his  attention  for 
years,  but  it  was  not  completed  till  after  his  death,  when  it 
became  the  Palais  Royal,  and  the  residence  of  the  king.  In 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV..  Paris  was  adorned  with  parks  and 


£►66  Modern  History. 


public  buildings  to  an  extent  previously  unknown;  but  beyond 
all  others  in  extent  and  magnificence  was  the  celebrated  palace 
and  gardens  of  Versailles  (vdr-sdh').  The  Pantheon  was 
built  at  the  instance  of  Madame  de  Pompadour,  to  replace  the 
church  of  St.  Genevieve,  the  patron  saint  of  Paris. 

53.  Many  scientific  and  literary  institutions  date  from  the 
time  of  Kichelieu.     He  established  the  French  Academy  in 
1635,  with  the  design   to  improve  the  language 
and  literary  taste  of  the  people;  and  was  a  great 


Institutions. 


patron  of  men  of  letters,  among  them  Corneille  {kor-nale'), 
the  dramatist.  Mazarin  was  also  a  friend  to  art,  literature, 
and  education.  He  founded  various  colleges  and  academies. 
During  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  a  host  of  illustrious  men 
flourished.  The  Observatory  was  erected  at  Paris,  and  the 
celebrated  astronomers,  Roemer  (from  Denmark),  Hnyghens 
(from  Holland),  and  Oassini  (from  Italy),  were  induced  to 
settle  in  France.*  The  Military  School  was  established  in 
this  reign. 

54.  The  first  newspaper  in  France  was  a  weekly,  issued  in 
1G31,  under  the  name,  at  first,  of  the  Gazette,  but  afterward 
the  Gazette  de  Frafice.    The  paper  was  continued 
till    1789.     The  postal  service  was  regulated  in 


Innovations. 


1627,  the  price  of  carrying  a  letter  from  Paris  to  Lyons  being 
fixed  at  about  two  cents.  The  first  tax  on  tobacco  was  imposed 
in  1620.  The  use  of  coffee  was  introduced  from  Constanti- 
nople in  1660;  and  in  1720,  a  coffee  plant,  raised  in  the  hot- 
bouse  of  tlie  Garden  of  Plants,  led  to  the^  extensive  cultivation 
of  coffee  in  the  French  West  Indies.  The  cotton  manufac- 
ture was  commenced  in  the  latter  ]mrt  of  this  period;  and  the 
first  steam-engine  was  used  in  1770,  at  Shaillot  (sha-yo'). 
Street  lamps  came  into  use  in  Paris  in  1767. 

•The  first  of  these.  Roemer,  discovered  the  velocity  of  lijrht;  Huyghens  dl» 
covered  the  rinj?  and  one  of  the  satellites  of  Saturn:  and  Cassini.  four  other  satel 
htes  of  the  same  planet,  b<?slde8  flevlsltiK  a  methcnl  of  ascertaining  the  size  of  tho 
earth,  by  measuring  the  length  of  a  degree  of  a  mendian. 


France, 


567 


65.  The  dwelling-houses  of  the  wealthy  inhabitants  of  the 
cities  often  displayed  regal  luxury  and  splendor.  Mary  de' 
Medici  brought  from  Italy  a  refined  and  luxuri- 
ous taste,  and  patronized  the  eminent  artists  of 
her  time.     Expensive  tapestry  and  Turkey  carpets  were  used 


Furniture. 


Dress. 


in  palaces;  also  chairs,  which,  with  table  linen  and  many 
other  things  now  common,  were  articles  of  luxury.  Coaches 
were  slowly  coming  into  use.  There  was  great  extravagance 
in  dress  among  the  higher 
classes,  particularly  with 
the  ladies.  Elaborate  head-dresses, 
long  trains,  and  cork  heels  some- 
times ten  inches  high  are  described 
among  the  eccentricities  of  the  period. 
i  ^BHHIIll^HI '  ^^^'^^^^  ^^  reign  of  Louis  XIV., 
J  a^^^n^Q^H|j;||  the  ladies  carried  looking-glasses  in 
U 1  mH^^^^^WBI '''^  their  hands,  to  adjust  their  finery. 
The  men  too  were  guilty  of  simi- 
lar extravagance.  They  wore  wigs 
so  finely  curled,  that  to  prevent 
them  from  being  disordered,  they 
were  obliged  to  carry  their  hats  in 
their  hands  instead  of  wearing  them 
on  their  heads.  They  also  frequently 
indulged  in  very  costly  jewelry. 

66.  This  period  abounded  in  men  of  genius.  A  few 
only  can  be  mentioned  here.  Among  poets  and  dramatists, 
Corneille  (1606-1684),  considered  the  father  of 
French  tragedy,  and   Racine  {rah-seen')  (1639- 


FOUNTAIN   MOLIERE,   PARIS. 


Literature. 


1699),  his  great  rival  in  the  same  field;  Moliere  {mo-lydr') 
(1722-1693),  a  comic  dramatist  of  great  genius;  Voiture 
(vwah-ture')  (1598-1648),  and  Boileau  {hwah-lo')  (1636- 
1711),  distinguished  poets,  the  latter  a  special  favorite  of 
Louis  XIV.  To  these  may  be  added  Scarron  (1610-1660), 
the  husband  of  Madame  de  Maintenon,  and  La  Fontaine 


568 


Modern  History, 


(1621-1695),  sometimes  called  the  modern  ^sop.*  The 
most  distinguished  pulpit  orators  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. 
were  Bossuet  {hos-wa'),  Bourdaloue  (boor-da-loo'),  and  Mas- 
sillon  {mas-seel-yong'),  with  whom  may  be  associated  the 
illustrious  preacher  and  writer  Fen'e-lon  (1651-1715),  author 
of  TeUmaque  {The  Adventures  of  Telem'achus),  -d  school-hook 
in  use  at  the  present  day.  Madame  de  Sevign6  {se-veen'ya) 
(1626-1696),  celebrated  for  her  charming  letters,  represents 
her  sex  among  the  crowd  of  literary  personages  of  the  times. 
La  Rochefoucauld  (rosh-foo-ko) 
(1613-1680)  was  the  author  of  a 
book  of  Moral  Maxims  that  was 
universally  admired. 

67.  Among    historians  must 
be    mentioned    De    Thou  (too) 

(1553-1617),    who 

wrote  a  history  of 

France,     and      the 


Other  noted 
writers. 


Ftskhov. 


Abbe  de  Fleury,  the  author  of  a 
history  of  tlic  Church;  among 
writers  of  fiction  and  litterateurs^ 
Balzac  (1594-1654),  considered  the  best  French  prose  writer 
of  his  time;  Pas-cal'  (1623-1662),  who  wrote  the  Provincial 
Letters;  Le  Sage  (sazh)  (1668-1747),  the  author  of  Oil  Bias, 
and  Rousseau  (roo-so')  (1712-1778),  one  of  the  most  eminent 
writers  of  the  period  just  preceding  the  French  llovolution. 
In  addition  to  these  should  be  mentioned  the  famous  musician 
Lulli,  the  founder  of  the  French  oi)era;  the  painters  Poussin 


♦  "No  nation  could  present,  at  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.,  so  majcniflcent  a  collec- 
tion of  literary  productions.  Italy  and  Gennany  were  In  a  complete  moral  decline; 
Spain,  like  a  rich  ruin,  preserved,  from  its  lost  fortunes,  only  a  few  precious 
jewels,  showing  a  few  eminent  palnt<?r8  and  wHUts.  Kiijjiand.  at  the  heRlnnlnp:  of 
the  century,  had  had  Its  Shakesp^'are ;  In  the  middle,  its  Milton;  and  at  the  end  \is 
Dryden;  but  this  literature  did  not  pass  h«>y<»nd  the  island  where  it  belonged. 
France,  on  the  contrary,  was  really  at  the  head  of  nuxlern  eivlllxatlon :  and  by  the 
acknowledged  superiority  of  its  taste,  it  made  all  Kurope  accept  the  jjeoceful 
dominion  of  its  artists  and  its  writers."— Z>unt^'«  History  of  Prance. 


France, 


569 


(pooS'Sang')  and  Claude  Lorraine;  the  architects  Mansard  and 
Claude  Perrault  (per-ro^);  the  philosopher  and  scientist  Des 
Cartes  {da  kart),  and  the  physicists  Mariotte  {mah-re-ot')  and 
Delisle  {de  leel),  with,  toward  the  end  of  the  century,  the 
noted  naturalist,  Buffon  {hoof-fong'),  and  Diderot  {dee-dro'), 
D'Alembert  {dd-long-hare'),  the  authors  of  the  Encyclopm- 
diaj  besides  Lavoisier  (lah-vwah-ze-d^),  the  father  of  modern 

chemistry,  and  the  mathe- 
maticians La  Place  (lah 
plahce)  and  Legendre  (lu- 
zliondr), 

58.  Above  and  beyond 

ill  the  literary  men  of  his 

:  me  must  be 

mentioned 

Vol-taire'    (1694 


Voltaire. 


1778), 
who,  whether  as  wit,  poet, 
historian,  or  philosopher, 
shone  with  a  luster  sur- 
passing all  others.  Un- 
fortunately a  skeptic  in 
religion,  he  scoffed  at 
Voltaire.  (From  a  statue.)  divine    revelation;    and, 

hence,  the  brighter  his  genius  shone,  the  more  baneful  was 
his  influence  upon  the  moral  and  religious  progiess  of  his 
time.*    To  Voltaire,  Montesquieu  (mon-tes-ku')  (1689-1755), f 


*  Voltaire's  true  name  was  Arouet.  He  was  bom  in  Paris,  in  1694;  and  at  the 
age  of  twenty-one  was  sent  to  the  Bastile  for  a  satire  on  Louis  XIV.,  of  which,  how- 
ever, he  was  not  the  author.  In  1718,  he  pubhshed  the  tragedy  entitled  (Edipe,  and 
in  1723,  the  poem  La  Henriade,  in  which  he  defended  religious  toleration.  He 
subsequently  spent  three  years  in  England,  and  some  time  afterward  resided  at 
the  court  of  Frederick  of  Prussia  on  terras  of  intimacy  with  that  monarch. 

+  Montesquieu  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  The  Spirit  of  the  Laws,  which 
is  stiU  a  standard.  His  influence,  though  revolutionary,  was  beneficent;  and  his 
writings  were  far  in  advance  of  the  age,  in  the  lofty  .'spirit  of  freedom  and  humanity 
with  which  they  are  replete.  Rousseau,  Montesquieu,  and  Voltaire,  and  the 
philosophers  and  free-thinkers  of  their  age,  hurried  on  a  mighty  convulsion  which 
many  believe  could  not  long  have  been  delayed. 


570 


Modern  History. 


Rousseau,*  and  the  EncyclopcBclists  is  attributed,  in  part,  that 
dreadful  overturning  of  the  institutions  of  society  that  formed 
80  terrible  a  characteristic  of  the  great  French  Revolution. 


SECTION  III. 

Revolutionary  Frakce. 

59.  Louis  XVI.  succeeded   his  grandfather  at  the  age  of 
twenty  years.     His  character  presented  a  striking  contrast  to 
that  of  the  preceding  king,  being  beneficent  and 
upright;  and  he  commenced  liis  reign  with  the 


Character. 


sincere  desire  to  ameliorate  tlie 
condition  of  his  suffering  people, 
by  redressing  their  grievances,  and 
restoring  the  financial  prosperity 
of  the  kingdom.  He  was,  how- 
ever, deficient  in  judgment  and 
decision;  and,  although  he  select- 
ed for  his  ministers  the  patriotic 
Turgot  (toor-go^)  and  Malesherbes 
{mal-zdrb'),  he  soon  became  in- 
volved in  srreat  diffi- 


Difficultic 


Marib  Antoinkttb. 


cuities  on  account  of  the  irre))arablc  confusion 
of  the  finances.  These  were  still  further  deranged  by  the 
extravagant  habits  of  the  court,  jn'csided  over  by  the  young 


•  "The  writer  who  acquired  the  most  extensive  and  pomlcioua  influence  over 
the  mind  of  France  at  this  period  was  undoubtedly  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau.  In  his 
works  on  the  InequnUty  of  the  Condition  of  Mankind,  in  his  Emile,  Contrat  Sodal, 
and  Nouvclle  HHoisr,  he  developed  his  notions  on  the  reconstruction  of  iwxiiety 
with  a  subtlety,  a  chann  of  styh'.  a  specious  air  of  philanthropy,  a  false  morbid 
8c!isibility.  peculiarly  attractive  to  the  Fr«'nch  character,  but  the  effects  of  which 
went  directly  to  undermine  and  subvert  the  very  foundations  of  religion,  morality, 
and  legitimate  government."— 5<udl«n<*«  History  of  France. 


France.  571 


and    fascinating    queen,    Marie    Antoinette    {an-tivah-net'), 
daughter  of  Maria  Theresa.*     (See  page  605.) 

60.  Various  ministers  of  well-established  reputation  for 
financial  skill  were  appointed,  among  them  the  celebrated 
Neck'er,  a  banker  of  Geneva;  but  the  national 
difficulties    increased.      A  war    with    England, 


Other  troubles. 


caused  by  the  interference  of  France  in  the  struggle  of  the 
English  colonies  of  America  for  independence,  still  further 
embarrassed  tlie  government  of  Louis  XVI.,  by  compelling  a 
new  levy  of  taxes,  greatly  to  the  discontent  of  the  people, 
who  complained  loudly  of  the  extravagance  of  the  court  and 
of  Marie  Antoinette.  At  length  an  assembly  of 
the  States-General  was  vehemently  demanded,  a 


States-General. 


meeting  of  which  had  not  been  called  since  1614.     To  this 
Louis  gave  his  assent  (1789). 

61.  By  the  advice  of  Necker,  it  had  been  decreed  that  the 
representatives  of  the  Third  Estate  should  be  equal  in  num- 
ber to  those  of  the  nobility  and  clergy  together; 
and,  on  their  assemblage  at  Versailles,  a  dispute 


Dispute 


arose  as  to  the  mode  in  which  the  votes  should  be  taken — 
whether  the  three  orders  should  vote  as  separate  bodies,  or 
all  ther  votes  should  be  taken  numerically.  The  latter  mode 
was  advocated  by  the  Third  Estate;  and,  after  contending  for 
several  weeks  against  the  two  other  orders,  they  finally  re- 
solved themselves  into  a  distinct  body,  under  the 
title  of  the  National  Assembly,  and  claimed  to 
be  the  legitimate  representatives  of  the  French 


National 
Assennbly. 


people  (June  17).     They  were  soon  joined  by  many  of  the 

*  "  Meanwhile  the  fair  young  Queen,  in  her  halls  of  state,  walks  like  a  goddess  of 
Beauty,  the  cynosure  of  ah  eyes;  as  yet  mingles  not  with  affairs;  heeds  not  the 
future;  least  of  all,  dreads  it.  Weber  and  Campan  have  pictured  her  there  within 
the  royal  tapestries,  in  bright  boudoirs,  baths,  peignoirs,  and  the  Grand  and  Little 
Toilet;  with  a  whole  brilliant  world  waiting  obsequious  on  her  glance:  fair  young 
daughter  of  Time,  what  things  has  Time  in  store  for  thee  !  Like  Earth's  brightest 
Appearance,  she  moves  gracefully,  environed  with  the  grandeur  of  Earth:  a 
reality,  and  yet  a  magic  vision;  for,  behold,  shall  not  utter  Darkness  swallow  it?"— 
Carlyle's  French  Revolution. 


572 


Modern  History. 


clergy. 


Revolution 


Thus  was  inaugurated  that  tremendous  social  and 
political  convulsion  known  as  the  French  Revo- 
lution,  which  in  its  progress  not  only  overturned 


the  government  of  France,  but  threw  the  whole  civilized 
world  into  violent  commotion,  uprooting  institutions  that  had 
withstood  the  assaults  of  ages. 

62.  The  king  and  his  ministers,  dismayed  at  the  deter- 
mination shown  by  the  lower  order,  and  desiring  to  check 
their  proceedings,   attempted   to   exclude    them 
from  their  hall,  and  thus  suspend  their  sittings. 
But  the  Assembly,  through  the  energy  of  their 


Proceedings  of 
the  Assennbly. 


president  Bail'ly  (or  hah-ye'),  and  the  eloquence  of  their  great 
leader  Mirabeau  (me-rah-bo^),  thwarted  this  attempt;  and  the 

g  king  showed  his 
indecision  by  af- 
terward sanction- 
ing their  meas- 
ures, and  request- 
ing all  the  depu- 
ties of  the  clergy 
and  nobility  to 
join  with  the 
Third  Estate. 
But  the  queen 
opposed  these 
concessions.  By 
The  bastiub.  her  advicc  largo 

bodies  of  troops  were  collected  to  overawe  the  Assembly;  and 
Necker,  the  popular  minister,  was  dismissed. 
An  insurrection  of  the  populace  of  Pans  ensued. 


Insurrection. 


and  the  Bastile  (has4eeV),  a  noted  prison,  was  stormed  and 
captured  by  the  mob  (July  14, 1789).*    The  excited  populace 

♦  The  Bastile  was  be^n  in  1369,  by  Charles  V.,  and  was  enlarged  In  succeeding 
reigns.  Thousands  of  persons,  many  of  whom  were  princes  and  members  of 
distinguished  families,  were  here  iniprisontd  till  death  came  to  their  relief.    Wh»»n 


France, 


573 


then  proceeded  to  Versailles,  and  demanded  that  the  king  and 
royal  family  should  return  to  Paris;  and  Louis  felt  himself 
obliged  to  comply. 

63.  Lafayette  {lah-fa-ef)  was  then  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  militia,  called  the  National  Guard;  but,  as  its  members 
sympathized  with  the  popular  movements,  the 
king  was  without  any  support  except  from  the 
Swiss  and  German  mercenaries.  The  violence  of  the  Parisian 
mob,  inflamed  by  the  political  writings  which 
were  circulated  among  the  people,  soon  became 


National  Guard. 


Parisian  mob. 


ungovernable;  and  several  obnoxious  individuals  were  seized 

and  put  to  death  with  great 
cruelty.  The  Assembly  ener- 
getically prosecuted  its  measures 
of  reform,  and  decreed  the  en- 
tire abolition  of  the  principles 
and  practices  of  the  former  gov- 
ernment. They  subsequently 
agreed  upon  a  constitution,  lim- 
iting the  power  of  the  king  and 
securing  popular  rights;  and 
then  passed  a  resolution  by  which 
the  National  Assem- 
bly (now  called  the 

Constituent  Assembly)  was  dissolved,  and  a  new 


Lapayktte. 


Constituent 
Assembly. 


body  authorized  to  be  summoned,  entitled  the  Legislative 
Asse?nbly,  to  which  none  of  the  members  of  the  National 
Assembly  were  eligible  (1791). 

64.  Meanwhile,  several  insurrections  had  taken  place  in 
Paris;  and  the  king  and  his  family  had  been  treated  with  the 
greatest  indignity  by  the  infuriated  mob,  whose  passions 
were  particularly  excited    against    the  unfortunate    queen. 


the  Kastile  was  captured  by  the  people  (1789),  seven  persons  were  found  in  its  cells, 
one  of  whom  had  been  there  thirty  years.  On  its  site  now  stands  the  "  Column  of 
July,"  which  was  erected  in  memory  of  the  patriots  of  1789  and  1830. 


574  Modern  History, 


Attempting  flight,  the  king  and  his  family  were  pursued, 
arrested,  and  brought  back  to  Pans.  The  Legis- 
hitive  Assembly  met  m  1791;  and,  although  the 
king  had  accepted  the  constitution  and  promised 


Flight  of  the 
king. 


to  abide  by  its  requirements,  a  large  party  were  hostile  to  the 
monarchy,  desiring  to  destroy  it,  and  establish  a  republican 
form  of  government.  These  views  were  fostered 
by  the  political  clubs  which  had  been  formed 


Clubs. 


in  Paris  a  short  time  after  the  commencement  of  the  revolu- 
tion, among  which  the  famous  Jac'obin  Club  had  attained 
the  complete  control  of  the  Assembly. 

65.  The  king  repeatedly  made  concessions  to  the  repub- 
licans, while  he  cherished  schemes  for  escaping  from  their 
control;  but  each  month  added  to  his  humiliations  and  to  the 
boldness  of  his  enemies.  Foreign  nations  looked 
on  with  alarm,  and  sympathized  with  the  royal 


Royal  family. 


family.  Austria  and  Prussia  declared  war  upon  the  Frencli, 
in  order  to  rescue  the  hapless  monarch.  This  still  further 
excited  the  Parisian  mob.  They  rushed  to  the 
Tuileries  {tiveel're),  the  palace  in  which  the  king 


Insurrection. 


resided,  took  it  by  storm,  massacred  the  brave  Swiss  soldiers 
who  defended  it,  and  obliged  the  king  to  take  refuge  in  the 
Assembly,  by  whose  orders  he  and  his  family  were  imprisoned 
(August  10,  1792). 

The  National  Convention. 

66.  The  supreme  authority  being  now  seized  by  tlie  muni- 
cipality of  Paris,  a  special   criminal  tribunal  was  instituted; 
and  all  persons  suspected  of  hostility  to  the  revo- 
lution were  dragged  before  it,  condemned,  and 
massacred  in  the  most  shocking  manner.    Lafay- 


Criminal 
tribgnal. 


ette,  being  at  the  head  of  the  army,  refused  to  recognize  the 
authority  of  the  Assembly,  but,  not  being  sustained  by  the 
troops,  he  retired  from  tlie  country.  The  Legislative  Assembly 
was  dissolved;  and  having  been  re-organized  as  the  National 


France, 


575 


Convention,  it  formally  abolished  the  monarchy,  and  declared 
France  a  republic  (September,  1792).     The  next 
month,  the  revolutionists  were  emboldened  by  the 


Republic. 


victory  gained  by  the  French  General  Dumouriez  {du-moo- 
re-a')  over  the  Austrian  army  at  Jemmapes  (zhem-map),  in 
Belgium. 

67.  The  Convention,  now  composed  of  strict  republicans, 
was  divided  into  two  parties,  bitterly  hostile  to  each  other, 
one  called  the  Mountain  Party,  and  the  other 
the  Girondists  (zhe-rojid'ists).     Of  the  former, 


Parties. 


the  leaders  were  Robespierre  {ro'bes- 
peer),*  Dan'ton,  and  Marat  {mah- 
rah'),  noted  for  their 
wickedness   and   cruelty. 


BOBKSPLBBRB. 


Fate  of  Louis, 


Among  the  most  eminent  of  the  Gi- 
rondists was  Vergniaud  {vdrn-yo'), 
distinguished  for  his  eloquence.  One 
of  the  first  acts  of  the  Convention  was 
the  trial  of  the  king,  who  was  charged 
with  conspiring  against  the  liberties 
of  France;  and,  notwithstanding  the 
eloquent  and  unanswerable  defense 
made  by  his  advocate,  Deseze  {duh- 
sdz'),  he  was  found  guilty  of  the  charges,  with 
very  few  dissenting  votes,  and  condemned  to 
death.      The  sentence  was  executed  by  the  guillotine,  one 

*  "  Maximilian  Robespierre  was  born  at  Arras,  of  a  poor  family,  honest  and 
respectable;  his  father,  who  died  in  Germany,  was  of  English  origin.  He  was  the 
Luther  of  politics;  and  in  obscurity  he  brooded  over  the  confused  thoughts  of  a 
renovation  of  the  social  world  and  the  religious  world,  as  a  dream  which  unavail- 
ingly  beset  his  youth,  when  the  Revolution  came  to  offer  him  what  destiny  always 
offers  to  those  who  watch  her  progress— opportunity.  He  seized  on  it.  He  was 
named  deputy  of  the  Third  Estate  in  the  States-General.  Alone,  perhaps,  among 
all  these  men  who  opened  at  Versailles  the  first  scene  of  this  vast  drama,  he  fore- 
saw the  termination ;  like  the  soul,  whose  seat  in  the  human  frame  philosophers 
have  not  discovered,  the  thought  of  an  entire  people  sometimes  concentrates  itself 
in  the  individual,  the  least  known  in  the  great  mass."— Zxiniarfme's  Histoi-y  of  tiie 
Girondists. 


676 


Modern  History. 


week  afterward  (January  21, 1793).  Among  those  who  voted 
for  the  king's  condemnation  was  the  infamous  Duke  of  Or- 
leans, who  took  part  in  the  popular  excesses,  abandoning  his 
title  and  taking  the  name  of  Philip  E-gal'i-te  (equality). 

68.  The  Mountain  Party  having  triumphed  in  the  Con- 
vention, the  Girondist  leaders  were  guillotined,  and  with  them 
the  celebrated  Madame  Eoland.     The  Heign  of 
Terror  was  then  inaugurated,  during  which  the 


Reign  of  Terror. 


Madamk  Roland. 


Kevolutionary  Tribunal,  controlled  by  Kobespierre,  Danton, 

and  others,  caused  thousands  to 
be  seized  and  hurried  to  the  guil- 
lotine.* Among  these  victims 
was  the  unfortunate  Marie  An- 
toinette (October,  1793),  who, 
during  her  imprisonment,  had 
been  subjected  to  every  indignity 
and  insult  which  could  be  de- 
vised by  her  relentless  jailers. 
Similar  deeds  of  cruelty  were 
perpetrated  in  other  parts  of 
France,  tlie  number  guillotined 
being  estimated  at  more  than  18,000.  With  scarcely  an  ex- 
ception, the  prominent  actors  in  these  atrocities,  one  after 
another,  met  with  a  violent  death.  Marat  was  assassinated  by 
Charlotte  Corday;  and  Eobespierre's  faction,  obtaining  the 
ascendency,  sent  Danton  and  his  adherents  to  the  guillotine. 

•  "  Night  and  day  the  care  incessantly  discharged  victims  into  the  prison;  weep- 
ing mothers  and  trembling  orphans  were  thnist  in  without  mercy  with  the  brave 
and  the  powerful;  the  young,  the  beautiful,  tlie  unfortunate,  set-med  in  a  pocullar 
manner  the  prey  of  the  aasa-ssins.  Nor  were  the  means  of  evactiating  the  prisons 
augmented  in  a  less  fearful  progression.  Fifteen  only  were  at  first  placed  on  the 
chariot,  but  their  number  was  poon  augmented  to  thirty,  and  gnidually  rose  to 
eighty  persons  who  daily  were  sent  forth  to  the  place  of  exiH-'Ution;  when  the  fall 
of  Robespierre  put  a  stop  to  the  murders,  arrftii^ements  had  been  made  for 
Increasing  it  to  one  hundred  and  fifty.  An  immense  aqiuMiuct,  to  remove  the  gore, 
had  been  dug  as  far  as  the  Place  St.  Antoine  (plalm  sang  nhn-tuxihn);  and  four  men 
were  daily  employed  In  emptying  the  blood  of  the  victims  Into  that  reservoir."— 
Alison's  History  of  Europe. 


France.  577 


A  few  months  later,  the  Eeign  of  Terror  was  closed  by  the 
execution  of  Eobespierre  himself  (1794).* 

The  Dieectoey. 

69.  A  new  constitution  was  then  adopted  by  the  Conven- 
tion, the  executive  authority  being  intrusted  to  a  Directory, 
consisting  of  five  members.  This  constitution  being  opposed 
by  several  of  the  Parisian  Sections  (divisions  of  the  city),  who 
threatened  an  insurrection.  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
a  young  officer,  who  had  previously  distinguished 
himself  at  the  siege  of  Tou-lon',  was  selected  to 


Napoleon 
Bonaparte. 


conduct  the  military  operations  against  the  insurgents.  Plant- 
ing his  cannon  adroitly,  he  opened  fire  upon  the  populace, 
and  dispersed  them  without  difficulty  (1795). 

70.  The  service  rendered  by  Napoleon  on  the  "Day  of 
the  Sections,"  was  soon  afterward  rewarded  by  conferring 
upon   him   the   command   of   the  Army  of   Italy,   designed 

to  operate  against  the  Austrians  (1796).     In  two   i \ • 

campaigns  he  achieved  a  succession  of  the  most  I 
brilliant  victories  over  the  Austrian  armies;  and  entering  the 
Venetian  territory,  in  consequence  of  hostilities  committed 
against  the  French,  he  captured  Venice  itself,  and  overturned 
her  ancient  government  (1797).  The  Austrian  emperor  was 
at  length  compelled  to  assent  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of 
Cam'po  For'-mi-o,  by  which  an  independent  commonwealth 
was  established  in  northern  Italy,  called  the  Cisalpine  Repub- 
lic^ but  the  city  of  Venice  was  ceded  to  Austria. 

71.  Bonaparte,  after  considerable  persuasion,  induced  the 
Directory  to  consent  to  an  expedition  designed  to  conquer 

*  "  When  Robespierre  ascended  the  fatal  car,  his  head  was  enveloped  in  a  bloody 
cloth,  his  color  was  livid,  and  his  eyes  sunk.  When  the  procession  came  opposite 
his  house,  it  stopped,  and  a  group  of  women  danced  round  the  bier  of  him  whose 
ehariot- wheels  they  would  have  dragged,  the  day  before,  over  a  thousand  victims. 
Robespierre  mounted  the  scaffold  last,  and  the  moment  his  head  fell,  the  applaud 
was  tremendous.  In  some  cases  the  event  was  announced  to  the  prisoners  by 
the  waving  of  handkerchiefs  from  the  tops  of  houses."— i/azhYf'sii^re?ic/i  iSewiw- 
(ton. 


578  Modern  History, 


Egypt,  as  a  means  of  attacking  the  commerce  and  power  of 
England  in  the  East.  Landing  there  with  an 
immense  army,  he  captnred  Alexandria,  and  then 
marched  toward  Cairo  (ki'ro),  which,  after  de- 


Expedition  to 
Egypt. 


featiug  the  Mam'e-lukes  in  the  noted  Battle  of  the  Pyi*a- 
mids,  he  entered  (179S).  This  gave  him  possession  of  the 
country;  but  a  few  days  afterward.  Nelson  destroyed  his 
fleet,  in  the  memorable  Battle  of  the  Nile,  and  thus  cut  oft 
the  retreat  of  the  invaders. 

72.  The  Turkish  Empire    having  declared   war  against 
France,  Bonaparte  at  once  invaded  Syria,  captured  Jaffa  by 

i    assault,  and  cruelly  caused  twelve  hundred  Turk- 

U    ish  prisoners  to  be  put  to  death.     He  then  laid 

siege  to  Acre  (a7i'^'er), but  failed  to  capture  it;  although  hcde- 
feated  the  Turks  with  great  slaughter  at  Mount  Tabor.  Return- 
ing to  Egy})t,  he  attacked  and  almost  annihilated  a  considerable 
army  of  Turks  at  Aboukir  {ah-hoo-heer'),  General  Murat  {mu- 
rah'),  at  the  head  of  the  Erench  cavalry,  particularly  distin- 
guishing himself  in  this  obstinate  battle  (1799).  Leaving  his 
army  with  Geneial  Kleber  (Harder),  he  then  returned  to 
France,  and  was  received  with  unbounded  enthusiasm  by  the 

people. 

The  Consulate  and  Empire. 

73.  Meanwhile,  a  new  coalition   of  the  gi*eat  powers  of 
Europe  had  been  formed  against  France,  and  the  Russians 

under  Su-var'off  had  gained  several  important 
victories  in  Italy.  This  made  the  Directory  very 
unpopular,  and  Bonaparte  took  the  op]iortunity 


Russian 
successes. 


of  overturning  the  government  at  the  point  of  tlie  bayonet. 

A  new  constitution  was  then  formed,  and  accepted  by  the 
people,  according  to  which  the  executive  jiower 
was  vested  In  three  Consuls,  elected  for  ten  years. 


Revolution. 


Bonaparte  was  appointed  First  Consul  (1799),  and  by  his 
vigor  and  address  introduced  reforms  in  every  department 
of  the  government. 


^France, 


579 


74.  The  military  operations  were  conducted  with  splendid 
ability  and  success.  The  Austrians  were  defeated  by  General 
Moreau  {mo-ro')  in  the  battle  of  Ho-hen-lin' 
den;  while  Napoleon  himself  gained  new  laurels 
by  his  daring  passage  of  the  Alps,  and  by  his 


Military 
operations. 


brilliant  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Ma-ren'go  (1800).  This 
compelled  the  emperor  of  Austria  to  conclude  the  Treaty  of 
Lune'ville  (1801),  which  was  followed  by ,  the  Treaty  of 
Amiens,  in  which   peace  was   made  with  England   (1802). 

Bonaparte   was  next   elected 
Consul  for  Life, 
and,  various  con- 


Consul  for  Life. 


Napoleon  I. 


Moreau. 


spiraces  being  formed  against 
him,  he  determined  still  fur- 
ther to  augment  and  perpet- 
uate his  power,  and  caused 
himself  to  be  declared  by  the 
legislature  Emperor  of  the 
French  (1804). 

75.  A  short  time  after  this, 
Moreau  was  banished  for  be 
ing  concerned  in 
a  conspiracy  against  the  government,  and  eleven 
of  the  other  conspirators  were  put  to  death.  Napoleon  re- 
ceived the  crown  of  France  from  the  hands  of  the  Pope;  and 
subsequently,  at  Milan,  caused  himself  to  be 
crowned  King  of  Italy,  with  the  famous  'Mron 
crown"  of  the  Lombards  (1805).  These  assumptions  of 
power  led  to  another  coalition  against  him,  on  the  part  of 
England,  Austria,  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Prussia; 
but  Napoleon,  with  his  accustomed  promptitude, 
marched  against  the  Austrians,  and  succeeded  in 
capturing  a  large  army  at  Ulm  (1805).  This  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  decisive  battle  of  Aus'ter-litz,*  in  which  the 
♦For  the  location  of  these  pieces,  see  Map  No.  XYH,  ana  Map  No.  XIX. 


King  of  Italy. 


Napoleon's 
victories. 


080  Modern  History. 

combined  armies  of  the  Austrians  and  Russians  were  routed 
with  overwhelming  loss.  The  emperors  of  France,  Austria, 
and  Russia  were  present  at  this  battle,  and  the  conditions  of 
peace  were  at  once  agreed  upon.  The  treaty  was  afterward 
formally  concluded  at  Presburg,  Austria  making  great  sacri- 
fices of  territory. 

76.  Napoleon  now  took  possession  of  Naples,  and  con- 
ferred the   crown   upon   his   brother  Joseph.      His  brother 
Louis  was  made  king  of  Holland;  and  various 
principalities  and  duchies  were  bestowed  upon 


Naples. 


his  most  eminent  generals  and  ministers.  He  next  formed  a 
union  of  several  states  of  Germany,  which  was  styled  the  Con-' 
federation  of  the  Rhine,  and  placed  under  his 
own  control.  This  was  virtually  a  dissolution  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire;  and  the  emperor,  ac- 


German 
Empire. 


cordingly,  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria,  relin- 
quishing that  of  ''King  of  Germany  and  Emperor  of  the 
Romans,"  which  had  hitherto  been  borne  by  the  German 
monarchs.     (See  page  431,  note.) 

77.  These  encroachments  and  usurpations  led  to  the  Fourth 
Coalition,  consisting  of  Prussia,  Russia,  Austria,  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  Sweden,  against  the  French  Empire.   The 
Prussian  monarch  raised  an  immense  army  of 
150,000  men,  and  commenced  hostilities;  but  Nu- 


Fourth 
Coalition. 


Defeat  of 
Prussia. 


poleon,  with  wonderful  skill  and  promptitude,  attacked  and 
utterly-  defeated  the  Prussians,  in  the  sanguinary  battle  of 
Je'na  (1806).  So  complete  was  the  victory,  tliat 
the  kingdom  of  Prussia  lay  at  the  mercy  of  tlie 
victor,  who  a  few  weeks  afterward  entered  Ber-lin' 
in  trium])h.  Tliere  he  issued  his  celebrated  decree,  declaring 
the  British  Isles  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  forbidding  all 
commercial  intercourse,  on  the  part  of  any  nation,  with  Great 
Britain  or  her  colonies. 

78.  During  the  winter,  he  attacked  the  Russians  at  Eylau 
(i'lou);  but  his  army  was  repulsed  with  tremendous  slaughter 


France, 


681 


Defeat  of 
Russia. 


(February,  1807).     Six  months  later,  with  an  army  of  200,000 

men,  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Eussians  at 

Fried'land;  and  thus  was  enabled  to  dictate  terms 

of  peace  to  the  Eussian  emperor  Alexander  at 

Til'sit.      Peace   was  also   made  with  Prussia,   on  condition 

that  she  should  give  up  the  territory  between  the 

Ehine  and  Elbe  rivers,  which  Napoleon  bestowed 


Peace. 


Portugal. 


on  his  youngest  brother  Jerome,  with  the  title  of  King  of 
Westphalia  (1807). 

79.  The  commercial  restrictions  imposed  by  Napoleon 
upon  the  different  countries  of  Europe,  as  declared  in  the 
Berlin  decree  (called  the  Continental  System), 
were  not  fully  obeyed  by  Portugal,  into  which 
country  British  merchandise  was  freely  admitted,  and  thence 
was  transported  into  Spain. 
Napoleon,  therefore,  ordered 
General  Junot  (zhoo-no')  to  in- 
vade Portugal  and  take  posses- 
sion of  Lisbon;  and  the  prince 
regent  was  compelled  to  seek 
refuge  with  the  British  fleet  in 
the  Tagus,  whence  he  sailed  to 
Brazil,  and  fixed  the  seat  of  his 
government  in  that  country. 
Portugal  was  then  declared  a 
province  of  the  French  Empire. 
Napoleon  next  determined  to  take  possession  of  Spain;  and, 
after  compelling  its  lawful  king  to  resign  the 
crown,  he  conferred  it  upon  his  brother  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  whom  he  had  transferred  from  the  throne  of 
Naples.  The  latter  throne  he  conferred  on  Murat,  who  had 
married  his  sister  (1808). 

80.  The  people  of  Portugal  and  Spain  were  aroused  to  in- 
surrection by  these  arbitrary  measures,  and  the  British  Govern- 
ment resolved  to  aid  them  in  their  efforts  to  expel  the  invaders. 


Murat. 


Spam. 


582  Modern  History. 


The  Peninsular  War  followed,  which  lasted  nearly  five  years, 
and  in  which  Wellington  gained  those  resplendent 
victories  which  have  already  been  referred  to  in 


Peninsular  War. 


the  history  of  England.  Meanwhile,  hostilities  were  again 
resumed  on  the  part  of  Austria,  with  armies  which  amounted, 
in  the  aggregate,  to  about  500,000  men.  Napoleon,  notwith- 
standing his  inferior  forces,  defeated  the  Aus« 
trians,  under  the  Archduke  Charles,  at  Eck'* 
muhl   (1809),  but  was   compelled  to  fall  back 


Austrian 
defeats. 


from  his  position  after  the  bloody  battle  of  As'pern.  Soon 
afterward,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Wagram  (wdh'- 
gram)\  after  which  the  Austrian  emperor  was  obliged  to  sub- 
mit to  terms  of  peace  dictated  by  the  victor  (1809). 

81.  While  these  events  were  in  progress,  the  Pope  (Pius 
VII.),  continuing  his  opposition  to  Napoleon,  finally  excom- 
municated him.     The  latter  retaliated  by  annex- 
ing Rome  to  the  French  Empire,  and  causing  the 


Pope. 


Pope  to  be  imprisoned  in  France.  This  was  because  of  the 
Pope's  refusal  to  concur  in  the  Continental  System,  and  to 
recognize  Murat  as  king  of  Naples.*  Having  divorced  his 
faithful  and  virtuous  wife  Josephine,  he  next  haughtily  de- 
manded the  Alistrian  princess  Maria  Louisa  in 
marriage;  and  so  thoroughly  had  tlie  Emperor 
Francis  been  subdued  at  Wagram,  that  he  was 


Marriage  of 
Napoleon. 


compelled  to  give  his  assent;  and  the  nu})tial.<?.  accordingly, 
took  place  a  short  time  afterward  (1810).  In  order  the  more 
effectually  to  carry  out  his  policy  of  commercial  prohibition, 
he,  in  the  same  year,  seized  the  Hanso  towns, 
Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Lubeck,  and  annexed  the 


Hanse  towns. 


northern  coast  of  Germany  to  the  French  Empire. 


•  The  unbounded  arrojifance  of  Napoleon  is  shown  in  the  following:  "  Your  high- 
ness is  sovereign  of  Rome,  but  I  atn  its  emperor.  All  my  enemies  must  l>e  yours. 
ft  is  not  fit  that  any  agent  of  tlie  Iclnj?  of  SardiiiKi,  any  KngliMhraan.  Russian,  or 
Swede,  should  reside  at  Rome,  or  in  your  Htates,  or  that  any  vessel  of  those  poweri 
elj^Ml^l  W^r  your  portq."-^o;)ofcon  to  Piu9  VU.  (Feb.  «,  18061. 


France,  583 


82.  Difficulties  having  arisen  with  Sweden  and  Russia,  in 
consequence  of  the  French  emperor's  arbitrary  demands  in  the 
carrying  out  of  the  Continental  System,  the  latter  determined 
to  invade  Russia  with  an  overwhelming  force. 
Accordingly,  in  June,  1812,  he  set  out  with  asplen- 


Russian  war. 


didly  equipped  army  of  nearly  500,000  men,  crossed  the  Nie- 
men,  and  directed  his  march  to  Mos'cow,  the  ancient  capital 
of  the  Russian  Empire.  Arriving  at  Smo-lensk',  he  captured 
the  city  after  a  tremendous  conflict,  which  closed  with  the 
retreat  of  the  Russians.  About  two  weeks  after  this,  he 
fought  a  desperate  battle  with  the  Russian  army  at  Bor-o- 
di'no  {%  like  e)\  but  although  45,000  of  the  enemy  were  either 
killed  or  wounded,  he  failed  to  destroy  their  army,  and  gained 
no  decisive  victory.  His  own  losses  in  these  engagements 
were  immense  (September  7). 

83.  Unable  to  defend  Moscow,  the  Russians  abandoned  it, 
and  the  French  entered  it  in  triumph  ten  days  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Borodino.  But  the  city  had  been  set  on 
fire  by  the  Russians,  and  the  French  vainly  at- 
tempted to  stop  the  conflagration.     Nine-tenths 


Burning  of 
Moscow. 


of  the  whole  city  became  a  prey  to  the  flames.  This  discon- 
certed the  plans  of  Napoleon,  who  had  designed  to  pass  the 
winter  at  Moscow;  and  as  the  Russians  were  menacing  his 
communications  with  Smolensk,  where  his  magazines  and  re- 
serves had  been  left,  he  determined  to  retreat  (October  19). 

84.  But  the  dreadful  Russian  winter  having  commenced, 
the  French  soldiers  perished  by  thousands  of  cold  and 
famine.  To  add  to  their  sufferings,  they  were 
constantly  harassed  by  the  Russian  army,  par- 
ticularly by  the  Cossack  cavalry,  being  in  almost 


Retreat  of  the 
army. 


constant  conflict  with  them,  until  they  reached  the  Ber-e- 
si'na  River,  where  their  passage  was  disputed  by  the  Rus- 
sians in  strong  force.  The  loss  of  life  was  frightful.  Multi- 
tudes fell  by  the  sabres  of  the  Russians,  but  still  larger 
Rumb^rs  perished  in  the  icy  waters  of  the  river;  m  that  when 


584  Modern  History, 


the  crossing  was  effected  only  20,000  men  remained  to  Na- 
poleon of  the  magnificent  army  with  which  he  had  set  out. 
During  those  terrific  scenes  and  confiicts,  Mar- 
shal Ney   {no)  gained   the  appellation    of    the 


Ney. 


"Bravest  of  the  Brave,"  by  his  fortitude  and  heroic  conduct. 
86.  After  the  dreadful  i)assage  of  the  Beresina,  Napoleon 

abandoned  the  army,  and  fled  in  disguise  to  Paris,  where  his 
arrival  restored  public  confidence  and  courage: 
and  such  were  his  extraordinary  energy  and  the 


Continued  war. 


resources  of  the  French  nation,  that,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
next  year  (1813),  he  was  enabled  to  resume  operations  with 
an  army  of  350,000  men,  exclusive  of  his  forces  in  Spain. 
Europe  was  once  more  allied  against  him;  but,  on  the  famous 
battle-ground  of  Lut'zen,  he  defeated  the  army  of  the  allies, 
and  triumphantly  entered  the  city  of  Dresden.  Two  other 
battles  were  fought  with  indecisive  results,  after  which  he 
consented  to  an  armistice. 

86.  But  operations  were  soon  resumed  by  the  allies  with 
an  immense  army;  and  they  attacked  the  French  at  Dresden, 
but   were   i'ei)ulsed  with   severe   loss.      Moreau, 
fighting  on  the  side  of  the  allies,  was  here  mor- 


Oresden. 


tally  wounded  (July  20).  In  October,  the  allies,  with 
reinforcements,  threatened  Napoleon's  communications,  and 
compelled  his  retreat  to  Leip'sic,  where  tlie  great- 
est conflict  of  tlie  war  ensued,  tlie  allied  army 


Leipsic. 


amounting  to  about  250,000  men;  while  that  of  Na])oleon 
contained  less  than  150,000.  Tliis  has  been  called  the  Battle  of 
the  Nations.  After  a  desperate  struggle,  wliich  hu?ted  three 
days,  the  French  were  compelled  to  retreat;  and  Napoleon's 
great  conquests  were  at  once  lost.  Against  tlie  overwhelm- 
ing forces  of  the  allies,  Napoleon  could  make  no 
effectual  resistance.     Having  defeated  every  army 


Parit  taken. 


sent  to  impede  their  progress,  they  at  last  jienetrated  into 
France,  and  Paris  was  finally  obliged  to  capitulate  (March  31, 
1814). 


France.  585 


Restoeation  of  the  Bouebons. 

87.  After  the  capitulation  of  Paris,  a  provisional  govern- 
ment was  established  under  Talleyrand,  by  which  the  de- 
thronement of  Napoleon  was  decreed,  and  the 
brother  of  Louis  XVI.  was  placed  on  the  throne 


Louis  XVIII. 


with  the  title  of  Louis  XVIIL,  the  dauphin  Louis  XVII. 
having  died  in  the  Temple,  in  Paris.  Thus  the  Bourbon 
family  was  restored  (May  3,  1814).  In  the  mean  time.  Napo- 
leon, finding  himself  deserted  by  many  of  his  most  trusted 
generals,  accepted  the  terms  offered  him  by  the  allies,  abdi- 
cating the  throne  and  retiring  to  the  island  of 
Elba,  near  the  western  coast  of  Italy,  the  place 
appointed  for  his  residence.    The  dismemberment 


Napoleon  an 
exile. 


of  the  empire  then  followed,  France  being  reduced  to  the 
limits  which  it  had  in  1792.  Louis  pretended  to  grant  a  con- 
stitutional charter,  but,  like  a  genuine  Bourbon,  he  reserved 
the  right  to  ^jlter  its  provisions  according  to  his  own  pleasure. 
88.  The  next  year,  while  a  congress  of  the  European 
powers  was  assembled  at  Vienna,  to  arrange  and  settle  the 
affairs  of  Europe,  they  were  suddenly  surprised 
by  the  escape  of  Napoleon  from  Elba.  Landing 
on   the   southern   shore   of   France   (at    Cannes 


Escape  from 
Elba. 


[^a/i]),  he  was  at  once  received  with  enthusiasm  by  the 
troops;  and  Marshal  Ney,  who  had  been  sent  to  oppose  his 
progress,  having  deserted  to  him,  he  once  more  entered  Paris 
in  triumph,  and  was  greeted  with  acclamations  of  joy  by  all 
classes  (March  20,  1815).  Louis  XVIIL  having  fled.  Napo- 
leon found  himself  again  on  the  throne  of  France;  and  in  less 
than  two  months,  an  army  was  organized  of  over  200,000 
men,  exclusive  of  the  National  Guards. 

89.  Meantime,  the  allies  had  prepared  for  the  impending 
conflict.  Three  vast  armies  were  collected;  the  first  consist- 
ing of  Austrians,  under  Prince  Schwarz'en-berg;  the  second, 
of  British,  Germans,  and  Prussians,  under  Wellington  and 


^^  Modern  History, 


Blu'cher  (bloo'ker);  and  the  third,  of  Russians,  under  the 
Emperor  Alexander.  Operations  commenced  on  the  15th  of 
June;  and,  on  the  18th,  was  fought  the  memor- 
able battle  of  Wa'ter-loo,  in  which  the  allies  under 


Waterloo. 


Wellington  repulsed  the  French,  and  drove  them  into  irre- 
trievable retreat  and  ruin.  Napoleon  fled  to  Paris;  but  find- 
ing that  no  further  effort  could  be  made  to  retrieve  his  ruined 
fortunes,  he  proceeded  to  the  coast,  where  he  surrendered  him- 
self to  the  commander  of  a  British  vessel  of  war.  By  agree- 
ment of  the  allied  sovereigns,  he  was  sent  a  captive  to  the 
little  island  of  St.  He-le'na,  where  he  arrived  in 
October,  1815,  and  where  he  continued  to  reside 
as  a  prisoner  until  his  death,  in  1821,  at  the  age 


Final 
banishment. 


of  fifty-two  years.  Such  was  the  termination  of  this  extraor- 
dinary career  of  ambition  and  conquest — the  most  extraor- 
dinary perhaps  in  the  world's  annals.* 

90.  Louis  XVIIL      Soon   after  the  battle   of  Waterloo, 
Paris  was  entered  by  the  allies,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 

French  territory  was  occupied  l)y  foreign  armies. 

Louis  XVIIL  was   restored,  and   MarsiuU  Nev, 


Chief  events, 


who  had  deserted  to  Napoleon,  was  shot  as  a  traitor.  The 
same  year  Murat,  liaviiig  made  a  rasli  attempt  to  regain  the 
throne  of  Naples,  was  seized  and  put  to  death.  Tlie  measures 
of  the  restored  Bourbon  dynasties  of  Spain  and  Italy  liad 
been  se  tyrannical,  that  insurrections  broke  out  in  those  coun- 
tries. In  Spain,  tlic  army,  under  General  O'Donnell,  suiv 
ported  the  liberal  constitution,  and  Ferdinand, 
the  king,  was  obliged  to  submit.     Louis  XVIIL 


Revolution. 


sent  an  army  into  Si)ain  to  restore  the  supreme  authority  to 

*  In  pereon,  Napoleon  was  below  the  medium  height,  and,  duriiiK  his  early 
years,  was  slenderly  built;  bein^  thin,  at  times,  to  emaciation.  His  liornl  was  dis- 
proportionately large,  with  features  classicniUy  moUhvl.  an  olive  conjplexion,  and 
large,  dark  eyes.  He  was  habitually  absirat'tetl,  seeininj?  U^  commune  with  him- 
self even  when  listening  to  others;  yet  his  convensatlon  wius  engaging,  from  the 
vigor  and  clearness  of  his  thought,  and  the  condense<l  precision  of  his  language. 

In  1840,  Napoleon's  remains  were  transported  from  St.  Helena  to  Paris,  and  there 
entombed  with  ey^r^  poaaible  9ircui;>s^D(^'e  of  splendor  and  Bolemnity. 


France,  587 


Ferdinand;  and  the  constitutionalists  having  been  defeated, 
the  liberal  govern  men  t  was  overturned  (1823).  Louis  XVIII. 
died  the  next  year  (1824),  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Charles,  Count  of  Artois  (ar'twali), 

91.  Charles  X.  During  this  reign,  the  contests  between 
the  ultra-royalist  and  liberal  parties  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  as  the  legislature  was  called,  became 
very  violent;  and  Charles,  taking  sides  with  the 


Chief  events. 


former,  adopted  very  arbitrary  measures  to  enforce  his  views. 
The  liberal  party  having  secured  a  majority  in  the  Chamber, 
the  king  caused  the  latter  to  be  dissolved,  altered  the  law  of 
elections,  and  suspended  the  liberty  of  the  press.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  despotic  measures,  the  peoj)le  rose  in  insur- 
rection; and,  after  a  contest  of  three  days,  dis- 
persed the  royal  guards  and  sacked  the  Tuileries. 


Lafayette  was  then  appointed  general  of  the  National  Guards, 
and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  having  declared  the  throne 
vacant,  summoned  Lou'is  Phil'ippe  (or  loo'e  fil-leep^)  to  oc- 
cupy it  (1830).      Charles  took  refuge  in  England. 

92.  Louis  Philippe  was  the  son  of  the  infamous  Duke  of 
Orleans,  wlio,  under  the  assumed  name  of  Philip  EgaliU, 
had  taken  part  in  the  excesses  of  the  revolution,  and  had 
become  one  of  its  many  victims.     Since  that  dreadful  period, 

Louis  Philippe  had  suffered  every  variety  of  for-    j \ — \ — 

tune,  being  an  exile  from  his  native  land,  and  in    I     '^""""^  '^' 
a  condition  of  privation  and  distress  traveling  or  sojourning 
in  foreign  countries.     A  charter  of  rights  was  agreed  upon 
by  the   Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  accepted  by  the  newly 
elected  king.      His  reign  was  for  several  years 
quite  prosperous;  and  the  country  advanced  in 


Chief  events. 


education,  commerce,  and  internal  improvements.  The 
king,  however,  was  very  odious  to  the  extreme  republi- 
cans, and  several  attempts  were  made  upon  his  life.  He 
afterward  became  generally  unpopular  by  his  opposition  to 
the  reforms  which  were  demanded  in  the  government,  as  well 


588  Modern  History, 


as  by  his  avarice  and  his  selfish  concern  for  the  aggrandize- 
ment of  his  family. 

93.  An  attempt  to  repress,  by  arbitrary  prohibition,  a  re- 
form banquet  appointed  on  Washington's  birthday  (February 
22,  1848),  excited  an  insurrection  of  the  people, 
with  whom  the  troops  fraternized;  and  Louis 


Revolution. 


Philippe  was  compelled  to  flee.  With  much  diflBculty,  he 
made  his  escape  to  England,  where  he  died  about  two  years 
afterward.  One  of  the  most  important  events  of  this  reign 
was  the  conquest  of  Algiers  (1847),  after  a  long  and  sanguin- 
ary struggle  on  the  part  of  the  native  tribes,  under  their 
leader  Abd-el  Ka'der  (1847).  It  was  annexed  to  France  as  a 
province  under  the  name  of  Algeria. 

The  Second  Republic. 

94.  After  the  fliglit  of  the  king,  a  provisional  government 
was  instituted,  consisting  of  seven  members,  among  whom 
were  La-mar-tine'(-^eew)  and  Ar'a-go,  distinguished 
for  their  attainments  in  literature  and  science. 
France  was  declared  a  republic,  with  the  motto. 


Provisional 
government. 


"Liberty,  Equality,  and  Fraternity;"  hereditary  titles  and 
distinctions  of  nobility  were  abolished,  and  a  national  assem- 
bly was  called  for  the  purpose  of  framing  a  constitution. 
The  constitution  afterward  adopted  vested  the  government 
in  a  president,  to  be  elected  for  four  years,  and 
a  national  assembly.     By  the  election  which  fol- 


Prestdent. 


lowed,  Louis  Napoleon  was  chosen,  by  an  immense  majority, 
first  president  of  France  (1848).* 

95.  In  the  first  year  of  his  presidency,  a  revolution  broke 
out  in  Rome,  and  the  Pope  (Pius  IX.)  fled  to  Gaeta  gah-a'- 

♦  Louis  Napoleon  was  the  nephew  of  the  great  Napoleon,  being  the  son  of  Ix)ui8 
Bonaparte  and  Horteuse  Beauhanmis,  daughter  of  the  Empress  Josephine.  During 
the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  he  beoanie  noted  for  two  atteinj>t8  to  obtain  posseswion 
of  the  government  by  endeavoring  to  raise  a  revolt  in  his  favor  among  the  troops. 
One  of  these  was  at  Strasburg,  in  \m\,  and  the  other  at  Boulogne.  In  1840.  For  the 
second  he  was  condemned  to  perpetual  Inipriaonment,  but  succeeded  in  making 
his  escape  in  1846.    These  rash  enterprises  subjected  him  to  considerable  ridicule. 


France.  589 


tall).  Louis  Napoleon  having  sent  an  army  under  General 
Oudinot  (oo' de-no)  to  restore  him  to  his  government,  the  re- 
publicans under  Gar-i-bal'di  were  entirely  defeated, 
and  Pius   IX.  returned  to  Kome  the  next   year, 


Garibaldi. 


Revolutions  broke  out  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  with  similar 
want  of  success.  Difficulties  arising  between  the  President 
and  the  Assembly,  the  former  determined  to  overturn  the  ex- 
isting form  of  government,  so  as  to  obtain  an  increase  of 
power.  His  measures  were  devised  and  executed  with  great 
adroitness.  Having  gained  over  the  military,  he 
seized  and  imprisoned  such  of  the  members  of 
the  Assembly  as  were  hostile  to  his  views,  as  well 


Government 
change. 


as  other  distinguished  citizens  from  whom  he  apprehended 
opposition.  He  then  suppressed  the  newspapers,  and  pro- 
claimed a  dissolution  of  the  Assembly  and  Council  of  State 
(December,  1851). 

96.  A  despotic  constitution  sketched  by  Louis  Napoleon 
was  accepted  by  the  people,  and  he  was  elected  president  for 
a  term  of  ten  years.  A  short  time  after  this,  he 
obtained  the  passage  of  a  decree  by  the  Senate, 


Revolution. 


declaring  him  hereditary  emperor;  and  this  decree  was  rati- 
fied by  the  popular  suffrages.  Napoleon  Bonaparte's  son  by 
Maria  Louisa  (Napoleon  II.)  having  died,  Louis  Nai)oleon 
assumed  the  title  of  Napoleon  III.  Thus  was  effected  one  of 
the  most  disgraceful  usurpations  recorded  in  history,  by  means 
of  a  dishonorable  stratagem  which  was  dignified  by  the  name 
of  cowp  d'etat  {koo-de-tah') — i.e.,  stroke  of  state  policy. 

The  Second  Empire. 

97.  In  1854  the  French  united  with  the  English  in  the 
Russian  "War,  and  under  Marshal  Pelissier  {pa-lis-se-a')  ac- 
quired the  glory  of  the  final  storming  of  the 
tremendous  fortresses  of  Sebastopol.  In  1859,  war 


Russian  War. 


having  arisen    between    Austria  and    Sardinia,   the  French 
emperor  formed  an  alliance  with  the  latter,  and  took   the 


590.  Modern  History, 


field  in  person  in  northern  Italy.  Austria  suffered  disas- 
trous defeats  at  Ma-gen'ta  and  Sol-fer-i'no  (i 
like  e),  and  by  the  treaty  of  Vil'lufran'ca  was 


Austria. 


obliged  to  relinquish  possession  of  Lombardy.  In  1862  a 
French  army  occupied  Mexico;  and,  on  the  invitation  of 
Napoleon,  Archduke  Maximilian,  of  Austria,  took 
the  throne   as   emperor  of   that  country.      His 


Mexico. 


government  was,  however,  soon  overturned,  and  he  himself 
was  shot  by  order  of  the  insurgent  general  (18G7). 

98.  The  preservation  of  the  papal  power  in  Italy  from  the 
attacks  of  Garibaldi  and  his  republican  associates  was  a  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  emperor's  policy,  which  in  its 
general  character  was  strongly  on  the  side   of 
absolutism  as  opposed  to  the  spread  of   liberal 


Policy  of 
Napoleon. 


principles  and  the  establishment  of  democratic  governments. 
Under  his  sway,  France,  though  kept  under  severe  restraint 
by  the  imperial  jiower,  made  great  and  rapid  strides  in  every 
department  of  national  well-being;  and  her  internal  improve- 
ments and  progress  in  commerce  and  manufactures  were 
unsurpassed  by  those  of  any  other  nation. 

99.  In   1870   war  was  declared  by  France  against  Ger- 
many;   and  the  French  armies,  under  Marshals  McMahon 
and  Bazaine,  marched  to  the  Rhine.     But  the 
German  states,  with  perfect  unanimity,  joined 


•German  War. 


all  their  forces  under  King  William  of  Prussia,  to  repel  the 
invaders;  and  immense  armies,  splendid  in  discipline  and 
equipment,  were  promptly  concentrated  near  tlie  east  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  under  the  Prussian  monarch,  aided  by  Von 
Moltke  and  other  generals.  In  tlie  first  conflicts,  McMahon 
was  defeated  and  driven  into  retreat;  but  he  took 
up  a  strong  position  at  Sedan  {sa-dojig').  Here 
was  fought  a  great  and  decisive  battle,  on  tlie  1st 


French 
disasters. 


of  September;  and  the  French,  driven  from  their  position 
and  completely  surrounded,  were  compelled  to  surrender. 
More  than  80,000  men  laid  down  their  arms,  and  Napoleon 


France,  591 


himself  became  a  prisoner.  "While  a  part  of  the  German  army 
marched  on  Paris,  and  invested  that  city,  Bazaine  was  shut  up 
in  Metz,  where,  on  the  21st  of  October,  he  surrendered  his 
army  prisoners  of  war. 

Third  Republic. 
100.    Paris  held   out  until  January   28,   1871,  when   it 
yielded,  and  was  occupied  by  the  German  forces.      Mean- 
while, Napoleon  being  a  prisoner,  the  French 
Kepublic  had   been    declared,   and  Thiers   was 


Republic. 


elected  president.  A  treaty  was  then  concluded,  by  which 
France  ceded  to  Germany  the  greater  part  of  Alsace  and  Lor- 
raine, and  agreed  to  pay  an  immense  sum  of  money  as  an 
indemnity  for  the  war.  Soon  afterward  an  insurrection  broke 
out  in  Paris,  supported  by  the  Commune,  which 
lasted  several  months,  during  which  the  insur- 


Commune. 


gents  committed  many  acts  of  atrocity  and  violence.  It  was 
put  down  in  May,  1871.  On  this,  finding  it  impossible  to 
reconcile  the  hostile  factions,  Thiers  resigned  (May,  1873); 
and  Marshal  McMahon  was  elected  president  in  his  stead. 
The  death  of  Napoleon  occurred  in  England  (1873). 

101.  During  the  same  year,  occurred  also  the  trial  of 
Marshal  Bazaine,  upon  charges  based  on  his  surrender  of 
the  army  at  Metz.  It  resulted  in  his  conviction, 
and  he  was  sentenced  to  degradation  from  his  rank 


Chief  events. 


as  general,  and  death.  But  he  was  recommended  to  mercy 
by  his  judges,  and  President  McMahon  commuted  the  sentence 
of  death  to  twenty  years'  seclusion.  In  1873,  the  German  oc- 
cupation of  French  territory  ceased,  the  last  installment  of  the 
war  indemnity  having  been  paid.  There  were  many  parties 
at  this  time  among  the  French  people  opposed  to  the  repub- 
lic, causing  much  political  agitation.  The  triumph  of  the 
republicans  in  1879,  was  soon  followed  by  the  resignation  of 
President  McMahon;  and  he  was  succeeded  bv  M.  Grevy,  who 
was  succeeded,  in  Dec,  1887,  by  M.  Carnot  {kar-no'). 


^yQ^  Modern  History. 


State  of  Society  in  France, 

During  the  Rewlutionary  Period  (1774-1881). 

102.  At  the  time  of  the  accession  of  Louis  XVI.  there 
were  many  indications  of  an  impending  revolution.    New  ideas 
had  been  infused  into  the  minds  of  men,  which 
produced  an  opposition  to  prevailing  institutions; 


Signsof  change. 


and  the  wrongs  which  the  people  had  suffered  for  centuries 
from  the  rule  of  an  arbitrary  monarchy,  and  from  a  corrupt 
court  and  nobility,  began  to  be  more  clearly  seen  and  more 
deeply  felt.  There  were  many  influences  that  conspired  to 
fan  the  smouldering  fire  into  a  flame. 

103.  The  French  Kevolution  has  been  attributed  to  the 
following  causes:  1.  The  despotism,  recklessness,  and  profligacy 
of  the  French  court  during  the  three  preceding 
reigns;    2.    The   unjust  laws  that  favored   the 
nobility  and  clergy  at  the  expense  of  the  lower 


Causes  of 
the  Revolution. 


classes;  3.  The  diffusion  of  knowledge  and  the  spread  of  in- 
fidelity caused  by  the  writings  of  Voltaire  and  others;  4.  The 
desire  for  political  freedom  inspired  by  the  success  of  the 
American  Revolution,  in  which  so  many  of  the  French  had 
borne  a  prominent  part.  To  these  must  be  ndded  the  dis- 
order of  the  finances,  which,  in  the  first  part  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  XVL,  almost  stopped  the  wheels  of  government. 

104.  The  people — the  Third  Estate — had  bided  their  time, 
and  at  last  it  came.     The  first  session  of  the  far-famed  States- 
General  of  1789  gave,  in  various  minor  incidents, 
indications  of  the  storm  that  was  so  soon  to  burst 
forth  with  resistless  fury.      The  representatives 


Course  of  the 
people. 


of  the  people  refused  to  sit  with  uncovced  heads,  when  the 
nobles  and  clergy,  according  to  the  old  custom  of  every 
former  session,  put  on  their  hats  after  the  completion  of  the 
king's  speech;  and  this  led  to  a  tumult  only  to  be  ended  by 
the  king's  taking  off  his  own  hat.     Since  that  great  era,  revo- 


France.  593 


lution  has  been  the  characteristic  of  French  politics.  No 
government  that  has  been  established  has  been  other  than 
insecure  and  temporary,  because  it  has  not  rested  on  princi- 
ples thoroughly  fixed  in  public  opinion.  The  popular  mind, 
indeed,  has  seemed  to  revolt  from  all  government,  only  sub- 
mitting to  it  for  a  time  as  a  necessity.  The  Commune  of 
1871  was  the  last,  but  perhaps  the  most  striking,  illustration 
of  this  fact. 

105.  In  the  first  part  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.,  when 
Dr.  Franklin  visited  France  in  1776,  in  behalf  of  his  Ameri- 
can compatriots,  the  people  were  charmed  with 
his  simplicity  of  dress  and  manners;  and  their 


Costume. 


love  for  the  cause  which  he  represented  led  them  to  imitate 
him.  Gold  lace  and  embroidery  and  powdered  curls  gave 
way  to  plain  dresses  and  straight-cut  hair;  but  this  was  soon 
followed  by  an  extraordinary  affectation  of  English  modes  of 
costume.  At  the  beginning  of  this  period,  the  ladies  wore 
hoops,  and  dressed  their  hair  in  the  most  extreme  fashion. 
It  was  drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  huge  pyramid  on  the  top  of 
the  head;  and  caricatures  might  be  seen  representing  the 
hair-dresser  mounted  on  a  ladder  dressing  a  lady's  hair.  This 
extravagance  was  succeeded,  for  a  time,  by  a  period  of  great 
simplicity  in  dress,  white  muslin  dresses  and  straw  hats  taking 
the  place  of  silks,  satins,  and  velvets.  The  antique  then 
came  into  vogue  in  imitation  of  the  classic  heroes  of  Greece 
and  Rome.  In  more  modern  times  the  world  of  fashion  has 
constantly  had  its  center  at  Paris. 

X06.  The  civil  administration  of  the  great  Napoleon  was 
characterized  by  the  highest  intelligence  and  the  most  benefi- 
cent enterprise.  The  Code  Napoleon,  a  compila- 
tion of  the  laws  of  France,  prepared  under  his 
direction,  was  perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  his 


France  under 
Napoleon. 


achievements  for  the  good  of  France.  He  did  much  also  for 
education,  of  which  no  system  existed  in  France  before  his 
time.     He  created  numerous  lyceums,  in  which  the  instruc- 


594  Modern  History. 


tion  given  was  literary,  scientific,  and  moral;  and  several  law 
and  medical  schools.  Tlie  system  of  primary  instruction  in 
France,  now  so  complete,  was  created  subsequent  to  Napo- 
leon's time. 

107.  The  public  works,  including  magnificent  buildings, 
public  monuments,  roads,  etc.,  are  far  too  many  to  enumerate. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  great  break- 
water at  the  harbor  of  Cherbourg,   which  was 


Public  works. 


commenced  in  1783,  but  not  finished  till  1853.  During  the 
present  century,  France  has  shared,  in  common  with  other 
civilized  nations,  that  astonishing  progress  in  science  and  in 
the  useful  arts  which  have  done  so  much  to  ad- 
vance the  interests  of  mankind  by  improving  the 


Science  and  art. 


condition  of  society.  The  railroad,  the  steamship,  and  the  tele- 
graph, have  revolutionized  the  social,  political,  and  military 
system  of  every  civilized  nation  in  the  world;  and  in  none  has 
there  been  greater  progress  in  the  use  of  these  than  in  France. 
The  World's  Fair  {Exposition  Universelle)  has  been  an  im- 
portant auxiliary  in  developing  the  industrial  and  artistic 
capabilities  of  this  great  nation.* 

108.  Every  department  of  literature  is  adorned  with  the 
products  of  French  genius.  In  the  early  jmrt  of 
this  period,  the  following  writers  may  be  enume- 


Literature. 


rated: 

Crebillon  {kre-he-yov(f)  (1C74-1762),  a  tragic  poet,  ranking  next  to  Cor- 

iH'illc  and  Kucinc. 
Volney  (1757-1793),  eminent  for  his  historical  researclies. 
Malesherbes  (1721-1794),  an  al)le  statesman,  and  writer  on  politics,  law, 

and  finance;  author  of  Thoughts  and  Maxima. 
Andr6  Chenier  (xhen-ya')  1762-1794),  the  poet  of  the  Revolution,  whoso 

career  was  cut  short  by  the  guillotine. 
Beaumarchais  {bo-mar- sha')  (1732-1799),  who  wrote   T?i4i  Marriage  of 

Figaro  and  T/ie  Barber  of  Seville,  two  famous  comedies. 

♦  The  Idea  of  the  Exposition  UniveraeUe  originated  in  France,  but  was  first 
realized  in  England.  In  the  Paris  Exponition  of  IfW7,  as  well  aa  in  1878,  there  was 
presented  in  an  eminent  degree  the  wonderful  creative  skill  of  the  French  people. 


France. 


595 


Bernardin  St.  Pieire  (1737-1814),  author  of  the  popular  story  Pavl  and 
Virginia. 

109.  At  a  later  period,  the  following  writers  have  been 
most  conspicuous: 

De  Stael  (stah'el)  (Mme.)  (1766-1817),  the  most  talented  woman  of  her 
lime,  who  wrote  Corinne,  and  other  works  of  genius. 


Later  period. 


De  Crenlis  {zhong-le)  (Mme.)  (1746-1830),  author  of  many- 
interesting  juvenile  works,  romances,  memoirs,  etc. 
Of  the  latter,  her  Observations  on  the  Literary  History  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century  possesses  the  greatest  interest. 

Sismondi  (1773-1843),  author  of  the  History  of  the  Italian  ItepuUics. 

Chateaubriand  {shah-to-bre-ahng')  (1769-1848),  author  of  the  Genius  of 
Christianity,  a  work  remarkable  for 
its  purity  and  finished  style. 

B6ranger  {be-rahn-zha')  (1780-1857),  the 
greatest  of  French  lyric  poets, 
noted  for  his  popular  songs. 

Guizot  (1787-1874),  one  of  the  most  il- 
lustrious of  Frencli  statesmen  and 
historians;  author  of  the  History  of 
Civilization,  and  other  works. 

Thierry  {te-d'ree),  author  of  the  History 
of  tJie  Norman  Conquest,  and  other 
historical  w^orks. 

Comte  {kongi)  (1798-1857),  author  of 
the  Positive  Philosophy. 

Thiers  (1797-1877),  aathor  of  many  valuable  historical  works.  History  cf 
the  French  Revolution,  Consulate  and  Empire,  etc. 

Michelet  {meesh-la')  (1798-1874),  author  of  the  History  of  France,  and 
many  other  noted  works. 

Cousin  {koo  zahng)  (1793-1867),  a  noted  philosopher. 

Victor  Hugo  (1803-1885),  the  most  celebrated  Frencli  writer  of  modern 
times, — poet,  dramatist,  historian,  philosopher,  and  moralist;  remark- 
able for  the  splendor  as  well  as  the  universality  of  his  genius. 

Alexander  Dumas  (du-mah)  (1803-1870),  one  of  the  most  prolific  of  novel- 
ists. 

Ernest  Kenan  {re-nahng)  (1833-1893),  author  of  the  Life  of  Jesus,  Saint 
Paul,  etc. 

Flammarion  (born  1843),  an  astronomer  and  popular  writer,  author  of 
Plurality  of  Worlds,  Ood  in  Nature,  etc. 


Victor  Hugo. 


596 


Modern  History. 


EULEBS    OF  FBANCE, 

DuBiNG  THE  Revolutionary  Period. 


Name.  Date  of  rule. 

Louis  XVI.,  Bourbou  king 1774-1793 

Reign  of  Terror 1793-1794 

Directory 1 794-1 799 

Napoleon,  First  Consul 1800-1804 

Napoleon  I.,  Emperor 1804-1814 

Louis  XVIII.,  Bourbon  king. . .  1814-1824 
£!harles  X.,  Bourbon  king 1824-1830 


Name.  Date  of  rule. 

L.  Philippe,  Bourbon-Orleans..  1830-1*48 

Lotiis  Napoleon,  President 1848-1852 

Napoleon  III.,  Emperor 1852-1870 

Thiers,  L.  A.,  President 1871-1873 

McMahon,  M.  E.  P.  M.,  Prest..  1873-1879 

Gr6vy,  F.  J.  P.,  President 1879-1887 

Camot.  M.  F.  S 1887- 


SUMMARY  OF  PRINCIPAL  EVENTS  AND  DATES. 

A.D. 

Treaty  of  alliance  with  tlie  United  States 1778 

Meeting  of  the  States-General.    Revolution  commenced 1789 

Meeting  of  the  Legislative  Assembly 1791 

The  first  French  republic  declared 1792 

Execution  of  Louis  XVI.    Reign  of  Terror 1793 

Execution  of  Robespierre 1794 

Napoleon's  victorious  campaign  in  northern  Italy 179G 

Napoleon's  expedition  to  Egypt.    Battle  of  the  Pyramids 1798 

Napoleon's  great  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Marengo 1800 

Treaty  of  Amiens 1808 

Surrender  of  Ulm.    Battle  of  Austerlitz.    Battle  of  Trafalgar 1800 

Battles  of  Jena  and  Auerstadt.    Berlin  taken 1808 

Battle  of  Eylau.    Peace  of  Tilsit 1807 

Taking  of  Vienna.    Battles  of  Aspern  and  Wagram 1809 

Invasion  of  Russia  by  Napoleon.    Moscow  burned 1812 

Battles  of  Lutzen,  Dresden,  and  Leipsic 1818 

Invasion  of  France.    Capture  of  Paris.    Abdication  of  Napoleon  1814 

Battle  of  Waterloo.    Napoleon  banished  to  St.  Helena 1816 

Death  of  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena 1821 

Taking  of  Algiers.    Abdication  of  Charles  X 1880 

Defeat  of  Abd-el-Kader.    Conquest  of  Algeria 1847 

The  great  breakwater  completed  at  Cherbourg 18S8 

Rome  taken  by  the  French.    The  Pope  restored 1819 

Termination  of  the  Crimean  war  by  the  treaty  of  Paris 1850 

Battles  of  Solferino  and  Magenta  1859 

The  city  of  Mexico  entered  by  the  Fi*erich  under  Marshal  Bazalne 18(J8 

The  Archduke  Maximilian  declared  Emperor  of  Mexico 1864 

War  against  Germany.    McMahon  and  Bazaine  defeated 1870 

Defeat  of  the  French  at  Sedan.    Napoleon  a  prisoner.    1870 

Siege  of  Paris  by  the  German  army 1871 

Resignation  of  President  Thiers.    Dtiath  of  Napoleon  III 1878 

Trial  and  condemnation  of  Marshal  Bazaine 1878 

Death  of  Thiers 1877 

Resignation  of  President  McMfthon , .  1879 


Topical  Review, 


597 


Topical  Keview. 


EMINENT   FERSONAG-ES. 

Who  ware  they? 

In  what  period  did  they  live? 

With  what  events  connected?        page 

Gonsalvo  de  Cordova &41 

Chevalier  Bayard 542,  543,  544 

Gaston  deFoix 542 

Constable  Bourbon 543,  544,  545 

Catharine  de' Medici..  546,  548,  549,  551 

Constable  Montmorency 547 

Prince  of  Cond6 547,  548,  549 

Admiral  Coligni  547,  548 

Duke  of  Guise 547 

Chancellor  de  I'Hopital 548,  552 

Henry  of  Navarre  (Henry  IV,)..  549,  553 

Duke  of  Mayenne 553 

Duke  of  Sully 554 

Mary  de'  Medici 555,  556 

RicheUeu 555,  556,  565 

Cardinal  Mazarin 557 

Marshal  Turenne 557,  558 

Cardinal  de  Retz 557 

Colbert 5.58,  564 

Mme.  de  Maintenon 559,  567 

Cardinal  Fleury 561,  562 

Marshal  Saxe 562 

NapoleonI 562,  577-586 

Marie  Antoinette 571 

Mirabeau  572 

Necker 572 

Lafayette 573 

Robespierre 575,  576,  577 

Charlotte  Corday 576 

Moreau 579 

Murat 582,  586 

Marshal  Ney 583,  585,  586 

Napoleon  in 588,  589,  590 

Marshal  McMahon 590 

Corneille 567 

Racine 567 

MoliSre 567 

F6n61on 568 

Abb6  de  Fleury 568 

Diderot 569 

LaPlace 569 

Legendre 569 

"Voltaire 569 


PAOE 

Montesquieu 569 

Rousseau 570 

Malsherbes 570,  594 

Madame  Roland 576 

Madame  de  StaSl 595 

Chateaubriand 595 

Guizot 595 

Thiers 591,  595 

Cousin 595 

Victor  Hugo 595 

Ernest  Renan 595 

IMPORTANT    EVENTS. 

When  did  they  occur? 

What  led  to  them? 

What  resulted  therefrom? 

League  of  Cambray 549 

Battle  of  Agnadello 542 

Battle  of  Marignano 543 

Battle  of  Pavia 544 

Sacking  of  Rome 545 

Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew 549 

Battle  of  Ivry 553 

Edict  of  Nantes 554,560 

War  of  the  Fronde 557 

Meeting  of  the  States-General 571 

Storming  of  the  Bastile 572 

Taking  of  the  Tuileries 574 

Execution  of  Louis  XVI 575 

Reign  of  Terror 576 

Treaty  of  Campo  Formic 577 

Battle  of  the  Pyramids 578 

Battle  of  Austerlitz 579 

Dissolution  of  the  German  Empire..  580 

Battle  of  Jena 580 

Peace  of  Tilsit 581 

Battle  of  Wagram 582 

Russian  Expedition 683,  584 

Battle  of  Leipsic 584 

Restoration  of  the  Bourbons 585 

Battle  of  Waterloo 586 

Battle  of  Solferino 590 

Battle  of  Sedan 590 

Surrender  of  Bazaine 590 

Occupation  of  Paris 591 

Insurrection  of  the  Commune 591 


CHAPTER  XL 
States  of  Modeen  Europb. 


SECTION  I. 
Germany  and  Austria. 


1.  The  modern  history  of  Germany  begins  with  thb  reign 
of  Maximilian  I.  (1493-1519),  called  the  Penniless,  on  account 
1    of  his  want  of  money  to  carry  on  his  numerous 

Contemporaries  jj  •  . 

. I   wars.     He  was  one  of  the  group  of  prominent 

characters  for  whom  that  age  was  especially  celebrated, — Pope 
Julius  XL,  the  founder  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome;  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon;  Emanuel  the  Great  of  Portugal,  the  patron  of  arts 
and  sciences  and  the  friend  of  Vasco  da  Gama;  Henry  VIII. 
of  England  with  his  great  minister,  Cardinal 
Wolsey;  and  Bajazet  II.,  one  of  the  greatest  of 


the  Turkish  sultans.  It  was  in  this  reign  that  Martin  Luther 
published  his  famous  ninety-five  theses  against  the  doctrines 
of  the  Catholic  Church  (1517). 

2.  Charles  V.,  the  grandson  of  Maximilian,  who  succeeded 
him  (1519),  being  crowned  at  Aix-la  Chapelle,  was  one  of  the 

1   greatest  monarchs  of  ancient  or  modern  times. 

. LJ    He  had  become  king  of  Spain  by  hereditary  right, 

previous  to  his  election  as  emperor  of  Germany;  and  ho  wtis, 
besides,  ruler  over  Austria,  the  Netherlands,  and  Naples.    His 

Qkooraphical  Study,  Map  No.  XVI IT. 
What  was  the  sitnation  of:  The  Roman  Empihk?  Bohemia?  Austria?  HrNo/iRT? 
Ottoman  Empire?  Transylvania?  Walijichia?  Moldavia?  Servia?  BrixiARiA?  Bos- 
nia? RoiTMKLiA?  Poland?  Lithuania?  Prussia?  Brandkkburo?  Swiss  Confe'^wu 
TioN?  Franchk  Comtb?  Naples?  States  of  the  Church? 


No.  18, 


Germany  and  Austria. 


699 


contests  with  Francis  I.  of  France  have  already  been  referred 
to.  In  1521  a  diet  was  held  at  Worms,  at  which  Luther 
having  been  cited  by  Charles  was  commanded  to 
recant;  and  on  his  refusal  was  pronounced  a  her- 
etic, and  put  to  the  ban  of  the  empire.     He,  however,  escaped. 


Luther. 


and  was  kept  concealed  for  nine  months  by  his  friend  and 
protector,  Frederick  of  Saxony.  From  the  spread  of  Luther's 
tenets  grew  what  is  called  the  Eeformation. 


Members  op  Maximilian's  Court. 
(From  a  drawing  by  Albert  Diirer,  1512.) 

3.  The  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  made  great  progress 
in  Saxony,  favored  as  they  were  by  the  Elector;  and  several  of 
the  other  princes  of  Germany  supported  Luther's 
views.     In  the  diet  held  at  Spire  (1526),  a  tern- 


Reformation. 


porary  decree  of  toleration  was  granted  the  Lutherans;  but 
a  subsequent  diet  at  the  same  place  revoked  the  decree,  and 
declared  Lutheranism  heretical  (1529).  Against  this  revoca- 
tion fifteen  imperial  cities,  and  seven  reigning  princes,  in- 
cluding the  Elector  of  Saxony,  protested  as  being  unjust  and 


600  Modern  History. 


oppressive;  and  hence  the  followers  of  Luther  were  after- 
ward called  Protestants.  At  Augsburg  they  published  their 
Confession  of  Faith,  which  had  been  drawn  up  by 
Melanchthon  (1530),*  and  signed  by  the  Protestant 


Protestants. 


Growth  of 
Protestantism 


princes.  The  latter,  after  the  condemnation  of  the  Confession 
of  Augsburg  by  the  diet,  formed  for  their  defense  the  famous 
League  of  Smalcald  (1531). 

4.  Meantime,  the  Lutheran  doctrines  had  spread  rapidly 
through  several  of  the  German  states,  from  Saxony  north- 
ward to  the  Baltic.     After  the  peace  of  Cambray 
(see  page  545),  the  emperor  engaged  to  extirpate 
Lutheranism;  but  he  was  compelled  to  unite  the 

German  forces  in  order  to  repel  the  invasions  of  the  Turks; 
and,  consequently,  at  the  diet  of  Nuremberg  he  made  a  treaty 
with  the  Protestant  rulers,  to  be  binding  until  a  general  coun- 
cil of  the  Church  should  be  called.  After  the  Turks  had  been 
defeated  and  driven  back,  Charles,  being  kept  busy  by  his  war 
with  the  Barbary  powers  and  with  France,  found  himself  still 
unable  to  cope  with  the  Protestant  leaders,  and  renewed  the 
peace  of  Nuremberg.  Thus  Protestantism  was  unchecked  for 
the  time,  and  spread  not  only  in  Germany,  but  in  Denmark, 
Sweden,  Holland,  England,  and  other  countries.  Luther  in 
the  mean  time  translated  the  Bible  into  the  German  language, 
and  also  composed  many  hymns,  one  of  which  became  the 
battle-song  of  the  Reformation.  He  is  regarded  as  the  found- 
er of  German  church  poetry  and  music. 

5.  A  general  council  was  at  last  called  by  Pope  Paul  IIL, 
to  meet  at  Trent, f  in  the  Italian  part  of  the  Tyrol,  and 
the  Protestants  were  invited  to  attend;  but  they  refused  to 

♦  Philip  Melanchthon  (born  In  1497,  died  In  1860)  was,  next  to  Lnther,  the  chief 
leader  in  the  Protestant  movement.  He  was  eminent  for  his  scholarship  and  Intel- 
lectual ability,  as  well  as  for  his  modesty  and  gentleness  of  disposition. 

tThe  Council  of  Trent  was  one  of  the  most  important  synods  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  It  was  opened  in  December,  1545,  and  was  held  at  intervals  until  the 
twenty  fifth  session,  December,  150.'i  Its  decrees,  defining  certain  doctrines  of  the 
church,  were  confirmed  by  the  Pope  the  next  year. 


Germany  and  Austria, 


601 


acknowledge  the  Pope's  authority  or  to  be  bound  by  the  de- 
crees of  the  Council.  This  brought  on  a  religious  war,  and 
Charles  V.  marched  into  northern  Germany,  and 
defeated  the  Elector  of  Saxony  at  Miihlberg,  on 
the  Elbe,  taking  him  prisoner  (1547).     The  latter  was  com- 


Religious  war. 


Maurice. 


pelled  to  give  up  most  of  his  dominions  to  Maurice,  so  cele- 
brated subsequently  as  the  champion  of  Protestantism,  though 
now  he  played  the  part  of  an  apostate.  Luther  died  just 
before  this  war  commenced  (February  18,  1546).* 

6.  Charles  now  eagerly  pushed  forward  his  plan  to  destroy 
Protestantism;  and,  under  his  orders,  Maurice  of  Saxony  laid 

siege  to  Magdeburg, 
and  compelled  its 
capitulation.  Disgusted,  how- 
ever, with  the  oppressive  meas- 
ures of  the  emperor,  Maurice 
now  determined  to  take  the  side 
of  the  Protestants;  and  having 
formed  an  alliance  with  France 
(see  page  546),  he  marched  rap- 
idly to  the  south  while  Charles 
was  busied  in  the  affairs  of  the 
Council,  and  narrowly  missed 
making  him  a  prisoner  (1552).  f  The  next  year, 
a  diet  was  held,  and  the  assembled  German 
princes  agreed  to  the  Treaty  of  Passau,  made  in 


Charles  V. 


Treaty  of 
Passau. 


1552  between  Charles  and  Maurice,  and  permitting  religious 


*  "  Charles  V.  was  urged  by  the  Duke  of  Alva  and  others  to  bum  Luther's  body 
and  scatter  the  ashes,  as  those  of  a  heretic ;  but  he  answered  like  a  man :  '  I  wage 
no  war  against  the  dead.'  Herein  he  showed  the  better  side  of  his  nature,  although 
only  for  a  moment."— Bayard  Taylor. 

t  Apprised  of  his  danger,  Charles  fled  across  the  Alps  amid  the  darkness  of 
night  and  in  a  violent  storm  of  rain,  though  he  was  suffering  from  the  gout  at  the 
time,  his  courtiers  following  as  best  they  could,  many  of  them  on  foot.  Maurice 
entered  Innspruck  a  few  hours  after  the  emperor  had  left  it;  not  sorry  to  find  him 
gone,  for  he  said  he  had  "no  conveoient  cage  for  such  a  falcon."  The  Council  of 
Tn-nt  broke  up,  for  the  time,  in  dismay,  its  members  scattering  to  their  homes 


6{)i  Modern  History, 


freedom  to  the  Protestants.  Three  years  afterward,  tlie  Diet 
of  Augsburg,  under  the  sanction  of  Charles  V.,  confirmed 
these  stipulations,  and  thus  gave  peace  to  Germany  (1555). 
Charles  V.  abdicated  the  throne  in  1556,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  Ferdinand  (1556-1564). 

Thirty  Yeaes'  War. 

7.  The  next  important  event  in  the  history  of  Germany 
is  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  which  commenced   in   1618,  in 
Bohemia,  on  account  of  the  attempt  of  the  king 
(Ferdinand  11.)  to  extinguish  Protestantism  within 


Cause. 


his  dominions.  During  this  outbreak  the  king  was  elected 
emperor  (Ferdinand  II.);  but  the  Bohemians  refused  to 
acknowledge  him,  and  chose  Frederick,  Elector-palatine,  son- 
in-law  of  James  I.  of  England.  Frederick  being  defeated  in 
a  great  battle  near  Prague,  was  obliged  to  flee 
(1620);  and  the  Bohemian  Protestants  were  per- 


First  period. 


secuted  without  mercy.  Hostilities  were  continued  in  other 
parts  under  Count  Mansfield,  Frederick's  general,  against 
Tilly,*  the  imperial  general,  until  165^5,  when  several  of  the 
northern  states  of  Germany  formed  a  defensive  union  against 
the  emperor,  and  invited  Christian  IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  to 
act  as  their  leader.  This  was  the  end  of  the  first  period  of 
the  war. 

8.  Christian  entered  Germany  with  his  forces,  and  was 
joined  by  Count  Mansfield  and   Duke   Christian  of  Bruns- 
wick, a  noted  character  at  that  time.     James  I. 
of  England,    his  brother-in-law,  also   sent  him 


Second  period. 


assistance.     There  was,  however,  no  zealous  union  among  the 
German  states.     At  this  time  Albert  Wallenstein,  a  wealthy 

♦  Tilly  was  already  famous,  in  the  Bavarian  service,  both  for  his  military  talent 
and  his  inhumanity.  He  was  a  small  lean  man,  with  a  face  almost  comical  in  its 
ugliness.  His  nose  was  like  a  parrot's  beak,  his  forehead  seamed  with  deep 
wrinkles,  his  eyes  sunk  in  their  sockets  and  his  cheek-bones  projecting.  He  u.sually 
wore  a  dress  of  green  satin,  with  a  cocked  hat  and  long  red  feather,  and  rode  a 
Qinall,  mean  looking,  gray  horse."— i^a yard  Taylor. 


Germany  and  Austria. 


603 


Bohemian,  offered  his  services  to  Ferdinand  in  the  Catholic 
interest,  and  they  were  accepted.  Tilly  and  Wallenstein 
joining  their  forces  soon  drove  the  Danes  out  of  Germany, 
and  Christian  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  emperor,  at 
Lubeck  (1629).     This  ended  the  second  period  of  the  war. 

9.  The  next  year,  partly  through  the  intrigues  of  Riche- 
lieu, Wallenstein,  the  greatest  of  the  imperial  generals,  was 
dismissed:    and    Gustavus    Adolphus,   king    of    r— — — — 

'  1  1       i  i  1.  Third  period. 

Sweden,  was  induced  to  enter  the  contest  as  the    I . . 

champion  of  the  Protestant  cause.  With  a  small,  but  finely 
disciplined  army,  he  invaded 
Germany,  and  passed  triumph- 
antly through  the  country,  after 
having  defeated  Tilly  in  a  great 
battle  near  Leipsic  (1631).  Tilly 
being  slain  soon  afterward,  the 
emperor  was  obliged  to  recall 
Wallenstein,  who  by  his  skillful 
operations  soon  retrieved  the 
imperial  cause.  In  1632  oc- 
curred the  memorable  battle  of 
Lutzen,   in   which  the    Protes-  Waixekstein. 


tants  triumphed,  but  with  the  loss  of  their  great  leader 
Gustavus  (1632).  Soon  after  this,  Wallenstein,  being  accused 
of  treason,  was  assassinated  by  the  command,  as  is  supposed, 
of  the  emperor  (1634).  This  ended  the  third  period  of  the 
war. 

10.  Eichelieu  now  directly  took  part  in  the  struggle  on 
the  side  of  the  Protestants,  allying  France  with  Sweden, 
Holland,  and  the  Protestant  states  of  Germany 
against  his  implacable  "foe,  the  House  of  Austria 
(1635).     During  the  remainder  of  the  war,  the 


Intervention 
of  France. 


imperial  cause  declined,  through  the  influence  of  Eichelieu's 
masterly  diplomacy  and  energetic  military  operations.  The 
Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  died  in  1637,  and  was  succeeded  b^ 


604  Modern  History, 


his  son,  Ferdinand  III.  Richelieu  died  in  1642;  but  the  war 
lingered  on  six  years  longer.  The  peace  of  Westphalia  estab- 
lished the  religious  independence  of  the  Protestant  states, 
made  Holland  and  Switzerland  free,  increased  the  territories 
of  France,  and  stripped  the  German  Empire  of  very  much  of 
its  ancient  power  and  splendor  (1648). 

11.  The  long  reign  of  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  (1658-1705) 
was  principally  occupied  in  wars  with  the  Turks  and  with 
France.     The  former,  in  1683,  penetrated  to  the 
heart  of  the  empire,  and  laid  siege  to  Vienna, 


Leopold  I 


from  which  Le'o-pold  was  compelled  to  flee.  Through  the 
courage  and  address  of  the  celebrated  Polish  king,  John 
So-bi-es'ki,  the  city  was  relieved,  and  the  Turks  were  obliged 
to  retreat  to  their  own  dominions.  Germany  was  involved  in 
the  wars  caused  by  the  ambitious  schemes  of  Louis  XIV.  of 
France;  and  several  brilliant  victories  were  gained  in  her 
interest  by  her  illustrious  general,  Prince  Eugene,  who,  as 
has  been  already  stated,  participated  in  the  great  battles  fought 
during  tlie  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  (see  page  560). 

12.  Prince  Eugene  also  gained  several  important  victories 
over  the  Turks,  of  which  the  greatest  were  that  of  Zenta,  in 
Hungary  (1697);  and  that  of  Bel-grudc'  (1717), 
the  latter  resulting  in  an  immense*  loss  to  the 
Turks,  including  the  city  itself,  over  which,  as 


Defeat  of 
the  Turks. 


being  the  key  of  Hungary,  very  many  severe  conflicts  had 
taken  i)laco  between  the  Austrian  and  Ottoman  forces. 
Charles  VL,  who  reigned  from  1711  to  1740,  was  the  last  of 
the  male  line  of  the  Hapsburgs;  and  his  deatli 
was  followed  by  disputes  which  led  to  the  famous 
War  of  the  Austrian  Succession.     In  this  war. 


Austrian 
SucceMiort. 


Frederick  the  Great,  king  of  Prussia,  joined  the  enemies  of 
Maria  Theresa,  in  their  attempt  to  deprive  her  of  her  do- 
minions; and  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  assuming  the  imperial 
throne,  under  the  title  of  Charles  VII.,  and  being  assisted  by 
France,  advanced  to  Vienna,  and  compelled  her  to  flee  to 


Germany  and  Austria, 


605 


Hungary.  The  Hungarians  drew  their  swords  enthusiasticallv 
in  her  favor,  and  Charles  VII.  was  forced  to  retreat.  The 
latter  died  in  1745;  and  Francis  of  Lorraine,  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  was  elected  emperor, 
under  the  title  of  Francis  I. 

13.  The  reign  of  Francis  L  was  distinguished  for  the  great 
Seven  Years'  War,  which  broke  out  eight  years  after  the 
Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1756).  Great  Britain 
and  France  quarreled  about  their  colonial  pos- 
sessions in  North  America;  Austria  was  eager  to 


Seven  Years' 
War. 


regain  the  territories  which  Frederick  of  Prussia  had  con- 
quered during  the  previous  war; 
and  the  Empress  of  Russia  was 
desirous  of  curbing  the  pride 
and  ambition  of  the  Prussian 
monarch.  Poland  and  Sweden 
joined  Russia;  and  thus  Freder- 
ick, whose  only  ally  was  Great 
Britain,  had  to  contend  against 
^-^Q  great  states.  The  Prussian 
king  was,  however,  the  greatest 
general  of  his  age ;  and  the 
many  splendid  victories  which 
he  gained  with  his  small  but  highly  disciplined  army,  illus- 
trate, in  a  very  striking  manner,  to  what  an  extent  the  genius 
of  a  military  commander  can  triumph  over  superior  numbers. 
This  war  was  closed  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763.  (See 
Prussia.) 

14.  During  the  reign  of  Francis  II.  (1792-1835),  occurred 
the  great  wars  with  Napoleon,  the  result  of  whicli  was, 
that  the  Empire  of  the  West,  or  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  was  dissolved  in  1806,  after  an  existence 
of  more  than  a  thousand  years.      Most  of  the 


Maria  Theresa. 


End  of  the 
Empire. 


states  were  formed  into  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine;  and 
Austria  became  an  hereditary  empire,  over  which  Francis 


606  Modern  History. 


continued  to  rule  until  his  death  in  1835.*  After  the  defeat 
of  Napoleon  at  Leipsic,  in  1814,  the  Confederation  of  the 
Ehine  was  dissolved;  and  in  1815  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  formed  the  Germanic  Confederation, 


Other  changes. 


consisting  of  thirty-nine  states,  of  which  the  central  assembly, 
or  diet,  held  its  sessions  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main  {inine).\ 
Subsequently,  the  peace  of  Germany  was  much  disturbed  by 
the  repeated  contests  of  Austria  and  Prussia  for  supremacy  in 
the  affairs  of  the  Confederation.  During  the  revolutionary 
period  of  1848-9,  there  was  an  earnest  effort  to  establish  a 
national  union  of  the  German  states;  and  in  1849  "William  L, 
King  of  Prussia,  was  elected  by  the  National  Parliament 
Hereditary  Emperor  of  Germany;  but  tlie  kingdoms  of  Bava- 
ria, Wiirtemberg,  Hanover,  and  Saxony  withheld  their  con- 
sent, and  Austria  protested  against  the  measure.  The  Prus- 
sian king,  therefore,  declined  the  honor. 

15.  At  this  time  Bismarck,  since  so  prominent  in  Ger- 
man affairs,  had  commenced  his  career  in  the  Prussian  Par- 
liament, by  an  effort  to  consolidate  the  German 
nationality  by  harmonizing  the  measures  of  Aus- 


Bismarck. 


tria  and  Prussia.  Schleswig  and  lEolstein,  provinces  of  Den- 
mark, after  a  short  war  with  the  latter,  were  jointly  occupied 
by  these  two  powers  (18G4),  through  his  influence,  he  liaving 

♦The  disasters  of  1805  destroyed  the  hold  of  Austria  upon  the  Qennan  states; 
and  several  of  the  latter  allied  themselves  to  Franco  for  self-protection.  In  180fi, 
the  arch-chancellor  of  Germany  announced  to  the  diet  that  he  had  cho.s(>n  for  his 
successor  one  of  Napoleon's  uncles;  and  shortly  after  this  announcement  sixtetn 
German  princes  signed  an  act  of  allegiance  to  the  French  eminnmr,  and  thus  dis- 
solved their  connection  with  the  German  emp'-e.  This  was  followed  by  a  di'olura- 
tlon  on  the  part  of  Napoleon  that  he  no  longer  recognized  such  an  einpii-e.  Thus  a 
German  confederation  was  formed  independent  of  the  Austrian  Government,  and 
Francis  declared  himself  emperor  of  Austria. 

t  The  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  created  by  Napoleon,  was  abollslied.  Pnissia  wag 
enlarged  by  the  addition  of  the  Rhineland,  a  part  of  Saxony,  and  Swedish  Pomer- 
ania.  The  Tyrol  and  Salzburg  were  given  back  to  Austria.  Hanover  was  erected 
Into  a  kingdom;  and  Weimar,  Oldenburg,  and  Mecklenburg  became  grand-duchles; 
Hamburg,  Frankfort,  Bremen,  and  Lubeck  were  declared  free  cities.  Thus, 
Instead  of  the  restoration  of  the  empire,  there  was  established  a  German  Bund 
Political  and  religious  freedom  was  proclaimed  at  the  first  session  of  the  diet  at 
Frankfort  in  1R16  (November  6). 


Germany  and  Austria, 


607 


been  made,  two  years  before,  the  minister-president  (prime 
minister)   of   Prussia.     A   quarrel  ensued  soon 
afterward;  and  Austria  demanded  that  the  diet 
should  call  into  the  field  the  military  forces  of 


War  against 
Austria. 


the  states  against  Prussia  on  account  of  her  invasion  of  Hoi- 
stein.     This  brought  on  the  war  of  1866  against  Austria. 

16.  Bismarck  had  sagaciously  contrived  to  obtain  the 
alliance  and  co-operation  of  Italy,  with  the  design  on  the  part 
of  the  latter  to  acquire  possession  of  the  Venetian  territories. 
The  Italians  were  defeated;  but  the  Prussians,  under  the  com- 
mand of  their  king 
(William  I.), invaded 


Sadowa. 


B1SIIARC&. 


Bohemia;  and,  in  the  battle  of 
Sad'o-wa,  defeated  the  Austrians 
with  great  loss.  A  treaty  soon 
followed,  by  whicli  Austria  was 
excluded  from  the  Germanic  Con- 
federation; and  Prussia,  after  in- 
corporati;ig  with  her  own  domin- 
ions some  of  the  states,  formed 
the  North  German 
Confederation,    con- 


Results. 


sisting  of  the  states  north  of  the  Main,  including  herself  as 
the  leading  state,  and  Berlin  as  the  capital.  Thus,  through 
the  Seven  Weeks'  War,  Count  Bismarck  obtained  for  Prussia 
that  controlling  influence  in  Germany  for  which  he  had  been 
for  some  time  planning. 

17.  But  the  ultimate  object  of  this  wily  and  far-seeing 
statesman  had  not  yet  been  attained.  This  was  the  complete 
union  of  Germany,  with  Prussia  at  its  head. 


As  auxiliary  to  that  object,  he  concluded  a  secret   I     Bismilf 
treaty  with  the  South  German  states,  they  en-   I 


gaging  to  place  their  armies  at  the  disposal  of  Prussia,  in  case 
of  war.  Napoleon  III.,  becoming  aware  of  the  plans  of  the 
German   minister,  determined  to  thwart  them,  if  possible. 


608  Modern  History. 


He  demanded  tlmt  Luxemburg  and  Mentz  should  be  ceded  to 
France,  thus  extending  its  eastern  frontier  to  the  Rhine;  but 
Bismarck  replied;  *^  Not  an  inch  of  land,  not  a  single  fortress, 
shall  be  given  up,  cost  what  it  may. "  War  would 
have  commenced  immediately,  but  France  was 
not  prepared.     In  1870,  the  Franco-Prussian  War 


Francc-German 
War. 


broke  out,  by  the  march  of  the  French  armies  to  the  Rhine, 
and  resulted  in  their  total  defeat  (see  page  590).  At  its  close 
William  I.  Avas  proclaimed  ^*  King  of  Prussia  and 
Em.peror  of  Germany"   (1871).      Bismarck  was 


Result. 


shortly  after  promoted  to  the  rank  of  prince,  with  the  title  of 
Chancellor  of  the  German  Empire.     (See  pp.  611,  612.) 

Austria. 

18.  Austria,  after  its  organization  as  a  separate  empire  in 

1806,  continued  to  be  involved  in  the   great  conflict  with 

Napoleon,  in  which  she  suffered  terrible  disasters. 

The  great  defeat  at  Wagram  left  her  powerless; 

and  the  Emperor  Francis  was  obliged  to  submit 


Wars  with 
Napoleon. 


to  the  humiliation  of  accepting  the  victorious  Corsican  as  his 
Bon-in-law  (1810).  The  most  important  event  in  the  history 
of  Austria  after  the  Congress  of  Vienna  was  the 
revolt  of  Hungary,  followed  by  a  terrible  and 


Other  events. 


gigantic  war,  which  terminated  in  the  total  defeat  of  the 
Austrians,  after  which  the  Hungarians  renounced  their  alle- 
giance to  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  and  chose  their  leader 
Kossuth  (kosh'oot)  as  governor.  Austria  then  obtained  the 
intervention  of  Russia;  and  the  Hungarian  general  treach- 
erously surrendered  (1849).  The  revolt  was  then  crushed  with 
horrible  cruelties  ;  but  Kossuth  and  other  Hungarian  ]>atriot8 
found  an  asylum  in  Turkey,  and  Kossuth  esciii)ing  visited 
England  and  the  United  States.  Since  then,  concessions  have 
been  made  to  the  Hungarians,  and  a  sepanite  ccmstitution  and 
diet  granted.  This  double  nation  now  bears  the  title  of  the 
Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy  (1886). 


No.  19. 


Prussia.  609 


SECTION  11. 

Prussia. 

19.  Prussia  derives  its  name  from  the  Bo-rus'si,  a  fierce 
and  warlike  tribe  of  the  Slavonic  race,  who  early  settled  on 
the  lands  bordering  on  the  Baltic  Sea.  In  the  first 
part  of  the  eleventh  century  they  were  partially 


Early  history. 


subdued  by  Bo-les'las,  king  of  Poland;  but,  for  more  than 
two  centuries,  they  resisted  every  effort  made  to  convert  them 
to  Christianity.  This  was  finally  established  among  them  by 
means  of  the  crusade  carried  on  against  them  by  the  Knights 
of  the  Teutonic  Order,*  during  more  than  fifty  years.  The 
country  remained  under  the  government  of  the  Knights  for 
about  two  centuries,  when  it  became  partly  dependent  upon 
the  great  kingdom  of  Poland  (1462). 

20.  The  Duchy  of  Bran 'den-burg,  a  part  of  these  Prussian 
territories,  became,  in  1640,  the  nucleus  of  the  present  king- 
dom of  Prussia,  through  the  efforts  of  Frederick 
William,  styled  the  Great  Elector.    From  Poland 


Great  Elector. 


he  obtained  a  recognition  of  his  claim  to  the  Duchy  of  Prus- 
sia, which  had  been  hitherto  possessed  by  that  kingdom.     He 

Geographical.  Study,  Map  No.  XIX. 

What  is  the  sittiation  of :  Paris?  Amiens?  Luneville?  Ivry?  Rochelle?  Orleans? 
Boulogne?  Lyons?  Frejus?  Toulon?  Brussels?  Waterloo?  Amsterdam?  Berlin? 
Stralsund?  Friedland?  Dresden?  Lutzeu?  Jena?  Leipsic?  Ulm?  Augsburg?  Pas» 
sau?  Spire?  Hohenlinden?  Hanover?  Lubeek?  Moscow?  Warsaw?  Cracow? 
Smolensk?  Borodino?  Wilna?  Tilsit?  Eilau?  Poltava?  Constantinople?  Nissa? 
Widin?  Belgrade?  Nicopolis?  Vienna?  Presburg?  Wagram?  Austerlitz?  Prague? 
Rome?  Campo  Formio?  Marengo?  Pavia?  Palermo?  Madrid?  Vittoria?  Corunna? 
Talavera?  Ciudad  Rodrigo?  Lisbon?  Vimeira?  Albuera?  Athens?  Missolonghi? 
Navarino? 


*  The  order  of  Teutonic  Knights  was  founded  during  the  Crusades.  Their  first 
seat  was  at  Acre ;  but,  after  the  destruction  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  they 
»"emoved  to  the  banks  of  the  Vistula,  and  succeeded  finally  in  establishing  a  sover 
«i'gnty,  wliich  had  the  control  of  nearly  three  millions  of  people. 


610 


Modern  History, 


particularly  distinguished  himself  for  his  successful  wars 
against  the  Swedes,  whom,  in  1679,  he  entirely  expelled  from 
the  country.  He  was  also  noted  for  his  strenuous  efforts  in 
the  cause  of  the  Protestants;  for  which  he  received  letters  of 
congratulation  and  thanks  from  Oliver  Cromwell.  When  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.,  many  of  the 
exiled  Huguenots  found  a  refuge  in  the  dominions  of  the 
Great  Elector. 

21.  Prussia  became  a  kingdom  in  1701,  the  last  elector, 
Frederick  III.,  having  been  acknowledged  king 
by  the  emperor  of  Germany,  on  condition  that 
he  should  aid  the  cause  of  Austria  in  the  AVar  of 


Prussia  a 
kingdom. 


the  Spanish  Succession.     His  troops  gained  great  distinction 

by  their  valor  in  the  battle  of 
Blenheim.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Frederick  William  I.,  in  1713, 
noted  for  his  harsh  and  eccentric 
character,  his  fondness  for  tall 
soldiers,  and  his  savage  treat- 
ment of  his  son,  who  succeeded 
him  as  Frederick  II.,  known  as 
Frederick  the  Great  (1740-86). 
Under  the  latter,  Prussia  be- 
came one  of  the  greatest  mili- 
tary powers   in   Euroj^e,  partly 

through  the  magnificent  army  which  had  been  collected  by 

Frederick  William  I.,  and  disciplined  to  the  highest  degree 

of  efficiency. 

22.  Taking  advantage  of  the  disputes  regarding  the  claims 

of  Maria  Theresa,  Frederick  invaded  Silesia,  and  defeated 
the  Austrians  (1741).  This  brought  on  the  war 
of  the  Austrian  Succession,  in  which  the  Prus- 
sian king  gained  several  victories  over  the  Aus- 


Fredkrick  the  Great. 


Frederick  the 
Great. 


trians  and  Saxons,   taking  Dresden,  where   he   made  peace 
(1745).     lu  the  Seven  Years'  War.  his  victories  over  the  com- 


Prussia.  611 


bined  forces  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe  gave  him  a  place 
among  the  most  renowned  generals  of  history.  French,  Austri- 
an, and  Eussian  armies,  each  double  the  number 
of  the  Prussians,  were  defeated  in  turn  (1757-8). 
The  Eussian  defeat  at  Zorndorf  was  perhaps  the 


Seven  Years' 
War. 


most  memorable  in  the  war  (1758).  The  treaty  of  1763  left 
him  with  considerably  extended  dominions.  In  1772,  the 
Prussian  territories  were  also  enlarged  by  the  First  Partition 
of  Poland.  Frederick  by  no  means  neglected  the  internal 
improvement  of  his  kingdom,  encouraging  agriculture,  manu- 
factures, and  commerce.       He  was  passionately    r 

_  '_.  .       .  »    .        T  1  Character. 

fond  of  literature,  was  an  mtimate  friend  and    L_ 


associate  of  Voltaire,  and  acquired  himself  some  distinction 
as  an  author. 

23.  The  wars  with  Napoleon  occurred  during  the  reign  of 
Frederick  William  III.  In  these,  Prussia  suffered  the  terrible 
overthrow  of  Jena  (1806),  but  redeemed  her  honor 
through  the  achievements  of  Blucher  {hloo'ker), 


Jena. 


to  whose  skill,  courage,  and  promptitude  the  great  victories 
of  Leipsic  and  Waterloo  were  partly  due.  Blucher's  hatred 
of  Napoleon  and  the  French  was  intense;  and, 
had  he  not  been  overruled  by  the  other  generals. 


Blucher. 


Paris,  in  1814,  would  have  been  given  up  to  be  pillaged  by 
the  soldiers. 

24.  By  the  Congress  of  Vienna  the  Prussian  territories 
were  much  enlarged;  and  during  the  subsequent  part  of  the 
reign  of  Frederick  William,  the  condition  of 
Prussia  was  greatly  improved.      The  establish- 


Later  events. 


ment  of  common  schools  of  a  high  order  of  excellence  did 
much  to  enlighten  the  people  and  augment  the  real  strength 
of  the  kingdom.  Frederick  William  III.  was  succeeded  in 
1840  by  his  son,  Frederick  William  IV.,  who  died  in  1861. 
During  the  reign  of  his  successor,  William  I.,  Germany  was 
reconstructed,  as  related  in  the  history  of  that  country,  and 
the  King  of  Prussia  became  the  German  Emperor,    On  his 


612 


Modern  History. 


death,  in  March,  1888,  his  son  succeeded,  under  the  title  of 
Frederick  III.,  but  died  the  following  June,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  William  II.,  who  now  reigns  (1889). 


SECTION  III. 

Holland  and  Belgium. 

25.  Holland  and  Belgium,  called  the  Netherlands,  or  Low 
Countries,   constituted,    in   843,   a  part  of   Germany.      For 
several  centuries  it  was  under  the  rule  of  petty 
princes,  and   afterward   formed   a  part   of    the 


Early  history. 


duchy  of  Burgundy.     Several  of  its  cities,  Ghent,  Antwerp, 
Brussels,  and  Mechlin,  grew  strong  and    rich  by  their  trade 

and  manufactures.  The  death 
of  Charles  the  Bold  and  the 
marriage  of  his  daughter,  Mary 
of  Burgundy,  to  Maximilian, 
brought  the  Netherlands  for  a 
time  under  the  sway  of  Austria; 
but  they  subsequently  passed  by 
inheritance  to  Charles  V.,  who 
was  the  grandson  of  Maximilian 
and  Mary. 

26.    The    historical     impor- 
tance of  these  states  commences 
in  the  reign  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Charles,  through  the  resistance  made    by  their 
spirited  inhabitants  to  the  tyranny  and  intoler- 
ance   of   that    bigoted    monarch.      Under  their 


Willi  A  ii 


Rise  of  the 
republic. 


great  leader,  William  of  Orange,  surnamed  the  "Silent," 
the  **  Seven  United  Provinces"  successfully  revolted  against 
the  cruelties  of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  viceroy  of  Philip,  and 


Holland  and  Belgium.  613 

declared  their  independence,  William  becoming   their   first 
president  with  the  title  of  Stadtholder  (1581). 
This  illustrious  soldier  and  statesman  was  assas- 
sinated in  1584,*  but  the  United  Provinces  were 


William  of 
Orange. 


presided  over  by  the  princes  of  Orange  until  the  French  Revo- 
lution. The  other  provinces  (Belgium)  continued  to  belong 
to  Spain  until  they  were  transferred  to  Austria  (1713). 

27.  The  Dutch  republic  became,  a  short  time  after  its 
independence,  the  most  formidable  maritime  power  in  the 
world.  The  part  taken  by  it  in  the  great  Euro- 
pean wars,  and  its  successive  contests  with  Great 


Dutch  republic. 


Britain,  have  already  been  related.  During  the  French  Revo- 
lution, the  National  Convention  having  declared  war  against 
Holland,  the  country  was  overrun  by  the  French  armies;  and 
the  anti-Orange  faction  excited  a  popular  insurrection  which 
expelled  William  V.,  the  last  of  the  Stadtholders,  and  led  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Batavian  Republic,  under  the  control 
of  the  French  (1795).     Belgium  became  a  part  of  France. 

28.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  made  his  brother  Louis  king  of 
Holland,  but  afterward  dethroned  him,  and  annexed  the 
country  to  France.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon, 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  reunited   Holland   and 


Later  changes. 


Belgium,  and  thus  formed  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands, 
which  was  placed  under  one  of  the  Orange  family,  with  the 
title  of  William  I.  This  union  lasted  till  1830,  when  Bel- 
gium successfully  revolted,  and  became  a  separate  kingdom, 
Leopold,  a  German  prince,  being  placed  upon  the  throne. 
In  1865,  he  was  succeeded  by  Leopold  II.  Holland's  king 
from  1849  till  1890  was  William  III.,  of  the  Orange  family. 

*  "The  gloom  produced  by  the  assassination  of  William  of  Orange  was  tragical. 
Never  in  human  history  was  a  more  poignant  and  universal  sorrow  for  the  death 
of  any  individual.  The  despair  was,  for  a  brief  season,  absolute ;  but  it  was  soon 
succeeded  by  more  lofty  sentiments.  It  seemed,  after  they  had  laid  their  hero  in 
the  tomb,  as  though  his  spirit  still  hovered  above  the  nation  which  he  had  loved 
so  well,  and  was  inspiring  it  with  a  portion  of  his  own  energy  and  wisdom." — Mo%' 
Igy^s  United  Netherlands. 


614  Modern  History, 


SECTION  IV. 

Switzerland. 

29.  The  chief  events  in  the  history  of  Switzerland,  after 
the  establishment  of  its   independence  in  1499,  were  those 
connected  with  the  changes  in  religion  brought 
about    by    the    celebrated    Protestant   preacher 


Zwingli. 


Zwin'gli,  an  associate  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  The  can- 
tons were  soon  involved  in  a  civil  war  on  account 
of  religious  dissensions.    Zurich,  in  1523,  adopted 


Religious  wars. 


the  opinions  of  Zwingli,  and  was  followed  by  Berne,  and 
other  cantons  in  the  north;  wliile  the  forest  cantons  re- 
mained attached  to  the  Catholic  Church.  In  a  battle  fought 
in  1531,  the  iatter  were  victorious,  and  Zwingli  was  slain. 
Geneva  was  the  residence  of  John  Calvin,  one  of 
the  most  noted  of  the  Protestant  divines;  and 


Calvin. 


from  his  preaching  spread  the  doctrines  which  afterward 
characterized  the  Puritans  of  England,  and  the  pe<»ple  of 
Scotland.     The  death  of  Calvin  occurred  in  1564. 

80.  The  neutrality  of  Switzerland  was  preserved  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  War;  and  at  its  close,  the  peace  Ot  West- 
l^halia  secured   the  inde])endonce  of    tlic   Con- 
federacy,  by  acknowledging    it    as    a    separate 


Later  history. 


state.  At  this  period,  the  Swiss  were  among  the  best  soldiers 
in  Europe,  and  were  employed  in  immense  numbers  by 
foreign  states.  In  1798,  the  French  nrmies  overran  Switzer- 
land; and,  in  1802,  Napoleon,  as  First  Consul,  annexed  three 
of  the  cantons  to  France,  and  formed  of  the  others  a  con- 
federation dependent  upon  it.  The  Congress  of  Vienna 
restored  the  cantons,  and  re-establislied  the  republic,  consist- 
ing of  twenty-two  cantons  (1815).  The  new  constitution, 
adopted  by  the  federal  diet  in  the  same  j'car,  was  ratified  by 
the  great  powers,  and  the  perpetual  independence  of  the 
Confederation  was  declared.  Tho  J^st  r^vi^ipn  of  this  con* 
stitutiou  was  adopted  in  1874. 


Italy.  615 

SECTION  V. 

Italy. 

31.  Italy  continued  to  be  divided  into  a  number  of  small 
states  until  the  establishment  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  (1861). 
Among  these  states  the  Duchy  of  Sav'oy  be- 
came, in  tlie  latter  period  of  the  Middle  Ages,  a 


Savoy. 


power  of  considerable  importance.  During  the  wars  of  Louis 
XIV.  of  France,  it  took  sides  with  the  allies,  and  was  reward- 
ed, by  the  treaty  of  Utreclit,  with  the  island  of  Sicily  and 
other  territories.  The  Kingdom  of  Sardinia 
originated  in  a  treaty  made  between  Savoy  and 


Sardinia. 


Austria  (1720),  by  which  Sicily  was  exchanged  for  the  island 
of  Sardinia,  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy  was  acknowledged  king. 
By  Napoleon  it  was  stripped  of  much  of  its  territory,  which 
was  restored  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  who  also  annexed  to 
it  the  ancient  republic  of  Genoa. 

32.  Charles  Albert  was  a  vigorous  monarch  of  Sardi- 
nia; and,  during  his  reign  (1831-49),  many  reforms  were 
introduced  into  the  government,  in  compliance 
with  the  demands  for  a  more  liberal  policy,  by 


Charles  Albert. 


the  people.  At  the  revolutionary  period  of  1848,  the  king 
announced  a  new  constitution,  which  was  hailed  with  much 
satisfaction.  An  insurrection  of  the  Austrian  states  of  Italy 
broke  out,  and  the  king  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  Italian  forces.     Being  disastrously 


Victor  Emanuel- 


defeated,  he  was  compelled  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son, 
Victor  Emanuel  (1849),  during  whose  reign  many  changes 
occurred  in  Italy.  Joseph  Gar-i-bal'di,  the  famous  Italian 
patriot,  landing  in  Sicily,  proclaimed  himself 
dictator    for    Victor     Emanuel.     After    taking 


Garibaldi. 


Palermo  by  storm,  and  defeating  the  army  of  the  King  of 
Naples,  he  invaded  the  peninsula,  and  continuing  in  his  vic- 
torious career,  compelled  the  king  (Er^n^ls  II.)  to  flee  (1860), 


616  Modern  History, 


Kingdom 
of  Italy. 


33.  Victor  Emanuel  afterward  entered  Naples,  and  was 
acknowledged  king.  Lombardy  had  been  wrested  the  year 
before  from  Austria,  through  the  aid  of  the 
French  emperor,  Napoleon  III.,  who  gained  the 
splendid  victories  of  Magenta  and  Solferino  over 
the  Austrian  forces.  As  a  result  of  the  successful  insurrec- 
tion of  1860,  the  states  of  Italy,  except  Venetia  and  a  part  of 
the  Papal  territories,  were  consolidated  into  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy;  and  Victor  Emanuel,  the  former  king  of  Sardinia,  was 
placed  on  the  throne  by  the  Italian  Parliament.  He  was  soon 
afterward  recognized  as  king  of  Italy  by  France  and  England, 
and  fixed  his  capital  at  Florence  (1861).  After  the  war  of 
1867,  Venetia  was  given  up  by  Austria,  and  sub- 
sequently Garibaldi  made  an  attack  on  the  Papal 


Rome. 


territory,  but  his  forces  were  repulsed  by  the  French.  After 
the  Franco-German  war,  so  disastrous  to  France,  the  French 
forces  were  withdrawn,  and  tlie  Italian  army  soon  afterward 
entered  Rome,  which  the  Italian  Parliament  pro- 
claimed  the  capital   of  the  Kingdom   of   Italy 


Humbert  I. 


(1870).  Victor  Emanuel  made  his  formal  entry  into  the  city 
the  next  year.  On  his  death,  in  1878,  this  king  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Humbert  I.,  who  still  reigns  (1886). 


SECTION  VL 
Spain. 


84.  Charles  V.  of  Germany,  previous  to  his  election  as 
emperor,  inherited  the  throne  of  Spain,  being  the  grandson 
of  Isabella  of  Castile.    His  reign  (Don  Carlos  I.), 
which   commenced   at   the  death  of  Ferdinand 


Ximenet. 


(1516),  lasted  forty  years;  but  is  chiefly  occupied  with  the 
general  affairs  of  Europe.  Cardinal  Ximenes  (ze-me'necz), 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  personnges  of  his  age,  administered 


Bpain. 


617 


the  government  till  1517,  with  great  vigor  and  ability, 
was  succeeded,  on  his  abdication,  by  Philip  II. 
(1556),  who  thus  became   one   of   the  greatest 


Charles 


Philip  II. 


potentates  on  earth,  being  ruler  over  Spain,  the  Netherlands, 
Sicily,  Naples,  and  other  parts  of  Italy,  besides  of  such  parts 
of  the  New  World  as  had  been  added  to  the  dominions  of 
Spain  by  the  discoveries  of  Columbus  and  that  navigator's 
successors. 

36.  Philip's  schemes  were  principally  actuated  by  bigotry, 


SPAIJT 

AND 

POKTUGAL 


Condition 
of  Spain. 


and  nearly  all  ended  in  utter  failure;  so  that,  at  his  death 

(1598),  he  left  the  country  despoiled  of  some  of 

its  best    possessions,   impoverished    by  ruinous 

wars,   and    greatly  lowered  in   the    respect    of 

foreign   nations.     His   successor   (Philip   III.)    still  further 

weakened  the  kingdom  by  the  expulsion  of  the 

Moors  (1610),  who  had  been  permitted  by  Ferdi- 


Moors. 


nand  to  remain  in  the  country,  on  condition  gf  th^il*  accepting 


618  Modern  History, 


Christianity.  This  measure  of  Philip  III.,  which  was  based 
on  the  charge  of  hypocrisy  in  the  professed  conversion  of 
the  Moors,  deprived  Spain  of  500,000  of  its  most  useful 
population. 

36.  The  reign  of  Philip  IV.  (1621-65)  was  noted  for  the 
loss  of  Portugal,  which  had  been  annexed  to  Spain  during  the* 
reign  of  Philip  II.  (1580).     It  now  re-estabhshed 
its  independence  as  a  separate  kingdom   under 


Portugal. 


the  Duke  of  Bra-gan'za  (1640).  Philip  IV.  made  the  most 
strenuous  exertions  to  recover  the  lost  province,  and  his 
failure  is  said  to  have  partly  occasioned  his  death.  During 
the  next  reign  (Charles  II.,  1665-1700),  Spain 
was  left,  by  the  imbecility  of  its  government,  a 


Later  events. 


prey  to  the  other  nations  of  Europe,  by  whom  it  was  despoiled 
of  many  of  its  best  possessions.  The  i)lacing  of  Philip  V. 
upon  the  throne,  by  his  grandfather,  Louis  XIV.,  led  to  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  (see  page  560.) 

37.  The  attempts  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.  to  obtain 
the  control  of  Spain,  occasioned  the  Peninsular  War,  the  chief 
events  of  which  have  already  been  related.     The 


conclusion  of  peace,  in  1814,  restored  Ferdinand 


American 
colonies. 


VII.  to  the  throne,  who  dissolved  the  Cortes^  or  Parliament, 
and  established  an  absolute  rule.  A  revolution  which  broke 
out  in  1820,  compelled  him  to  restore  the  free  constitution 
formed  in  1812,  and  placed  him  under  restraint. 
Louis  XVIII.  of  France,  however,  sending  an 
army  into  Spain,  released  him,  and  restored  his 
authonty.  The  War  of  Spanish  Independence  in  America, 
which  broke  out  in  1810,  by  the  revolt  of  New  Grena'da  and 
Venezue'la,  ended  in  1825,  the  American  colonies,  one  by  one, 
having  achieved  their  independence.* 

♦  Spain,  once  the  richest  nation  in  the  world,  from  her  American  and  other  con- 
quests, had  by  this  time  lost  the  whole  of  her  vast  forei>?n  dominions,  except  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico  in  the  west,  and  thy  Philippine  Islands  in  the  east,  with  a  few  UU' 
Important  possessions. 


Portugal.  619 


38.  Isabella  II.  was  proclaimed  queen  on  the  death  of 
Ferdinand,  her  father,  in  1833,  but  was  opposed  by  Don 
Carlos,  her  uncle,  who  claimed  the  throne  on 
the  ground  that  the  law  of  succession  excluded 


Isabella  II. 


females.  A  war  of  four  years  ensued  ;  and  finally  Great 
Britain  sent  an  army  in  aid  of  Isabella,  whereupon  Don 
Carlos,  hopeless  of  success,  fled  to  France.  Isabella's  rule 
gave  great  dissatisfaction,  and  in  1868,  after  a  successful 
insurrection,  she  was  obliged  to  flee,  seeking 
a  refuge  in  France.     A  provisional  government 


Revolution. 


was  then  organized,  under  Generals  Serrano  and  Prim,  fol- 
lowed by  a  regency  with  Serrano  at  its  head.  In  1871,  Duke 
Aosta,  second  son  of  Victor  Emanuel,  became  king  by  elec- 
tion of  the  Cortes,  with  the  title  of  Amade'us  I.;  but,  after  a 
short  and  stormy  reign,  he  abdicated  (1873);  and  a  republic 
was  proclaimed.  Civil  war  in  various  parts  of 
Spain  followed,  until  Alfonso,  son  of  Isabella  II., 


Alfonso. 


who  had  been  proclaimed  king  in  Madrid  and  acknowledged 
by  some  of  the  armies,  landed  in  Spain;  and  the  Carlist  in- 
surrectionists* were  overthrown  (1876).  This  event  placed 
Alfonso  XII.  on  the  throne,  which  he  held  until  his  death 
(1885).     His  widow,  Christina,  was  then  made  regent. 


SECTION  VII. 
Portugal. 


39.  It  was  during  the  reign  of  Emanuel,  surnamed  the 
Fortunate  (1495-1521),  that  Vasco  da  Gama  made  his  suc- 
cessful voyage  to  India,  by  way  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  (1497).  This  was  soon  followed  by 
the  accidental   discovery   of    Brazil,    by   Cabral 


Maritinne 
enterprises. 


(1500),  in  a  voyage  to  India,  thus  giving  that  extensive  and 

*  These  were  the  supporters  of  the  claims  of  Don  Carlos,  a  grandson  of  Isabella's 
uncle,  who  had  previously  contended  for  -hy  throne 


620  Modern  History, 


fertile  region  to  the  Portuguese.  Important  voyages  were 
made  to  this  region  by  Amerigo  Vespucci,  an  Italian  naviga- 
tor in  the  Portuguese  service  (1501  and  1504).  In  the  same 
reign  the  Portuguese  established  their  authority  in  India, 
making  many  conquests  and  founding  several  colonies. 
Among  their  conquests  were  Ceylon  (1505)  and  Malacca 
(1511).     Japan  was  discovered  a  few  years  later  (1542).* 

40.  An  unfortunate  expedition  of  Sebastian  III.  to  Mo- 
rocco (1578),  from  which  he  never  returned,  left  Portugal 
without  a  sovereign,  and  occasioned  disorder  and 
anarchy, — the  people  constantly  looking  for  the 


Sebastian  III. 


return  of  their  king,  of  whose  fate  no  tidings  were  ever  re- 
ceived. Philip  II.  of  Spain,  taking  advantage  of  these  cir- 
cumstances, seized  upon  the  country  (1580);  and 
for  sixty  years  it  was  held  in  subjection  to  the 


Spanish  rule. 


Spanish  crown.  During  this  period,  it  suffered  much  from 
the  oppressive  exactions  of  its  conquerors,  being  obliged  to 
share  in  the  taxation  occasioned  by  the  long  and 
expensive  wars  waged  by  the  Spanish  monarchs. 


John  IV. 


At  last,  it  was  set  free  by  a  revolution;  and  Joiin  IV.,  Duke 
of  Braganza,  ascended  the  throne  (1640).  Long  wars  fol-. 
lowed  with  Spain,  which  did  not  acknowledge  the  independ- 
ence of  Portugal  till  1G68. 

41.  During  the  next  century,  Portugal  remained  in  a  state 
of  inglorious  stagnation,  being    steeped   in   ignorance  and 
bigotry;  and,  after  being  one  of  the  greatest  mari- 
time nations  of  the  world,  was  content  to  become 
a  kind  of  commercial  dependent  of  Great  Britain. 


State  of 
the  nation. 


Under  the   reign   of  Joseph   I.    (1750-77),  the  genius  and 


♦  "Intercourse  with  the  Chinefle  was  commence<l  In  the  year  151R,  when  an  em- 
bassy sent  to  their  empire  had  the  jfoml  fortune  to  drive  oflf  a  pirate  from  the  shorten, 
and  in  consequence  was  received  with  favor,  and  rowardtvi  with  the  town  of  Macao 
AS  a  settlement.  Japan  was  discovere<l  in  15-12,  by  the  accidental  drifting  of  a  ves- 
sel to  Its  shores.  The  Portu^iese  soon  acquired  an  ascendency  over  the  petty 
princes  who  then  governed  the  islands,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  a  profitable 
commerce." — Yeata'a  Orototh  and  VicmtituUes  of  Commerce, 


Portugal.  621 


enterprise  of  his  great  minister,  Don  Carvalho  {har-val'yo) 
infused  a  temporary  vigor  in  the  government; 
but  this  was  checked  by  the  accession   of    his 


Don  Carvalho. 


daughter  Maria,  who  permitted  the  nobles  and  clergy  to 
resume  their  destructive  influence.  Her  insanity  led  to  the 
appointment  of  her  eldest  son,  John  VI.,  as  regent  (1792). 

42.  The  invasion  of  Portugal  by  the  French,  under  Mar- 
shal Junot,  induced  John  to  abandon  Portugal  and  retire  to 
Brazil  (1807),  where  he  remained  until  1821,  al- 
though by  the  death  of  his  mother  he  had  been 


French  invasion. 


acknowledged  king  in  1816.  His  return  was  occasioned  by 
the  breaking  out  of  a  revolution  in  Portugal,  which  had  for 
its  object  the  establishment  of  a  government 
securing  the  rights   of    the    people.     John   ac- 


Revolution. 


cepted  the  new  constitution,  and  acknowledged  the  indepen- 
dence of  Brazil,  the  throne  of  the  latter  country  being  occupied 
by  his  son,  Dom  Pedro  (1825),  with  the  title  of  emperor. 

43.  On  the  death  uf  John  VI.  (1826),  his  son  Dom  Pedro, 
preferring  the  throne  of  Brazil,  resigned  that  of  Portugal  in 
favor  of  his  daughter  Maria  da  Gloria;  but  her 
uncle  Dom  Miguel  {me-gheV),  who  had  previous- 


Donn  Pedro. 


ly  opposed  the  reforms  in  the  government,  laid  claim  to  the 
throne,  and  obtained  from  the  Cortes  an  acknowledgment 
of  his  right  (1828).  This  led  to  a  dreadful  condition  of 
anarchy  for  a  time,  which  was  terminated  by  Dom  Pedro, 
with  the  aid  of  the  British,  Dom  Miguel  being  compelled  to 
submit  (1834).  In  that  year  Maria  II.  commenced  her  reign, 
which  was  terminated  by  her  death  (1853),  when 
her  son  Pedro  V.  succeeded  under  the  regency  of 


Later  history. 


his  father.  This  king's  reign  was  short  but  meritorious;  and, 
on  his  death  (1861),  his  brother  Louis  I.  ascended  the  throne, 
under  whom  Portugal  made  a  steady  advancement.  Impor- 
tant internal  improvements  were  effected,  and  slavery  was 
abolished  in  the  colonies.  At  his  death,  in  1889,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  eldest  son,  under  the  title  of  Carlos  I. 


6S2  Modern  History. 


SECTION  VIII. 

Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark. 

44,  These  three  countries  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  in- 
habited by  a  Scandinavian  people,   the   descendants  of   the 
Goths  and  other    barbarous    races.     Each   was 
governed  by  its  own  princes  till  the  beginning  of 


Early  history. 


the  14th  century,  when  Norway  was  united  with  Sweden. 
The  three  countries  were  formed  into  one  kingdom,  under  the 
rule  of  Margaret,  Queen  of  Denmark,  in  the  Litter  ])art  of  the 
same  century  (1397).  This  union,  however,  was  neither 
effectual  nor  permanent;  but  the  kings  of  Denmark  continued 
to  claim  and  exercise  some  sway  over  these  countries  till  1523, 
when  Sweden  was  freed  from  the  tyranny  of  Christian  II.  of 
Denmark,  by  the  patriotic  exertions  of  the  renowned  Gustavus 
Vasa. 

Sweden. 

45.  This  illustrious  man  was  afterward  elected  king  of 
Sweden,  and,  by  his  wise  and  beneficent  measures,  estab- 
lished the  prosperity  of  the  kingdom,  and  gave 
to  this  semi-barbarous  state  an  honorable  place 
among  the  civilized  monarchies  of  Europe.  His  reign  of 
thirty-seven  years  (1523-1560)  was  also  signalized  by  the 
establishment  of  Protestantism.  The  next  important  reign 
was  that  of  the  celebrated  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
the  hero  of  Lutzen.  His  death,  in  1032,  would 
have  been  an  irreparable  disaster  to  his  country 


Gustavus  /asa. 


Guttavut 
Adolphus. 


but  for  the  virtues  and  talents  of  his  minister  Ox'cn-stiern 
(-ster7i)f  who  administered  the  government  during  the  minor- 
ity of  Christina  (kris-le'nah),  daughter  of  Gustavus. 

46.  Charles  XL,  during  his  long  reign  (1G60-1697),  suc- 
ceeded in  enlarging  the  Swedish  territories,  and 
obtained  from  the  diet  a  decree  giving  to  him  ab- 


Charl««  XI. 


solute  power.     His  reign  was  exceedingly  prosperous,  and  the 


Sweden^  Norway^  and  DenmarTc.  623 


internal  condition  of  the  kingdom  was  much  improved. 
Charles  XII.,  called  sometimes  the  "  Madman  of  the  North," 
succeeded.  His  passion  for  conquest  and  mili- 
tary glory  plunged  his  country  into  many  miseries 


Charles  XII. 


and  misfortunes.  A  coalition  formed  against  him  by  Den- 
mark, Poland,  and  Russia  led  to  the  Northern  War,  in  which 
.Charles  gained  several  brilliant  victories  over  the  Danes  and 
Russians;  and  having  succeeded  in  dethroning  the  king  of 
Poland,  placed  in  his  stead  Stanislas  (1704). 

47.  A  severe  contest  with  the  czar  of  Russia  followed,  and 
Charles  invaded  that  country  with  a  large  army,  which,  after 
suffering  the  most  dreadful  hardships  from  cold 
and  hunger,  was  finally  defeated   at  Pol-ta'va 


Poltava. 


(1709).  Charles  took  refuge  in  Turkey,  and  succeeded  in 
persuading  tlie  Turkish  emperor  to  declare  war  against 
Russia;  but  he  afterward  quarrelled  with  the  emperor,  and 
was  compelled,  after  remaining  more  than  five  years  in  Turkey, 
to  flee.  He  returned  to  Sweden  in  1714,  and  still 
continued  to  carry  out  his  ambitious  designs  till 
his  death,  which  occurred  during  the  siege  of  a 
town  in  Norway  (1718). 

48.  The  vacillating  policy  of  Gustavus  IV.,  during  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  led  to  the  loss  of  Bothnia  and  Finland; 
and,  in  1809,  he  was  obliged  to  abdicate  in  favor 
of  his  uncle,  Charles  XIII.      This  king  being 


Death  of 
Charles. 


Bernadotte. 


without  heirs,  Ber-na-dotte',  one  of  Napoleon's  marshals,  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  Crown  Prince  (1810),  and  became 
virtually  the  king.  With  the  title  Qf  Charles  XIV.,  he  for* 
mally  ascended  the  throne  of  Norway  and  Sweden  in  1818, 
the  two  countries  having  been  united  in  1815.  His  reign, 
which  was  characterized  by  vigor  and  moderation, 
lasted  until  1844,  and  was  followed  by  that  of  his 


Later  history. 


son  Oscar,  who  ruled  till  1859,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
grandson  Charles  XV.,  who  died  in  1872.  The  reigning  mon- 
arch is  Oscar  II.,  the  brother  of  Charles  (1889). 


624  Modern  History, 

49.  Norway  continued  to   be  united  to  Denmark  until 
1814,  when,  by  the  treaty  of  Kiel  {Jceel),  the  allied   powers 
compelled  the  latter  to  resign  her  possession  of 
Norway  to  Sweden.     The  union  of  the  two  coun- 


Norway. 


tries  was  afterward  confirmed  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 
The  people  of  Norway  made  some  resistance  to  this  arrange- 
ment; but  the  country  being  invaded  by  an  army  under  Ber- 
nadotte,  they  were  reduced  to  submission.  The  constitutional 
privileges  of  the  nation  have,  however,  been  retained;  and  the 
condition  of  the  country,  under  the  Bernadotte  dynasty,  has 
been  one  of  peace  and  prosperity. 

Denmaek. 

50.  After  the  separation  of  Sweden  and  Denmark  (1523), 
the  latter  was  governed  by  Frederick  I.,  who  introduced  the 
Lutheran  religion  into  his  dominions.     During 
the  next  reign,  Schles'wig  and  Hol'stein  were 


Chief  events. 


annexed  to  the  Danish  territories.  Under  Christian  IV., 
Denmark  took  an  active  part  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  but 
defeat  and  disaster  were  the  consequence,  and  Christian  waa 
obliged  to  submit  to  very  humiliating  conditions  of  peace 
(1629).  During  the  Napoleonic  wars,  Great  Britain,  claim- 
ing the  right  to  search  foreign  vessels,  took  a 


I  Danish  frigate  that  had  made  resistance.  This 
led  to  a  league  with  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Sweden,  against  the 
naval  power  of  Great  Britain.  Nelson,  however,  attacked  and 
destroyed  the  Danish  fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Coj^enhagen,  jind 
thus  paralyzed  the  naval  power  of  the  confederacy  (1801). 
The  British  again  destroyed  the  Danish  fleet  in  1807,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  threjitencd  alliance  with  France.  By  the  treaty 
of  Vienna,  Denmark  received  the  duchy  of  Lau 'en-burg 
(1815). 

61.  In  1848,  a  revolt  occurred  in  Schleswig  and  Holstein, 
to  produce  a  separation  of  the  duchies  from  the  Danish 
crown:  but  it  was  subdued,  through  assistance  furnibhed  by 


Poland.  ^"^^ 


Austria.  In  1864,  Prussia,  in  alliance  with  Austria,  com- 
pelled Denmark  to  give  up  these  territories,  and  thus  confined 
her  sway  to  the  peninsula  and  the  adjacent  islands.  The 
marriage,  in  1863,  of  the  English  Prince  of  Wales 
to  Alexandra,    daughter   of    the   Danish   king, 


A.exandra. 


Christian  IX.,  a  third  time  allied  Denmark  to  Great  Britain. 
Christian  is  still  the  reigning  monarch  (1886). 


SECTION  IX. 
Poland. 


62.  Poland  was  created  into  a  kingdom,  and  became  an 
extensive  and  powerful  monarchy,  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century  oc- 
curred its  first  union  with  Lith-u-a'ni-a,  a  large 


Early  history. 


district  extending  to  the  Nie'men  and  Dnieper  rivers.  Soon 
after  this,  successful  wars  were  waged  with  the  Teutonic 
Knights,  which  resulted  in  uniting  the  Prussian  provinces 
with  Poland  (1462).  Daring  the  reign  of  Sigismund  I.  (1506- 
1548),  a  war  was  carried  on  with  the  Russians,  who  thus 
acquired  Smolensk.  Through  the  wise  and  beneficent  meas- 
ures of  this  sovereign,  Poland  was  much  improved,  and 
reached  a  very  high  degree  of  greatness  and  splendor. 

53.  In  the  next  reign  (Sigismund  II.),  occurred  the  final 
union  of  Poland  and  Lithuania  (1569);  and  the  Protestant 
doctrines  took  a  firm  hold  of  the  higher  classes. 
At  the  close  of  this  reign  (1572),  the  monarchy 


Changes. 


was  made  elective;  and  the  first  king  chosen  was  Henry  of 
Valois,  afterward  Henry  III.  of  France.  This  change  in  the 
constitution  of  the  kingdom  was  very  injurious  to  its  interests, 
since  it  fomented  faction  and  gave  rise  to  repeated  civil 
wars.     The  next  century  was  chiefly  occupied  in  wars  with 


626  Modern  History, 


the  two  great  northern  powers,  Sweden  and  Russia.  During 
the  reign  of  John  Cas'i-mir  (1048-68),  a  Swedish 
army  overran  Poland,  took  War'saw  and  Cra'cow, 


Wars. 


and  compelled  the  king  to  flee.  The  Poles,  however,  made  a 
vigorous  effort  to  preserve  their  independence,  and,  having 
expelled  the  Swedes,  restored  their  sovereign  to  his  throne. 

54.  The  reign  of  John  Sobieski  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
in  Polish  history.     He  was  a  great  warrior,  and  saved  his 
country  from  the  Cossacks  and  the  Turks.     His 
defeat  of  the  latter  near  Vienna,  in  1083,  has 


Sobieski. 


already  been  referred  to.  The  constant  dissensions  and  turbu- 
lence of  the  Polish  nobles,  however,  frustrated  all  his  efforts 
to  improve  and  strengthen  the  kingdom,  and  prepared  the 
way  for  its  final  dism'emberment  and  ruin.  Under 
the  last  king,  Stanislas  Augustus  Po-ni-a-tow'ski 


Stanislas. 


{-tov'ske),  occurred  the  First  Partition  (1772),  by  which 
Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia  divided  most  of  its  dominions 
among  themselves,  leaving  to  the  Polish  king  only  a  nominal 
authority  over  those  remaining  to  him.  Twenty  years  later, 
the  war  with  the  Russians  again  broke  out;  but  they  were 
defeated  by  the  Poles,  under  their  renowned 
leader  Prince  Poniatowski,  nephew  of  Stanislas, 


Poniatowslti. 


in  several  engagements,  notwithstanding  which  Stanislas  sub- 
mitted to  the  Second  Partition,  by  which  the  Polish  territories 
were  still  further  diminished  (1793). 

65,  The  next  year  the    Poles  made  an  ineffectual  a^tovx 
to  regain  their  lost  liberties,  under  that  noble  and  illustrious 
patriot  Thad'de-us  Koo>:,i-us'ko,    who    had    so 
generously  lent  his  sword  to  the  cause  of  Ameri- 


'O' 


Kosciuslto. 


can  freedom,  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution.  At  first  victorious, 
the  brave  Poles  were  soon  obliged  to  succumb  to  the  over- 
whelming masses  of  the  Russians,  commanded  by  the  fierce 
:and  relentless  Suvaroff;  and  Kosciusko  was  wounded  and 
made  a  pri^^oner  (1704).  Warsaw  was  soon  after  taken  by 
>fitorm,  and  the  last  relic  of  Polish  independence  was  destroyed 


Russia,  C27 


by  the  Third  Pjirtition  (1795).  Stanislas  died  a  broken- 
hearted exile  in  St.  Petersburg  (1798).  Kosciusko,  kept  for 
some  time  a  captive  at  St.  Petersburg,  was  afterward  released; 
and  for  many  years  wandered  in  America,  France,  and 
Switzerland.  In  the  last-named  country  he  died,  from  the 
effects  of  a  fall  from  his  horse  (1817). 

66.  The  wars  waged  by  Napoleon  I.  against  the  enemies 
of  Poland  excited  new  hopes  in  the  people  of  regaining  their 
independence;  but  these  were  destroyed  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  who  gave  some  of  the  Polish 


Russian  control. 


territories  to  Prussia  and  Austria,  and  formed  of  the  remain- 
der the  kingdom  of  Poland,  under  the  control  of  the  czar. 
After  an  unsuccessful  insurrection  of  the  Poles  in  1830,  this 
kingdom  was  incorporated  with  the  Russian  Empire.  Another 
insurrection  took  place  in  1863;  but  it  was  soon  crushed  by 
the  overwhelming  force  of  the  Russian  Government,  and  the 
severest  punishments  were  inflicted  upon  tens  of  thousands 
of  the  unfortunate  insurgents. 


SECTION  X. 
Russia. 


57.  The  ancestors  of  the  Russians  were  the  Slavs,  who  at 
an  early  period  formed  settlements  near  the  sources  of  the 
Dnieper,  Dniester,  and  Don  rivers,  and  the 
Baltic    Sea.      Of    these    Novgorod'    and    Kiev 


Ear'y  history. 


{ke-ev')  were  the  chief.  The  size  and  influence  of  the  former, 
while  it  was  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  League  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  were  so  great,  that  it  was  called 
the  Mighty  Novgorod.     It  was  the  metropolis  of 


Novgorod. 


one  of  the  most  extensive  of  the  Russian  states,  occupying  a 
vast  tract  that  stretched  from  the  Baltic  to  the  White  So*. 


628 


Modern  History, 


58.  For  several  centuries  Russia  was  overrun  by  the  Mon- 
gols, from  whom  it  was  emancipated  by  Ivan  {e-van')  III.,  one  of 
the  greatest  of  its  monarchs,  who,  during  his  reign 
of  nearly  half  a  century  (1462-1505), did  very  much 
to  improve  and  elevate  the  people.     He  liad  married  a  niece 


fvan  III. 


of  Constantine  Palaeologus,  and  endeavored  to  introduce  into 
his  country  the  laws,  institutions,  and  arts  of  civilization 
peculiar  to  the  Greek  Empire.  During  this  and  the  two  suc- 
ceeding reigns,  the  petty  principalities  were  abolished,  and 
Russia  assumed  the  character  of  a  consolidated 
empire  (1584).     A  short  time  previous  to  this, 


Siberia. 


the  conquest  of  Siberia  had 
been  commenced ;  and,  in 
1664,  Ir-koutsk'  was  founded. 
69.  Russia  owes  its  great- 
ness as  a  European  power  to 
the  talents  and 
energy  of  Peter 
theGreat,(l682- 


Peter  the 
Great 


1725)  who  was  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  personages  de- 
scribed in  history.  With  an  in- 
fle:iible  will,  he  was  dismayed 
by  no  difficulty  and  appalled  ^^""^  ""^  o»*^t- 

by  no  danger.  With  the  spirit  of  an  enliglitened  patriot,  he 
resolved  to  introduce  among  his  people  the  useful  arts,  the 
civilized  customs,  and  the  beneficent  institutions  which  he 
saw  prevailing  in  other  countries  of  Europe.  To  accomplish 
this,  he  visited  England,  Holland,  and  other  countries;  and 
even  engaged  himself  as  a  common  mechanic,  to  obtiiin  a 
knowledge  of  the  arts  which  he  desired  to  teach  his  i)eople 
(1697-8).  In  1703,  the  capital  was  removed  from  Moscow  to 
liis  new  city,  St.  Petersburg. 

60.  Previous  to  this,  the  war  with  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
bretB  out;  »nd  Peter  was  defeated  with  great  loss  in  the 


Bussia, 


629 


battle  of  Narva  (1700).  Profiting  by  this  experience,  the 
Russian  monarch  re-organized  his  army;  and  when  Charles 
invaded  Russia,  in  1707,  he  was  permitted  to 
penetrate  farther  and  farther  into  those  dreary 
regions  of  frost  and   famine,  till,  with  a  small 


Defeat  of 
Charles  XII. 


Turks. 


and  half-famished  remnant  of  his  great  army,  he  was  sur- 
rounded at  Poltava,  and  entirely  defeated  (1709).  Two  years 
later,  Peter  allowed  the  Russian  army  to  be  surrounded  by 
the  Turks  near  the  Pruth  {proof)  River;  and 
was  saved  from  a  terrible  disaster  by  an  artifice  of 
the  Empress  Catharine,  who  bought  off  the  vizier  with  her 

jewels.    Peter  died  in  1725. 

61.  Catharine  I.,  the  widow 
of  the  great  czar, 
succeeded    him, 


Catharine  I. 


r ul  in  g  for  two  years.  Sh  e  had 
originally  been  a  peasant  girl; 
but,  by  her  prudence,  intel- 
ligence, and  enterprise,  she 
did  mucli  to  facilitate  the 
beneficent  objects  of  her  dis- 
tinguished husband.  Prince 
Men'shi-koff,  the  chief  min- 
ister of  Peter,  had  also  risen 
from  a  very  humble  station.  During  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth, daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  and  Catharine, 
Russia  became  a  prominent  nation  and  took  a 
distinguished  part  in  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1741-62). 

62.  The  profligate  empress  Catharine  11.  (1762-96)  had 
the  celebrated  Po-tem'kin  for  her  minister  and  favorite. 
Wars  were  waged  with  Turkey  and  Poland,  and 
the  Crimea  was  wrested  from  the  former  in  1784. 


Catharine  L 


Elizabeth. 


Catharine  II. 


The  Turks  were  afterwards  severely  defeated  by  the  famous 
General  Suvaroff,  and  were  thus  compelled  to  submit  to 
further  loss  of  territory  (1792).      This  general  also  distin- 


630  Modern  History, 


guished  himself  during  the  next  reign  (Paul)  in  the  wars 
waged  against  Napoleon.  Paul  was  assassinated 
in  1801,  and  was  succeeded  bv  Alexander  I.,  who 


Paul. 


entered  into  the  several  co*ilitions  foi-med  against  Naj^oleon. 
This  monarch  commenced  his  reign  with  liberal 
ideas  and  a  desire  to  effect  reforms,  but  he  became 


Alexander  I. 


arbitrary  and  misanthropic,  and  ruled  as  an  absolute  despot 

till  his  death  in   1825.     He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 

Nicholas. 

63.  The  reign  of  Nicholas  I.,  who  was  also  a  stern  despot, 

is  noted  for  tr.3  insurrection  in  Poland  (1830),  and  the  cruel 
punishments  inflicted  upon  the  unfortunate  Poles 
by  the  remorseless  emperor.     The  crushing  out 


Nicholas. 


of  the  Hungarian  insurrection  by  the  interference  of  Russia, 
and  the  Crimean  war  (1853-5),  were  also  events  of  this  reign. 
Nicholas  died  while  the  latter  was  in  progress,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alexander  II.  (1855). 


Alexander  II. 


The  next  year,  the  treaty  of  Paris  was  concluded,  by  which  Rus- 
sia was  obliged  to  resign  her  claims  to  the  Danubian  princi' 
palities,  and  to  the  unrestricted  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea. 
64.  Alexander  II.  commenced  his  reign  with  a  series  of 
liberal  reforms,  the  greatest  of  which  was  the  emancipation 
of  the  serfs  by  a  decree  issued  in  1861,  by  means 
of  which  fourteen  millions  of  people  were  re- 


Later  history. 


leased  from  bondage,  and  made  free  citizens.  The  defeat  of 
the  celebrated  leader  Scha'myl,  who  had  organized  an  inde- 
pendent government  over  the  mountain  tribes  of  the  Caucasus, 
took  place  in  1859.  An  insurrection  in  Poland  was  suppressed 
in  1864,  and  the  people  were  again  treated  with  extreme 
rigor.  Since  1865  Russia  has  mauc  extensive  conquests  in 
central  Asia,  successively  bringing  under  her  sway  the  rich 
and  fertile  khanates  of  Turkistan  (loor-kis-fan^).  Kliiva,  one 
of  the  most  imjmrtant  of  tlicse,  was  conquered  in  1875. 

65.  In  1875-6  insurrections  broke  out  in  the  Christian 
provinces  of  Bos'nia,  Scrvia,  Bulgaria,  and  others;  and  the 


'TurTzey.  631 


atrocities  committed  by  the  Turkish  soldiery  in  suppressing 
them  caused  a  thrill  of  horror  throughout  the  civilized 
world.*  Russia  took  occasion  to  interfere  in 
behalf  of  the  religious  freedom  of  the  provinces, 


Eastetn  war. 


and  demanded  guarantees  of  the  Turkish  Government  which 
the  latter  refused  to  grant.  War  accordingly  ensued,  dur- 
ing which  the  Russian  armies,  having  invaded  the  Ottoman 
dominions  both  in  Europe  and  Asia,  gained  several  important 
victories.  This  war  was  closed  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin  (1878), 
with  the  result  stated  in  the  history  of  Turkey  (see  page  634). 
The  commotions  excited  by  the  extreme  revolu- 
tionary party  called  Nihilists  have  for  some  years 


Nihilists. 


disturbed  the  nation;  and  several  attempts  were  made  on  the 
czar's  life,  the  last  of  which  was  successful,  Alexander  being 
assassinated  in  St.  Petersburg  (1881).  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Alexander  III,  the  present  czar  (1889). 


SECTION  XL 
Turkey. 


66.  Mohammed  II.,  the  conqueror  of  Constantinople, 
greatly  enlarged  the  Turkish  territories;  and  his  son  Bajazet 
II.  (1481-1512)  extended  his  dominions  still 
further,  adding  a  part  of  the  region  north  of  the 


Conquests. 


Black  Sea,  together  with  portions  of  Italy  and  Austria.     His 

*  "  These  atrocities  excited  universal  astonishment  and  horror  when  their  full 
extent  had  been  made  known.  Mr.  W.  E.  Gladstone,  late  premier  of  the  British 
cabinet,  was  prompted  by  them  to  write  a  pamphlet  full  of  burning  denunciation  of 
the  administration  in  power  in  Great  Britain  [Earl  of  Beaconsfield's],  for  its 
attempt  to  palliate  the  enormity  of  the  offenses  and  its  toleration  of  the  Turkish 
Government,  which,  knowing  that  they  had  been  committed,  had  not  taken  efficient 
measures  to  bring  the  perpetrators  of  them  to  justice.  In  this  pamphlet  he  pro- 
nounced them  '  the  basest  and  blackest  outrages  upon  record  within  the  present 
century,  if  not  Avithin  the  memory  of  man,'  and  characterized  them  as  crimes  and 
outrages  so  vast  in  scale  as  to  exceed  all  modern  example,  and  so  unutterably  vile 
as  well  as  fierce  in  character,  that  it  pains  the  power  of  heart  to  conceive,  and  of 
tongue  and  pen  adequately  to  describe  them."— *i.  J.  Sokem'i  War  in  the  East, 


632  Modern  History. 


successor,  Selim  I.  (1512-20),  made  conquest  of  Syria,  Egypt, 
and  other  countries,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Turkish 
naval  power,  which  so  long  disputed  the  empire  of  the 
Mediterranean  with  the  fleets  of  Venice.  The  gi-eatest  power 
and  splendor  were,  however,  attained  by  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire during  the  reign  of  Solyman,  surnamed  the  Magnificent 
(1520-66). 

67.  This  great  monarch  reduced  the  powerful  Danubian 
fortresses  of  Belgrade  (1521),  wrested  the  island  of  Rhodes 
from  its  persevering  and  valiant  defenders,  the 
Knights  of  St.  John  (1522),  and,  having  invaded 


Solyman. 


Hungary  and  taken  Buda  (1529),  marched  to  Vienna,  which 
he  besieged  for  a  long  time,  but  was  repulsed  with  great  loss 
(1529).  A  second  attempt,  in  1532,  was  equally  unsuccessful. 
He  also  carried  on  a  successful  war  with  the  Shah  (emperor) 
of  Persia;  and  his  fleets  triumphantly  swept  the  Mediterranean 
from  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  to  the  Levant.  One  of  his  last 
undertakings  was  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  the  island  of 
Malta,  which  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  had  given  to  the  Knights 
of  St.  John,  after  their  expulsion  from  Rhodes  (15G5). 

68.  During  the  reign  of  Selim  II.  (1566-74),  the  German 
emperor  agreed  to  pay  an  annnal  tribute  to  the  Turks  for 
their  surrender  of  Hungary.    The  attempt  to  take 
Astrachan',  a  city  on  the  Volga,  preliminary  to 


Selim  II. 


the  construction  of  a  canal  between  the  Don  and  Volga  rivers 
— a  scheme  projected  by  the  Turkish  emperor  for  commercial 
purposes — aroused  the  hostility  of  the  Russians,  a  people  until 
that  time  little  known  in  southern  Europe.  Tlius  were  com- 
menced those  fierce  wars,  which  for  centuries  have  been 
waged  by  these  neighboring  empires.  During  the  reign  of 
Selim,  the  fleets  of  Turkey  received  a  check  by  the  great  naval 
defeat  at  Lepanto,  in  Greece,  from  the  allied  forces  of  Spain, 
Venice,  and  the  Pope,  under  Don  Jolin  of  Austria  (1571). 

69.  The  subsequent  reigns,  for  more  than  a  century,  pre- 
sent only  a  continuous  series  of  contests  with  Germany, 


TurTcey,  633 


Poland,  and  Russia,  in  which  the  Ottoman  power  succeeded 
in  extending  its  dominions  from  the  Danube  to  the 
Tigris,  and  from  the  southern  limits  of  Egypt 


Wars. 


to  the  falls  of  the  Dnieper  River.     It  sustained,  however, 
several  defeats,  of  which  that  at  Vienna  by  the 
Poles  under  their  king,  John  vSobieski,  was  the 


Defeats. 


most  memorable  (1683);*  and  Prince  Eugene,  while  in  the 
imperial  service,  gained  one  of  his  greatest  victories  over  the 
Turks  at  Zenta,  a  city  in  Hungary  (L697).  The  Turks  aban- 
doned all  their  Hungarian  possessions  in  the  treaty  which 
followed  (1699).  The  assistance  given  to  Charles  XIL,  after 
the  battle  of  Poltava,  involved  the  Turks  in  a 
war  with  Peter  the   Great,   to  whom  it  would 


Morea. 


have  proved  a  great  disaster,  had  he  not  been  rescued  by  the 
skillful  artifice  of  the  Empress  Catharine.  A  short  time  after 
this,  the  Morea  (southern  part  of  Greece)  was  taken  from  the 
Venetians  (1714). 

70.  Contests  with  Russia  take  up  the  largest  part  of  its 
subsequent  history.  During  a  six  years'  war  (1768-7-1),  the 
Russians  overran  the  Crimea,  which  they  suc- 
ceeded in  retaining,  notwithstanding  the  most 
desperate  efforts  of  the  Turks  to  regain  it.    While 


Wars  with 
Russia. 


Catharine  II.  of  Russia  was  on  the  throne,  the  Turks  were 
assailed  by  the  combined  power  of  Russia  and  Austria,  the 
forces  of  the  former  being  commanded  by  Marshal  Savaroff, 
the  most  famous  of  Russian  generals,  and  particularly  noted 
for  his  resolution  and  relentless  ferocity.  Peace  was  con- 
cluded between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1792. 

*  "  Never  was  there  a  more  complete  owerthrow.  It  was  like  the  explosion  of  a 
mine;  it  was  so  sudden.  After  the  battle,  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  many  others 
of  the  princes,  fell  on  my  neck  and  kissed  me  in  the  fullness  of  their  joy.  The 
generals  hoisted  me  on  their  shoulders  and  carried  me  through  their  ranks.  Wher- 
ever I  went,  '  Long  live  Sobieski  I '  '  Sobieski  forever ! '  '  Huzza  I '  sounded  on  all 
sides.  Mothere  and  children  ran  to  touch  me;  old  men  covered  my  hands  with 
kisses;  and  those  who  could  not  get  through  the  crowd,  waved  their  hats  or  hand- 
kerchiefs, shouting  with  one  voice, '  God  save  thee,  Sobieski T  'W^lQOwe,  Sol?i^skiI ' 
'  Huzza  r  ''—Letter  of  Sohie^  to  hU  Wife, 


634  Modern  History, 


71.  The  conquest  of  Egypt  and  tlie  invasion  of  Syria  by 
Napoleon  have  already  been  referred  to.     By  the  aid  of  the 
British,  the  lost  territories  were  regained.     One 
of  the  most  interesting  events  since  that  time,  wtis 


Later  events. 


the  successful  insurrection  of  the  Greeks,  whose  independence 
was  secured  by  the  battle  of  Navarino  (1837).  The  wars 
waged  with  the  rebellious  Pacha  of  Egypt,  Mehemet  Ali 
{ma'hem-et  ah'le),  still  further  reduced  the  strength  of  the 
empire.  This  contest  was  terminated  in  1841,  by  the  surren- 
der of  the  government  of  Egypt  to  Mehemet  Ali,  he  being 
made  an  hereditary  ruler.  One  of  his  successors,  Ismail  {is- 
mali-eeV)  Pasha,  obtained  from  the  sultan  in  1867  the  hered- 
itary title  of  khedive  (viceroy). 

72.  Russia  has  repeatedly  taken  advantage  of  the  weakness 
of  the  Ottoman  Empire  to  attempt  its  spoliation.     In  the 
Crimean  War  Turkey  was  successfully  aided  by 
Great  Britain  and  France  in  opposing  the  schemes 


Russian  attacks. 


of  conquest  of  Nicholas;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  it  regained 
a  portion  of  territory  north  of  the  Danube.  In  the  Eastern 
War  of  1877-8,  the  Turkish  forces  were  unsuc- 
cessful in  opposing  the  Russian  armies;  and  the 


Eastern  War. 


empire  suffered  a  great  loss  of  territory  by  the  Treaty  of 
Berlin,  negotiated  under  the  influence  and  direction  of  the 
leading  powers  of  Europe,  a  congress  of  whose  representatives 
met  in  that  city.  By  this  treaty  Turkey  was  obliged  to  con- 
sent to  the  formation  of  the  principalities  of  Bul- 
garia and  Servia,  with  the  partial  independence 


Result. 


of  East  Rumo'lia,  Bos'nia,  and  Ilorzegovi'na,  the  government 
of  the  last  two  to  be  administered  by  Austria-Hungary.  In 
1859  the  Turkish  dependencies  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  wore 
united,  and  a  principality  formed  from  thorn,  to  which  the 
name  of  Roumania  was  given.  The  independence  of  this  state 
Avas  acknowledged  by  the  sultan  of  Turkey  in  1801.  Rouma- 
nia subsequently  assumed  the  rank  and  dignity  of  a  kingdom 
(1881). 


Greece.  635 


SECTION  XII. 

Greece. 

73.  From  the  capture  of  Constantinople  (1453)  until  a 
recent  date,  Greece  was  under  the  Mohammedan  yoke,  which 
was  made  galling  and  oppressive  to  the  last  degree 
by  the  brutal  and  fanatical  Turks.     In  1820,  the 


Turkish  rule. 


Greeks  determined  to  make  a  struggle  for  their  independence; 
and  Mav-ro-cor-da'to  was  proclaimed  president.  His  most 
celebrated  compeer  in  the  dreadful  contest  that  ensued  was 
Marco  Bozzaris  (bot'saJi-ris),  called,  sometimes, 
the  **Leonidas  of  Modern  Greece."  This  heroic 
chief  perished  in  a  night-attack  upon  the  Turkish 


War  for 
independence. 


camp  (1823),  near  Missolonghi,  one  of  the  chief  centers  of  the 
insurrection.  This  place  also  derives  a  mournful  interest 
from  the  death  of  Lord  Byron,  who  died  there  of  a  fever, 
occasioned  by  his  earnest  efforts  in  behalf  of  Greece  (1824). 

74.  The  fall  of  this  place,  after  a  long  siege,  in  which  its 
brave  defenders  suffered  the  most  dreadful  hardships  from 
famine,  and  which  was  closed  by  their  captivity, 
aroused  the  sympathy  of  Europe;  and  England, 


European  aid. 


France,  and  Russia  formed  a  league  to  assist  the  brave  Greeks 
in  their  unequal  contest.  The  combined  fleets  of  the  allies 
entirely  destroyed  the  Turkish  and  Egyptian  fleets  in  the 
harbor  of  Navarino  (October  20,  1827).  After 
this  victory.  Count  Capo  d'Istria,  a  native  of  the 


Navarmo. 


island  of  Corfu,  was  formally  installed  as  President  of  Greece. 
Its  independence  was  formally  acknowledged  by  the  Turkish 
sultan  in  1829. 

75.  Made  a  separate  kingdom  by  the  allied  powers,  its  first 
king  was  Otho,  a  Bavarian  prince  (1832).  His  reign  was 
somewhat  troubled,  by  the  discontent  of  his  sub- 
jects with  his  German  officials  and  foreign  troops. 


Otho. 


and  by  Russian  intrigues  for  the  purpose  of  involving  the 


636  Modern  History, 


little  kingdom  in  the  insurrections  of  the  neighboring  prov- 
inces against  Turkey.  A  successful  revolution  broke  out  in 
Athens  in  1862;  and  Otho  having  abdicated,  was 
succeeded  the  following  year  by  Prince  George  of 


George  I. 


Denmark,  with  the  title  of  George  I.,  King  of  the  Hellenes. 


SECTION  XIII. 

Progress  of  Civilization  in  Modern  Europe. 

76.  Modern  history  commences  at  the  epoch  at  which  the 
dawn  of  intelligence  broke  upon  Europe.     In  the  latter  part 
of  the  fifteenth  century  the  civilization  of  the 
Greek  Empire  had  disappeared  before  the  con- 


Modem  epoch. 


quering  arms  of  the  rude  and  ferocious  Ottomans,  atid  the 
western  nations,  emerging  from  the  night  of  mediaeval  igno- 
rance, began  to  glow  with  tlie  first  beams  of  that  intellectual 
and  social  illumination  to  which  they  have  attained.  Litera- 
ture, science,  and  art,  at  this  auspicious  era,  sprang  into 
active  life;  and  the  human  mind,  shaking  off  the  chains  of 
feudal  barbarism,  began  its  career  of  activity  and  freedom. 

77.  After  the  destruction  of  the  feudal  system,  the  masses 
were  gradually  released  from  the  degrading  condition  of  serf- 
dom, and  acquired  a  share  in  the  estiiblishment 
of  civil  and  political  institutions.     Science  soon 


Changes. 


began  its  wonderful  reformation.  The  comforts  and  con- 
veniences of  life  were  constantly  increased  ;  the  modes  of 
warfare  were  revolutionized  by  tlie  use  of  firearms;*  the 
mariner's  compass  made  ocean  navigation  possible,  and  the 
application  of  steam,  at  a  later  period,  facilitated  it;  yhile 

•  The  process  of  making:  grannlnted  gunpowder  wa.s  invented  by  Sdtrvnrtt  In 
1320,  and  Immediately  tlu»reafter  almost  every  state  comnieneed  the  use  f*  cannon 
of  small  size.  In  1*46,  P^dward  III.  uwmI  them  at  Crecy  Plated  armor  cculd  then 
no  lonjfer  protect  the  feudal  tyranf  apoft^Ht  the  weapon  of  the  oppreaaef*  peasant. 


Cimlization  in  Modern  Europe.  637 

extended  commerce  gave  an  impulse  to  exploration  and  dis- 
covery. The  invention  of  printing  gave  to  the  modern  world 
the  intellectual  riches  of  the  ancients,  and  literature  com- 
menced its  magnificent  career.  The  later  application  of  elec- 
tricity to  the  telegraph  has  brought  the  ends  of  the  earth  into 
rapid  communication  with  each  other. 

78.  The  maritime  enterprises  of  the  Portuguese  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  gave  them  great  commercial 
influence,  especially  in  the  trade  of  the  East 
Indies;  but  they  found  at  a  later  period  a  success- 
ful rival  in  the  Dutch.     The  celebrated  Dutch 


Maritime 
enterprise. 


East  India  Company  was  chartered  in  1602,  and  through  it 
the  rival  cities  of  the  Netherlands  united  their  interests  and 
efforts.*  Its  center  was  at  Batavia,  called  the  *'*  Pearl  of  the 
East,"  which  at  the  close  of  the  seventh  century  had  reached 
a  population  of  160,000.  The  conflicts  between  the  Dutch 
and  the  Portuguese  resulted  in  the  supremacy  of  the  former, 
whose  colonies  soon  became  numerous  and  important.  The 
French  also  established  a  company  in  the  East  India  trade, 
besides  which  there  was  a  Danish  East  India  Company  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  The  English  company, 
to  which  reference  has  already  been  made,  acquired  its  great- 
est power  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Companies  were  also 
organized  for  the  West  India  trade. 

79.  Spain  and  Portugal  for  more  than  a  century  enjoyed 
a  monopoly  of  the  treasure  and  merchandise  obtained  from 
India  and  the  New  World.  The  Spanish  colonies 
in  Central  and  South  America  and  in  the  West 


Colonies, 


Indies,   and  the   Portuguese   settlements  in   Brazil,  were  a 
source  of  vast  wealth;  but  by  folly,  indolence,  bigotry,  and 

*  "The  naval  and  military  power  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  became  at 
last  enormous.  Of  ships  of  war  carrying  from  twenty  to  sixty  gims,  they  had, 
when  powerful,  one  hundred  and  fifty,  besides  fifty  smaller  vessels,  and  an  army 
of  corresponding  magnitude.  The  States  General  had  from  time  to  time  to  sub- 
sidize the  Company  in  order  to  enable  the  directors  to  carry  on  their  wars."— 
Yeats" s  Growth  and  Vicissitudes  of  Commerce. 


638  Modern  History, 


a  thirst  for  gold  and  silver,  the  best  fruits  of  these  possessions 
were  lost;  and  the  maritime  influence  and  glory  of  the  Penin- 
sula, gained  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  swept  away  in  the 
next  by  Dutch  enterprise  and  vigor.  Holland,  in  its  turn, 
yielded  to  English  ascendency  at  a  later  period. 

80.  The  wonderful  commercial  revival   of  the  sixteenth 
century  brought  many  changes — many  new  elements  charac- 
teristic of  modern  civilization.     Communication 
and  correspondence  became  by  degrees  more  easy 


Improvements. 


and  rapid,  by  the  construction  of  canals  and  militai-y  roads; 
systems  of  commercial  credit  and  exchange  were  established, 
as  at  Antwerp,  London,  and  Amsterdam;  great  fairs  for 
trading  purposes  were  held  at  diiferent  places,  particularly  at 
Brunswick  and  Leipsic;*  and  banks,  insurance  companies, 
and  post-offices  were  founded  in  large  numbers. 

81.  Progress  in  the  industrial  arts  was  greatly  stimulated 
by  this  increased  commercial  activity.     In  these  very  great 
progress  has  been  made  in  all  civilized  countries 
during  the  last  three  centuries.     This  is  seen  in 


Industrial  arts. 


the  improvements  made  in  agriculture,  in  every  kind  of 
manufacturing  industry,  in  mining,  in  the  invention  and  use 
of  labor-saving  machinery, — particularly  in  that  for  the  mak- 
ing of  textile  fabrics.  The  processes  of  spinning  and  weaving 
were  at  first  simple,  crude,  and  tedious,  the  instruments  used 
being  the  spindle  and  distaff,  and  then  the  spinning-wheel; 
while  weaving  was  dependent  on  the  loom  and  shuttle,  and 
embroidery  was  executed  by  hand. 

82.  With  these  simple  means,  however,  weaving  had 
reached,  before  the  sixteenth  century,  a  high  degree  of  per- 
fection, especially  in  Flanders,  Franco,  and  Italy,  and  in  the 
cities  of  Brussels,  Antwerp,  Bruges,  Valenciennes  {vnh-long- 

•  In  more  recent  times  such  fairs  have  been  held  In  various  parts  of  the  world, 
and  many  are  utill  maintained,  NIzlmi  Novgorod,  on  the  Volpa  River,  Is  still  the 
center  of  a  vast  trade;  and  annual  fairs  are  now  lu'M  there,  at  some  of  which  M 
many  as  200,000  traders  are  jfatherod.  Tlie  fairs  at  Leipsle,  Brimswick,  and  Frank- 
fort are  still  very  large  and  important. 


Cimlization  in  Modern  Europe.  689 

se-en'),  Ar'ras,  Genoa,  and  Florence.  Tapestry-weaving  dis- 
played the  highest  perfection  of  artistic  excellence;  and  vast 
sums  were  given  for  the  rich  products  of  this  skill.  The  silk 
velvets  of  Genoa  were  especially  esteemed.  Stock- 
ing-knitting was  introduced  in  the  first  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century;*  and  the  invention  of  lace- 


Weaving  and 
knitting. 


knitting  is  ascribed  to  a  Saxon  matron  in  the  same  century. 
The  stocking-loom  was  also  invented  about  the  same  time. 
Cotton  fabrics  were  made  in  Italy  and  Spain  in  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  invention  of  the  Jacquard  loom 
in  1801,  by  a  silk-weaver  of  Lyons,  introduced  an  important 
improvement  in  silk  manufacture. f 

83.  In  the  fine  arts, — music,  painting,  and  sculpture, — the 
achievements  of  modern  times  show  the  highest  gifts  of  genius 
as  well  as  perfection  of  skill.  In  music  this  is 
particularly  the  case,  for  the  progress  made  in 


Fine  artfe. 


the  last  three  centuries  exceeds  that  of  every  other  period  in 
history.  This  is  seen  not  only  in  the  works  of  eminent  com- 
posers, but  in  the  invention  of  musical  instru- 
ments, and   in  the  advancement  of  music  as  a 


Music. 


science.  New  forms  of  musical  composition,  as  th6  oratorio 
and  the  opera,  have  sprung  into  existence  during  this  period. 
The  composers  of  great  musical  genius  are  very  numerous, 
particularly  those  of  Germany  and  Italy.  Only  a  few  can  be 
referred  to. 

84.  Among  German  composers  may  be  mentioned: 
Bachjt  John  Sebastian  (1685-1750),  deemed  by  some  the  greatest  musician 

tliat  ever  lived. 
Gluck  (1714-1787),  tlie  composer  of  many  great  operas. 

♦  PrevioiTs  to  the  invention  of  close  knitting,  about  1517,  in  Spain,  or  as  some 
contend  in  Scotland,  coverings  for  the  legs  were  made  of  woven  cloth  or  leather. 
The  greater  convenience  of  knit  hose  was  soon  recognized,  though  for  a  long  time 
the  custom  of  wearing  cloth  leggings  was  persisted  in. 

t  By  this  invention  of  Jacquard.  silks  of  the  most  beautiful  fancy  patterns  could 
be  woven  as  readily  as  plain  silks.  This  innovation  received  much  opposition  at 
first  from  the  workmen,  but  soon  became  universal. 

X  For  the  pronunciation  of  all  these  proper  names,  see  the  Index 


640 


Modern  History. 


Haydn  (173^1809),  especially  noted  for  his  symphonies;  but  his  most 
popular  works  are  the  oratorio  of  the  Creation  and 
his  cantata  the  Masons. 
Mozart  (1756-1791),  perhaps  the  greatest  musical  genius 
that  ever  lived,  aud  a  perfect  master  of  the  art.     He 


German 
composers. 


Beethoven. 


excelled  in  every  species  of  composition,  but  his  masterpieces  are 
his  operas  and  symphonies. 
Beethoven  (1770-1827),  one  of  the  greatest  of  modern  composers.     His 
symphonies  and  his  opera  of  Fidelia  are  his  principal  works. 

Weber  (1786-1836),  composer  of  the 
popular  operas  Ber  FreischUtz  and 
Oberon,  with  many  other  works. 
Schubert  (1797-1828),  a  writer  of  almost 
every   kind    of   musical   composi- 
tion, but  especially  noted  for  his 
songs. 
Mendelssohn  (1809-1847),  composer  of 
the  oratorios  Elijah  and  St.  Paul^ 
with  several  well-known  sympho- 
nies,  and  many  other  works   of 
merit. 
Meyerbeer  (1794-1864),  author  of  sev- 
eral  grand  operas,  of  which  Robert 
le  Didble,  the  Huguenots,  and  the  PropJiet  are  the  best  known. 
Schumann  (1810-1856),  noted  for  his  symphonies  and  his  songs. 
Wagner  (1813-1883),  one  of  the  greatest  composers;  author  of  the  grand 
operas — musical  dramas — lannhauser,  TjoJiengrin,  the  Meistersinger^ 
and  other  works  of  extraordinary  merit. 

85.  Among  Italian  composers  may  be  mentioned: 

Stradella  (1645-1678),  noted  as  a  singer,  violinist,  and  composer. 
Piccini  (1728-1800),  the  composer  of  many  openw. 
Cimarosa  (1750-1801).  a  musician  of  great  genius;  he  com- 
posed a  large  number  of  operas  and  other  works. 
Rossini  (1792-1868),  one  of  the  greatest  of  composers. 
Many  of  his  operas  are  very  popular. 
Donizetti  (1798-1848),  author  of  many  popular  operas. 
Bellini  (1802-1835).  a  very  celebrated   composer;  his  operas   Norma 

SomnambuUi,  and  the  Puritans  are  very  popular, 
Verdi  (born  1814),  noted  for  his  numerous  operas. 


Italian 
compoten. 


Cimlization  in  Modern  Europe.  641 

To  these  may  be  added  the  noted  French  composers  Auber 
(1782-1871)   and   Gounod  (born  1818),  both  of 
whom  have  written  several  popular  operas;  and 
Berlioz  (1803-1869),  one  of  the  greatest  of  modern 


Other 
composers. 


composers.  AVhile  some  of  the  other  countries  of  Europe 
have  produced  a  few  eminent  composers,  Italy  and  Germany, 
as  already  stated,  have  far  surpassed  them  all. 

86.  Painting  had  its  greatest  representatives  in  the  age 
just  succeeding  and  connected  with  the  mediaeval  period, 
which  was  illumined  by  the  genius  of  Leonardo 
da  "Vinci  in  Italy  and  Albert  Durer  in  Germany. 


Painting. 


The  greatest  artists  of  that  age  were  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael, 
and  Titian  in  Italy,  and  Quentin  Matsys  and  Louis  Kranacb 
in  Germany,  the  latter  a  personal  friend  of  Luther.  In  more 
decidedly  modern  times,  the  Italian  school  includes  a  host  of 
luminaries,  such  as  Correggio,  the  three  Caraccis  of  Bologna, 
Salvator  Rosa,  and  Carlo  Dolci.  These  all  belong  to  the  sev- 
enteenth century;  and  have  but  few  successors  of  great  merit 
in  later  times.  Holbein,  Rubens,  Van  Dyck,  Rembrandt,  and 
many  others  of  the  Flemish  and  Dutch  schools  were  their  con- 
temporaries; and  the  Spanish  and  French  schools  contained 
several  others  of  kindred  genius  and  merit.  Velasquez  (1599- 
1660)  and  Murillo  (1618-1682)  are  the  special  pride  of  Spanish 
art.  Sculpture  has  its  greatest  representatives 
in   the  Italians  Benvenuto  Cellini  (1500-1570), 


Sculpture. 


Antonio  Canova  (1757-1822),  and  the  Danish  artist  Thor- 
waldsen  (1770-1844),  whose  chief  works  were  executed  in 
Rome;  but  a  host  of  others  have  achieved  distinction  in  this 
branch  of  art. 

87.  Science  in  each  of  its  departments  has  been  extended 
by  the  efforts  of  men  of  various  nationalities.  Only  a  few  of 
the  great  names  can  be  given  in  this  brief  sketch, 
in  addition  to  those  already  referred  to  in  the 


Science. 


histories  of  England  and  France.     Among  the  distinguished 
mathematicians  may  be  specially  mentioned: 


642 


Modern  History, 


Cardan  (1501-1576),  an  Italian,  a  man  of  wonderful  genius,  but  noted 
for  his  eccentricities. 
Napier  (1550-1617),  a  Scotchman,  the  inventor  of  loga- 
rithms. 


Mathematicians. 


Leibnitz  (1646-1716),  a  German,  not  only  eminent  as  a  mathematician 
(claiming  against  Newton  the  invention  of  fluxions),  but  in  almost 
every  other  department  of  science  and  philosophy. 

Euler  (1707-1783),  born  in  Switzerland,  one  of  the  greatest  masters  of 
mathematical  science. 

88.  In  astronomy  the  following  persons  have  distinguished 
themselves  for  important  discoveries: 

Copernicus  (1473-1543),  a  Pole,  the  reviver  of  the  true  theory  of  the 
solar  system,  which  places  the  sun    in  the  center,   in 


Astronomers.       Opposition  to  the  system  of  Ptolemy,  which  conceived 

'   the  earth  to  be  the  center  of  the  universe. 

Tycho  Brahe  (1546-1601),  a  Dane,  noted  for  the  vast  number  of  facts  he 

collected  at  his  great  observatory 
in  Copenhagen,  and  for  his  theory 
of  the  solar  system,  called  the 
Tychonic  System. 
Galileo  (1564-1642),  the  illustrious 
Italian  physicist,  who,  improving 
upon  the  telescope  previously  in- 
vented in  Holland,  discovered  the 
spots  on  the  sun  and  the  four 
satellites  of  Jupiter.  lie  also  as- 
serted the  rotation  of  the  earth,  in 
opposition  to  the  prevailing  notion 
tlmt  the  earth  is  fixed  in  the  center 
of  the  universe.  Galileo  also  dis- 
covered the  value  of  the  pendulum  in  the  construction  of  cUxks. 
Kepler  (1571-1630),  a  German  astronomer,  the  illustrious  discoverer  of 

the  great  laws  of  planetary  motion. 
Huyghens  (or  lluygem)  (1629-1695),  a  Dutch  astronomer,  the  discoverer 

of  Saturn's  ring  and  one  of  its  satellites. 
Cassini  (1625-1712),  an  Italian,  discovered  four  satellites  of  Saturn,  and 
made  other  important  discoveries  in  relation  to  several  of  the  planeta 
His  son,  James  Cassini,  discovered  the  divisions  in  Sattirn's  ring. 

Other  noted  astronomers  of  the  period  have  heeu  nuMitioucd 
*m  connection  with  English  and  French  history. 


Copernicus. 


Cimlization  in  Modern  Europe.  643 

89.    There  are   many   other    renowDed    discoverers    and 
writers  within  the  domain  of  physical   science 
and  natural  history,  among  whom  we  may  men- 
tion: 


Discoverers  and 
writers. 


Torricelli  (1608-1647),  an  Italian,  the  inventor  of  the  barometer. 

Guericke  (1603-1686),  a  German,  the  inventor  of  the  air-pump. 

Fahrenheit  (1690-1736),  a  Hollander,  who  invented  the  mercurial  ther- 
mometer that  bears  his  name. 

Linnseus  (1707-1778),  a  Swedish  naturalist,  the  author  of  the  artificial  or 
Linusean  system  of  botany. 

Haller  (1708-1777),  sometimes  called  the  "Father  of  Physiology;"  one 
of  the  world's  great  physicians.     His  writings  are  very  numerous. 

Galvani  (1737-1798),  an  Italian,  the  discoverer  of  galvanism. 

Volta  (1745-1837),  an  Italian,  the  inventor  of  the  voltaic  pile  or  battery. 

Dr.  Gall  (1758-1828),  a  German,  the  founder  of  phrenology. 

Mesmer  (1734-1815),  the  discoverer  of  animal  magnetism,  or  mesmerism. 

Lavater  (1741-1801),  the  famous  writer  on  Physiognomy. 

Dr.  Hahnemann  (1755-1843),  a  German,  the  originator  of  homeopathy. 

Humboldt  (1769-1859),  the  illustrious  German  natural  philosopher,  noted 
for  his  deep  an  1  a\  ide  researches  into  the  laws  of  the  physical  uni- 
verse, explained  in  his  great  work  called  Kosmos. 

Oersted  (1777-1851),  a  Dane,  who  discovered  the  identity  of  magnetism 
and  electricity. 

Liebig  (1803-1873),  a  celebrated  German  chemist,  and  writer  on  agri- 
cultural and  physiological  chemistry. 

90.  The  literary  history  of  Europe  during  the  period  of 
modern  history  is  enriched  with  the  productions 
of  every  department  of  genius.     In  a  rapid  glance 


Literature. 


the  mind  rests  upon  only  a  few  of  the  most  conspicuous  in 
this  vast  field.  The  prominent  characters  in  French  and 
English  literature  have  been  already  presented, 
and  a  brief  summary  of  the  great  names  in  the 


Great  names. 


literature  of  other  countries.     Among  the  writers  of  the  six- 
teenth century  may  particularly  be   mentioned 
the  following: 
Erasmus  (1467-1536),  a  celebrated  Dutch  scholar  and  phi- 


Sixteenth 

century. 


losopher,  one  of  the  restorers  of  ancient  learning,  at  the  head  of  tho 
literary  world  in  his  age. 


G44 


Modern  History. 


Scaliger  (1484^1558),  an  Italian  philologist,  one  of  the  most  famous 

scliolars  and  writers  of  his  time. 
Tasso  (1544-1595),  an  Italian  poet,  noted  for  his  great  poem  Jerusalem 

Delivered,  founded  on  the  First  Crusade. 
Camoens  (1524^1579),  the  only  eminent  Portuguese  poet.     His  great 

poem  the  Lusiad  celebrates  the  naval  exploits  of  the  Portuguese. 
Cervantes  (1547-1616),  the  noted  Spanish  writer,  author  of  the  famous 

satirical  novel  Don  Quixote. 
Vega,  Lope  de  (1562-1635),  a  Spanish  dramatist,  who  wrote  a  vast  nuni' 

her  of  popular  plays,  some  of  very  great  merit. 

91.  Of  the  writers  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  follow- 
ing deserve  to  be  especially  mentioned: 

Qnevedo  (1580-1645),  a  Spanish  author  of  great  fame,  noted  for  his 
critical  and  political  writings. 
Grotius,  Hugo  (1583-1645),    an    eminent    Dutch    jurist, 
tlieologian,   and  writer.      He  wjis  a  profound    and 
versatile  scholar  as  well  as  writer.    One  of  his  best 


Seventeenth 
century. 


known  works  is  a  treatise  On  the  Truth  of  the  Chi'istian  Religion. 

Calderon  (de  la  Barca)  (1600-1681),  a 
noted  Spanish  dramatist. 

Spinoza  (1632-1677),  born  in  Amster- 
dam, of  Hebrew  extraction;  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  speculative 
philosophers  of  his  age;  his  writ- 
ings are  skeptical  or  atheistical. 

Salvator  Kosa  (1615-1673),  illustrious 
as  a  painter  and  a  poet.  He  has 
been  called  by  some  the  Juvenal 
of  Italy. 

Muratori  (1672-1750),  one  of  the  most 
Schiller.  noted  historical  writers  of  Italy. 

92.  From  the  vast  host  of  writers  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, we  may  particularize  the  following: 

Swedenborg  (1688-1772),  born  in  Sweden,  one  of  the  most  prolific 
writers  on  various  scientific  subjects,  but  chiefly 
known  for  his  claims  to  a  new  and  special  revelation, 
on  which  the  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem  is  found- 
ed. 

Mosheim   (1694-1755),   celebraRd   as    the   author   of  an  Ecehfiastical 


Eighteenth 
centuiy. 


Cimllzation  in  Modern  Europe.  645 

History,  which  for  many  years  was  the  chief  standard  upon  that 

subject. 
Metastasio  (1698-1782),  the  most  illustrious  of  modern  Italian  poets.     He 

wrote  operas,  oratorios,  sonnets,  and  miscellaneous  poems. 
Klopstock  (1708-1803),  a  noted  German  poet.     His  great  work  is  an  epic 

poem  called  The  Messiah. 
Xant,  Immanuel  (1724-1804),   one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  German 

metaphysicians. 
Lessing  (1729-1781),  a  celebrated  German  poet  and  dramatist. 
Wieland  (1733-1813),  a  noted  German  poet  and  novelist. 
Heyne  (1729-1812),  an  illustrious  German  scholar  and  critic.     His  edi- 
tions of  the  classical  writers  are  highly  esteemed. 
Schiller  (1759-1805),  one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  German  poets.    His 

dramas  Wallenstein,  Mai^j  Stuart,   William  Tell,  and  the  Bobbers  are 

among  his  greatest  works.     He  also 

wrote  a  History  of  the  Thirty  Tears* 

War. 
Herder  (1744^1803),  one  of  the  most 

gifted  and  versatile  of  German  writ- 
ers.   His  works  are  critical  and  phil- 
osophical. 
Alfieri  (1749-1803),  the  most  celebrated 

Italian  poet  of  the  century.     He 

wrote  many  tragedies  of  singular 

merit,    and    many    miscellaneous 

poems.    His  character  and  genius 

resembled  those  of  Lord  Byron,  to 

whom  he  has  been  often  compared, 
ifestalozzi  (1746-1827),  one  of  the  most  celebrated  teachers  and  writers 

upon  education  in  his  age.     His  great  work  was  the  development  of 

the  system  of  object-teaching. 

93.  The  nineteenth  century  has  been  exceedingly  prolific 
in  men  of  genius.     Its  chief  characteristic  has 
been  intellectual  activity  in  every  department  of 
literature  and  science.    To  the  names  already  given 


Nineteenth 
century. 


in  connection  with  France  and  England  we  add  the  following: 

Bichter,  John  Paul  (1763-1825),  a  German  writer  of  great  eminence;  his 

style  is  very  beautiful,  and  his  works  are  noted  for  their  humor, 

originality,  and  pathos.    Most  of  his  writings  have  been  translated 

into  English  and  other  languages. 


046 


Modern  History. 


Fichte  (1762-1814),  a  noted  German  metaphysician.    He  was  distin- 
guished more  for  his  lectures  than  liis  writings.     His  system  of  phi- 
losophy is  known  as  "idealism." 
Hegel  (1770-18^31),  one  of  the  most  distinguished  thinkers  and  writers 
of  the  German  school  of  philosophy, — ^the  founder  of  a  new  school 
of  speculative  doctrine. 
Schelling  (1775-1854),  a  German  philosopher,  one  of  the  four  great 
representatives  of  the  speculative   philosophy  of  Germany — Kant, 
Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel,  all  of  whom  were  contemporary. 
Goethe  (1749-1832),  the  greatest  name  in  German  literature.     Goethe 

was  remarkable  both  as  a  poet  and 
a  prose  writer.     His  drama  called 
Faust  is  a  wonderful  work  of  gen- 
ius.   Among  his  most  popular  prose 
writings  are  T/ie  Sorrows  of  Wer- 
ther  and  WilJielm  Meisier. 
Froebel  (1782-1852),  a  noted  educator; 
the  founder  of  the  famous  Kinder- 
garten  system    of  elementary  in- 
struction. 
Niebuhr  (1776-1831),  a  German  histo- 
rian, whose  researches  into  the  his- 
tory of  Rome  have  made  his  name 
illustrious. 
Keander  (1789-1850),  a  German  church  historian.     His  great  work,  a 

General  History  of  the  Christian  Religion  and  ChvrcJi,  is  a  standard. 
Heine  (1799-1856),  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  German  poets. 
Pushkin  (1799-1837),  a  Russian  lyric  poet  of  Jicgro  descent;  regarded 
by  the  Russians  as  their  greatest  poet,  called  sometimes  the  "  Byron 
of  Russia." 
Lermontoff  (1814-1841),  a  native  of  Russia,  called  the  "  Russian  Schiller," 

on  account  of  his  poetical  genius. 
Bremer,   Frederika  (1801-1866),   a  celebrated   Swedish   novelist.     Her 
translated  works  are  very  popular  in  the  United  States  and  England. 
Andersen,  Hans  Christian  (1805-1875),  a  Danish  writer  of  remarkable 

genius,  chiefly  noted  for  his  juvenile  works  of  fiction. 
Momxnsen  (l)orn  1817),  a  German  historian,   particularly  noted  for  his 

UMory  of  Ihme,  which  has  been  translated  into  English. 
Curtius,  Ernst  (born  1814).  a  celebrated  German  historian.     His  great 
work  the  History  of  Greece  has  been  translated  into  English.     Hia 
Other  works  treat  of  the  antiquities  pf  Greec«. 


Goethe. 


Remew  Outline.  647 


Review  Outline. 


GREAT  EVENTS. 


Sixteenth  Century.— The  great  events  of  this  century  are  connected  with: 

(1)  The  Kise  of  Protestantism,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  (151^-56), 

(2)  The  English  Reformation,  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  (1509-47), 

Edward  VI.  (1547-5:3),  and  Elizabeth  (1558-1603). 

(3)  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  in  the  reign  of  Philip  n.  (1555-98). 

(4)  The  Religious  Wars  in  France,  in  the  reigns   of  Charles  IX, 

(1560-74),  Henrj^  III.  (1574-89),  and  Henry  IV.  (till  1590). 

(5)  The  Ottoman  Military  Enterprises,  under  Bajazet  II.  (1481-1512^, 

Selim  I.  (1512-20),  and  Solyman  II.  (1520-56). 

(6)  The  Portuguese  Maritime  Enterprises,  in  the  reign  of  Emanuel 

the  Fortunate  (1495-1521). 

(1)  Rise  of  Protestantism. 

Luther  published  his  theses  against  Catholic  tenets. 

Luther  at  the  Diet  at  Worms. 

The  Lutherans  protest  at  Spire.    Called  Protestant& 

The  League  of  the  Protestants  at  Smalcald. 

Council  of  Trent  opened.    Closed  1563. 

Frederick  of  Saxony  defeated  at  Miihlberg. 

Death  of  Martin  Luther. 

Treaty  of  Passau  between  Charles  V.  and  Maurice. 

Peace  of  Augsburg.    Religious  freedom  granted  to  the  Protestants. 

(2)  English  Reformation.    (See  England.) 

(3)  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic. 

Revolt  of  several  of  the  Provinces  under  William  the  Silent,  Stadtholden 
Union  of  the  Seven  Provinces.    Foundation  of  the  Republic. 
Independence  of  the  United  Provinces  proclaimed. 
Death  of  William  the  Silent  by  assassination. 

(4)  Religious  Wars  in  France:    (See  France.) 

(5)  Ottoman  Military  Enterprises. 

Accession  of  Solyman  the  Magnificent.    Zenith  of  Turkish  power. 

Belgrade,  the  Servian  capital,  taken  by  the  Ottomans. 

The  island  of  Rhodes  taken  by  Solyman. 

Solyman's  army  repulsed  at  Vienna  after  a  long  siege. 

Second  repulse  of  the  Ottomans  at  Vienna. 

Unsuccessful  attack  of  the  Ottomans  upon  Malta. 

Great  naval  defeat  of  the  Ottomans  at  Lepanto. 

(6)  Portuguese  Maritime  Enterprises. 
Brazil  accidentally  discovered  bj'  Cabral. 
Voyages  of  Amerigo  Vespucci  to  the  coast  of  Brazil. 
Ceylon  visited  and  partly  conquered  by  the  Portuguese. 
Conquest  of  Malacca  by  the  Portuguese. 

The  Japan  Islands  discovered  by  the  Portuguese. 


648  Modern  History, 


Skventeenth  Century.— The  great  events  of  this  century  are  connected 
with: 

(1)  The  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-1&48). 

(2)  The  Great  Civil  War  in  England  (1&43-1651). 

(3)  The  Age  of  Louis  XIV.  in  France  (1643-1715). 

(4j  The  Else  of  Russia  under  Peter  the  Great  (1683-1725X 

(5)  The  Turkish  Wars. 

(6)  The  Maritime  Power  of  the  Dutch. 

(1)  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Frederick,  Elector  Palatine,  defeated  near  Pragueu 

Dreadful  persecution  of  the  Bohemian  Protestants. 

League  of  the  North  German  states,  under  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark 

Treaty  of  peace  between  Denmark  and  Germany. 

Defeat  of  Tilly  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  near  Leipsic. 

Battle  of  Lutzen.    Death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

Assassination  of  Wallenstein. 

French  intervention  in  the  war,  under  Richelieu. 

Death  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II. 

Peace  of  Westphalia.    Protestant  independence  established. 

(2)  Great  Civil  War  in  England.    (See  ENaLAMo.) 

(3)  Age  of  Louis  XTV.    (See  France.) 

(4)  Rise  of  Russia. 

Visit  of  Peter  the  Great  to  England  and  other  countries  of  Europe. 

(5)  Turkish  Wars. 

The  Ottomans  repulsed  at  Vienna  by  John  Sobieskl. 

Splendid  victory  of  Prince  Eugene  over  the  Turks  at  Zenta. 

Treaty  of  peace  with  the  Turks.    Hungarian  possessions  given  back. 

(6)  Maritime  Power  of  the  Dutch.    (See  England  and  France.) 

EiOHTEENTH  CENTURY.— The  great  events  of  this  century  are  connected  with: 

(1)  England  under  the  Georges  (1714-1815). 

(2)  Prussia  under  Frederick  the  Great  (1740-86). 

(8)  Russian  Military  Operations   (under  Peter  the  Great  and  the 
Catharines). 

(4)  Decline  and  Fall  of  Poland. 

(6)  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  French  Government. 

(1)  England  under  the  Georges.    (See  Enqland.) 

(2)  Prussia  under  Frederick  the  Great. 
Invasion  of  Silesia  by  Frederick  the  Great. 

Capture  of  Dresden  by  the  Prussians.    Treaty  of  peace. 

Victories  of  Frederick  the  Great  over  the  French,  Austrians,  and  Russiana 

Treaty  of  peace  between  Austria  and  Prussia. 

(3)  Russian  Military  Operations. 

Defeat  of  Peter  tlie  Great  by  (.'harles  XII.  of  Sweden  at  Narva. 
Capital  of  Russia  removed  from  Moscow  to  St.  Petersburjf. 
Invasion  of  Russia  by  Charles  XII. 
Victory  of  Peter  the  Great  over  Charles  XII.  at  Poltava. 


Memew  Outline.  649 


Accession  of  Catharine  I.,  empress  of  Russia.    Menschikoff  minister. 
Accession  of  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  and  Catharine, 
Accession  of  Catharine  II.    Potemkin  minister. 
Defeat  of  the  Russians  at  Zorndorf  by  Frederick  the  Great. 

(4)  Decline  and  Fall  of  Poland. 
First  Partition  of  Poland. 

Second  Partition  of  Poland. 

Defeat  of  the  Poles  under  Kosciusko  by  Suvaroflf. 

Third  Partition  of  Poland. 

(5)  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  French  Governnien<;.   (See  Francs.) 

Nineteenth  Century.— The  great  events  of  this  century  are  connecttfij 
with: 

(1)  The  Career  of  Napoleon.    (See  France.) 

(2)  The  Progress  of  Liberalism  in  England.   (See  Enolakd.^ 

(3)  The  Aggressions  of  Eussia. 

(4)  The  Growth  of  Prussia  under  Bismarck. 

(5)  The  Unification  of  Italy,  under  Victor  Emanuel. 

(6)  The  Decline  of  Turkish  Power  in  Europe  (Ifiastera  Questi<m> 

(3)  Aggressions  of  Bussia. 
Poland  absorbed  in  the  Russian  Empire. 

Crimean  War.    Sebastopol  taken  by  the  French  and  English. 
Defeat  and  overthrow  of  Shamyl  in  the  Caucasus. 
Russian  conquests  in  Central  Asia. 
The  Eastern  War— between  Russia  and  Turkey. 

(4)  Growth  of  Prussia  under  William  I.  (1861). 
Bismarck  prime  minister  of  William  I.  of  Prussia. 
Schleswig  and  Holstein  occupied  by  Pnissia  and  Austria. 
Holstein  invaded  and  occupied  by  Prussian  troops. 
Austro-Prussian  War,  called  the  Seven  Weeks'  War. 
Severe  defeat  of  the  Austrians  at  Sadowa. 

North  German  Confederation,  under  the  headship  of  Prussia. 
The  Prussian  victories  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war. 
Paris  entered  by  the  Germans. 
William  I.  made  emperor  of  Germany. 

(5)  Unification  of  Italy. 

Accession  of  Victor  Emanuel  to  the  throne  of  Sardinia. 

Victories  of  Garibaldi  in  Sicily  and  Naples. 

Victor  Emanuel  elected  king  of  Italy. 

Rome  entered  by  Victor  Emanuel,  and  made  the  capital  of  Italy, 

Death  of  Victor  Emanuel.    Accession  of  Humbert  L 

(6)  Decline  of  the  Turkish  Power. 
Insurrection  of  the  Greeks.    Mavrocordato  president. 
Death  of  Marco  Bozzaris,  the  Greek  patriot  and  general. 
The  Turkish  fleet  defeated  at  Navarino. 

The  independence  of  Greece  acknowledged  by  the  Turkish  sultan 

Ismail  Pasha  hereditary  viceroy  (khedive)  of  Egypt. 

Turkish  armies  defeated  by  the  Russians. 

Treaty  of  Berlin.    Partial  dismemberment  of  Turkey, 


650 


Contemporaneous  Events. 


A.D.              England. 

Fbancb. 

OtHSB  COUMTBUBB. 

)483 
1485 
1493 
1498 

Charles  VIIL 

Henry  VIL 

Maximilian  of  Germany. 



Louis  Xn. 
Francis  L 

1509 
1515 

Henry  VIU. 

1519 

Charles  V.  of  Germany. 

1530 

Solyman  the  Magnificent. 
Treaty  of  Passau. 
Philip  II.  of  Spain. 

1547 
1552 

Edward  VI 

Henry  n. 

1553 
1556 
1558 
1559 
1560 
1571 
1574 
15?9 
1589 
1603 
1610 
1618 

>""^- :.... 

Elizabeth. 

Francis  U. 
Charles  IX 

Battle  of  Lepanto. 

Henry  UI. 

William  the  Silent 

Henry  IV. 

Louis  Xin 

James  L 

Moors  expelled  from  Spain 

Thirty  Years'  War  begins. 
Battle  of  Lutzen. 

1625 
1639 

Charles  I. 

1640 

Portugal  independent. 

1648 

Louis  XIV. 

1648 

Peace  of  Westphalia. 

1653 
1660 
1688 

Oomwell,  Protector. 
Charles  H. 

Sobieskl  defeats  the  Turkb. 

1685 
1689 
1700 

James  U. 
William  and  Mary. 

Battle  of  Narva. 

1702 
1709 

Anne. 

... 

Battle  of  Poltava. 

1714 
1715 

George  I. 

Louis  XV. 

1718 

Death  of  Charles  XIL 

1727 
1740 

George  IL 

Frederick  the  Great. 

1760 
1774 

George  lU. 

Louis  XVI. 
French  Revolution. 

1789 

1795 

Third  P&rtition  of  Poland 

1799 

Napoleon  First  Consul. 
Napoleon  Emperor. 

1804 

1806 

1S14 

Louis  XVIIL 
Charles  X. 

1830 
18?4 

George  IV. 

18?5 

Brazil  independent 
Battle  of  Navariuo. 

18W 

18:^ 

William  rv. 

Louis  Philippe. 

1833 

Isabella  of  Spain. 

1887 
1848 

Victoria. 

Louis  Philippe  dethroned. 

lf^19 

Victor  Emanuel - 

185« 

Napoleon  HL 

18m 

1859 

Hut  tie  of  Solferino. 

1861 

HuHsiiiii  serfs  freed. 

1870 

Battle  of  Sedan 

Thiers.  ] 'resident 

McMuhou,  President. 

Ki>iue  capital  of  Italy. 
William,  German  emperor. 

1871 

1878 

1878 

Treaty  of  Berlin. 

1879 

Ordw  PresiH^nt 

18»71 



Carnot,  President. 

Topical  Heview, 


651 


Empeeors  of  Germany, 

From  Maximilian  I.  (1493)  to  the  Close  op  the  Empire  (1806). 

Date 


Name.                                 Date  of  Reign. 

Maximilian  I  1493-1519 

Charles  V 1519-1556 

Ferdinand  I ...  1556-1564 

Maxinailianll 1564-1576 

Rudolf  n 1576-1612 

Matthias 161^1619 

Ferdinand  n 1619-1637 


Name.                                 Date  of  Reign. 

Ferdinand  m. 1637-1657 

Leopoldl 1658-1705 

Charles  VI 1711-1740 

Maria  Theresa  and  Francis  I . .  1740-1780 

Joseph  n 1780-1790 

Leopold  U 1790-1792 

Francis  n. 1792-1806 


Topical  Review 


NOTED  PERSONAGES. 

Who  toere  they? 
For  what  noted  f 

PAOE 

Martin  Luther 599,  600,  601 

Frederick  of  Saxony 599,  601 

Maurice  of  Saxony 601 

Tilly 602,  603 

Wallenstein 602,  603 

Gustavus  Adolphus 603,  622 

JohnSobieski 604,  626,  633 

Prince  Eugene 604 

Maria  Theresa 605,  611 

Frederick  the  Great 605,  611,  612 

Bismarck 606,  607 

Kossuth 608 

William  the  Silent 612,  613 

Melanchthon 6C0,  614 

William  the  Great  Elector 609 

John  Calvin 614 

Zwingli 614 

ChariesAlbert 615 

Joseph  Garibaldi 615 

Victor  Emanuel 615,  616 

Cardinal  Xiraenes 616 

VascodaGama 619 

Gustavus  Vasa 622 

ChariesXIL  of  Sweden....  623,  628,  629 

Bernadotte 623 

Prince  Poniatowski 626 

Thaddeus  Kosciusko 626 

Peter  the  Great 628 

MenshikoflT 629 


PAGE 

General  SuvaroflF 629 

Solyman  the  Magnificent 632 

Mavrocordato 635 

Marco  Bozzaris 635 

Count  Capo  distria 635 

NOTED  EVENTS. 
When  did  they  occurf 
What  led  to  ihemf 
Wliat  resulted  therefrom? 

Spread  of  Luther's  tenets 599,  600 

Diet  of  Spire 600 

Confession  of  Augsburg 600 

Council  of  Trent 600 

Treaty  of  Passau 601 

Thirty  Years'  War 602,  614 

Battle  of  Lutzen 603 

Peace  of  Westphalia 604 

Revolt  of  the  Hungarians 60S 

Battle  of  Zenta 604,  633 

Seven  Years'  War 607,  610 

Franco-German  War 608 

Battle  of  Zorndorf 611 

Revolt  of  the  Netherlands 612 

Union  of  Italy  615,  616 

Expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain.  618 
Independence  of  the  Spanish  Colo- 
nies  619 

Discovery  of  Brazil 619 

Battle  of  Poltava 623,  629 

Fall  of  Poland 626,  030 

Battle  of  Navarino 635 

Independence  of  Greece 635 


CHAPTER  XII 
Supplement  art 


I  Asiatic  States. 

1.  China.    The  most  important  event  in  the  modern  liistory  of  China 
is  the  successful  invasion  of  the  empire  by  the  Mantchou  Tartars  in  tlie 
seventeenth  century,  followed  (1644)  by  the  overthrow  of 


Tartar  invasion,     the  reigning  dynasty  in  favor  of  that  which  now  occupies 

the  throne.     In  the  sixteenth  century  tlie   Portuguese 

began  to  trade  with  the  Chinese;  but  the  Dutcli,  who  made  repeated 
efforts  to  obtain  admission  into  the  ports  of  China,  were 


Foreign  trade.  constantly  rcpulsed ;  though  the  Russians  were  permitted 
to  trade  in  the  empire  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  British  sought  for  some  time  for  a  similar  per- 
mission, but  obtained  no  encouragement  until  Lord  Macartney's  famous 
embassy  (1793).  The  most  important  event  in  recent 
times  was  the  famous  Taiping  rebellion,  which  broke  out 
in  1850.  It  was  both  religious  and  political  in  its  charac- 
ter; and  before  it  was  crushed,  in  1864,  the  fairest  prov- 
inces of  the  empire  were  laid  waste,  and  an  enormous  number  of  lives 
sacrificed, 

2.  Japan.    The  first  notice  of  Japan  by  any  European  traveler  or 
explorer  was  that  made  by  Marco  Polo,  who  during  his  travels  in  the 
East  (see  page  441)  visited  an  island  which  he  called 


Taiping 
rebellion. 


Early  accounts. 


Zipangu,   of    the  riches  of   which   he  gave  a  glowing 
account.     The  Portuguese  some  time  afterward  made  a 
discovery  of  the  island;  and  in  1549  it  was  visited  by  the  far  famed 
missionary  St.  Francis  Xavier,  called  the  Apostle  of  the 


Christianity. 


Indies;  and  many  of  the  Japanese  were  converted  to 
Christianity.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  the  Portu- 
guese were  expelled  from  the  cmj>ire,  and  the  Christians  were  perse- 
cuted, a  great  massacre  of  them  occurring  in  1623.  The 
Japanese  trade  was  then  transferred  to  the  Dutch,  who 
had  a  monopoly  of  it  for  ihore  than  two  centuries,  the 
ports  of  Japan  being  closed  against  all  other  foreign  powers. 


Foreign  trade. 


Asiatic  States.  653 


3.  la  1853,  through  the  expedition  of  Commodore  Perry,  a  treaty- 
was  made  between  the  United  States  and  Japan,  by  which  certain  ports 
were  opened  to  American  trade ;  and  in  1858  Townsend 
Harris,  American  consul-general  to  Japan,  was  enabled  to 
reach  Yedo  (now  Tokio)  and  to  negotiate  a  still  more 
favorable  treaty.     Other  foreign  powers   soon  obtained 


Treaty  with  th» 
United  States. 


similar  privileges;  and  the  Japanese,  seeing  the  superiority  of  Ameri- 
can and  European  civilization,  sent  embassies  to  different  countries,  the 
first  one  visiting  the  United  States  in  1860. 

4.  The  empire  was  then  ruled  in  a  peculiar  manner,  the  actual 
powers  of  government  being  in  possession  of  an  officer  called  the 
SJiogun  (commander-in-chief)  or  Tycoon  (great  sovereign). 


residing  at  Yedo,  while  the  emperor,  named  Mikado,  held       Government. 

the  title,  and  the  symbols  of  authority  and  dignity  at    ' • 

another  place.  This  state  of  things  was  the  result  of  a  usurpation 
which  took  place  in  1195  on  the  part  of  the  shogun  of  that  time.  In 
1868  a  revolution  occurred  by  which  the  mikado  was  restored  to  his 
proper  authority ;  and  this  was  followed  by  a  more  liberal 


Progress. 


Civilization. 


and  enlightened  policy  in  every  respect,  since  which  the 
empire  has  made  wonderful  progress  in  every  element  of 
modern  civilization.  Yokohama,  a  mere  fishing  village  when  Commo- 
dore Perry  entered  the  bay  with  his  squadron,  is  now  a  great  commer- 
cial city  of  nearly  70,000  inhabitants. 

.  6.  The  civilization  of  Japan  resembles  that  of  the  Chinese,  as  to 
manners  and  customs,  language,  and  religion.  The  prevailing  systems 
of  the  latter  are  SMntoism  and  Buddhism.  The  former 
is  a  kind  of  polytheism  of  a  superior  grade,  the  chief 
feature  being  the  worship  of  the  spirits  of  ancestors 
and  departed  heroes,  to  whom  sacrifices  are  offered.  The  most  prev- 
alent system,  however,  is  Buddhism,  as  it  has  been  for  more  than 
ten  centuries,  notwithstanding  an  attempt  to  uproot  it,  which  was 
made  shortly  after  the  restoration  of  the  mikado  to  his  legitimate 
supremacy. 

6.  India.  At  the  commencement  of  the  mediaeval  history,  the 
peninsula  of  Hindostan  was  divided  into  many  small  states,  of  the 
history  of  which  little  or  nothing  is  known.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  eighth  century  the  Mohammedan  sovereigns 
of  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  other  states  began  their  con- 
quests, which  were  continued  for  several  centuries;  and. 


Mediaeval 
history. 


at  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth,  the  greater  portion  of  northern 
Hindostan  was  subjugated.     Soon  after  this  a  great  independent  Mo- 


654  Modern  History, 

bammedan  empire  was  formed,  having  its  capital  at  Delhi,  which  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  century  included  all  northern  India.  From  this 
the  Mohammedan  dominions  were  gradually  extended  to  tlie  south,  the 
whole  of  the  Deccan  soon  being  annexed.     (See  map,  page  511.) 

7.  Toward  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  great  and  terrible 
invasion  of  Tamerlane  occurred;  and  Delhi  being  captured  was  given 
over  to  massacre  and  pillage,  the  conqueror  proclaiming 


Mofi^uls. 


himself  emperor  of  India.  The  restless  warrior  soon  de- 
parted, however,  leaving  ruin  and  desolation  in  bis  track. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  commenced  the  rule  of  the  Moguls  (Mongols), 
founded  by  a  descendant  of  the  great  Tamerlane,  the  most  noted 
of  whom  was  the  famous  Aurungzebe  (p-rung zabe)  (1657-1707),  who 
had  an  eventful  reign  of  nearly  fifty  years.  He  was  virtually  the  last 
Great  Mogul;  for  after  his  depth  the  empire  fell  to  pieces, 
different  provinces  being  held  as  independent  states  by 
military  usurpers.  Among  these  the  Mahratta  empire 
was    the    most    important.     About  the  middle    of    the 


English 
conquest. 


Changes  in 
government. 


eighteenth  century  the  French  and  English  contended  for  mastery  in 
India;  and  through  the  genius  of  Clive  the  latter  gained  the  supremacy, 
which  was  afterward  confirmed  by  the  wonderful  military  and  adminis- 
trative ability  of  Warren  Hastings.     (See  England.) 

8.  Persia.    Tlie  defeat  of  Khosru  by  the  emperor  Heraclius  has  been 
referred  to  (page  305),  as  well  as  the  destruction  of  the  dynasty  of  the 

Sassanides  by  the  Saracens,  which  soon  ensued,  the  great 
victory  which  the  latter  gained  at  Cadesia,  followed  by 
another,  five  years  later  (641),  determining  the  fate  of  that 
famous  line  of  kings.  The  Persians  were  then  compelled 
to  embrace  Mohammedanism;  though  a  considerable  number  persisted 
in  their  ancient  faith,  in  spite  of  bitter  persecution.  These  were  called 
OiLehres,  or  Ohebers  (infidels),  their  descendants  being  the  present  rem- 
nant of  the  Parsees.    (See  pp.  70  and  80.) 

9.  For  two  centuries  Persia  was  under  the  sway  of  the  Caliphs,  till, 
in  the  ninth  century,  an  adventurer  named  Soffar  headed  a  revolt  by 

wliich  the  Saracen  government  was  overturned;  and  a 
dynasty  of  kings  succeeded  named  after  their  founder 
the  Sof-far'i-des,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  Seljuks, 
who  conquered  and  ruled  over  Persia  and  Afghanistan. 
These  in  turn  were  subjugated  by  the  Mongols  under  Genghis  Khan, 
who  established  his  empire  in  the  twelfth  century;  but  two  centuries 
later  it  was  overrun  by  Tamerlane.  1 1  is  death  was  followed  by  a  long 
series  of  civil  wars,  which  continued  till  the  sixteenth  century,  when  a 


Further 
changes. 


Asiatic  States.  ^^^^ 


succession  of  energetic  monarclis  held   tlie  ttirone,  among  them  the 
renowned  Abbas  (1587-1628). 

10.  In  the  eighteenth  century  Persia  was  conquered  by  the  Afghan? 
(1722);  but  they  were  soon  afterward  expelled  by  Nadir  Shah  (1736) 
who  thus  obtained  the  throne,  which  has  ever  since  been 


Later  history. 


occupied  by  his  successors.  After  the  death  of  this  mon- 
arch, in  1747,  Afghanistan  became  independent.  During 
this  period  Persia  has  been  engaged  in  wars  with  Russia  (1813  and  1828), 
which  resulted  in  the  loss  of  Georgia  and  other  frontier  provinces ;  also, 
in  a'war  with  England  (1856-7)  in  which  the  British  troops  under 
General  Havelock  gained  several  victories.  The  population,  in  recent 
years,  has  been  reduced  by  dreadful  famines  (1860  and  1871-2),  in  the 
latter  of  which,  it  is  said,  more  than  two  millions  of  people  perished. 

11.  Turkistan.  In  early  times  the  western  part  of  this  region  waa 
known  as  Turania;  and  there  were  fierce  and  long-continued  contests 
between  the  Turanians  who  occupied  this  country  and 
the  Iranians  of  the  region  farther  south  (Persia).  Mon- 
golian invasions  from  the  fourth  to  the  tenth  century 
changed  considerably  the  character  of  the  population. 


Historical 
sketch. 


This  country  was  ruled  over  successively  by  Genghis  Khan  and  Timour 
or  Tamerlane,  and  their  successors.*  Those  of  the  latter  held  sway 
until  they  were  driven  out  by  a  tribe  of  Tartars  called  Uzbecks,  who 
established  a  powerful  monarchy  that  lasted  about  160  years,  when  it 
was  broken  up  into  several  small  states,  or  khanates,  of  which  Bokhara, 
Khiva,  and  Khokan  were  the  chief.  Most  of  these  have  recently  been 
conquered  by  Russia,  which  has  thus  extended  its  dominion  over  a 
large  part  of  central  Asia. 


n.  American  States. 

[The  events  connected  with  the  colonization  of  North  America  and  the  history 
of  the  United  States  are  not  presented  here,  as  this  branch  of  history  is  treated  in 
text-books  specially  devoted  to  that  subject,  which  in  elementary  schools  usually 
precedes  the  study  of  general  history.] 

NOBTH  AMERICA. 
12.  Mexico  and  Central  America.    Previous  to  the  discovery  of  Amer 
ica  by  Columbus,  this  region  was  inhabited  by  a  people  called  the 

♦  Tamerlane  is  a  corruption  of  Timour  Lenk,  or  Timour  the  Lame.  This  mighty 
warrior  was  bom  in  1336.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  reviving  the  empire  of  Genghis 
Khan,  and  after  accomplishing  this  his  restless  ambition  prompted  him  to  other 


656  Modern  History, 


Mexico. 


Aztecs,  who  liad  attained  to  a  quite  advanced  state  of  civilization, 
and  the  ruins  which  still  greet  the  traveler  amid  the  overgrowing  for- 
ests attest  the  genius,  knowledge,  and  enterprise  of  this 
remarkable  race.  The  great  Aztec  nation  in  Mexico  was 
subjugated  by  a  few  Spaniards  under  the  bold  and  un- 
scrupulous Cortez,  and  thus  became  a  Spanish  province  (1521).  It  thus 
remained  for  three  centuries,  when  it  became  an  independent  empire 
under  a  military  adventurer  (1822).  After  his  fall  a  republic  was 
established  (1824).  Owing  to  the  restless  ambition  of  its  leaders,  its 
government  has  been  very  unsettled.  Among  these  the  most  noted  was 
Santa  Anna,  conspicuous  in  the  war  between  Mexico  and  the  United 
States  (1846-7).  In  1864  Mexico  was  under  the  imperial  government 
of  the  Austrian  archduke  Maximilian,  but  his  government  was  over- 
turned by  an  insurrection  under  a  Mexican  leader,  who 
caused  the  emperor  to  be  shot  (1867).  The  republic  was 
then  re-established.  Central  America  was  divided,  in 
1823,   into  five  states,   created    under  the  title  of    the 


Central 
America. 


"United  States  of  Central  America,"  but  in  1839  the  union  was  dis- 
solved, and  the  states  became  independent  republics. 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 
13.  Brazil  was  discovered  in  1500  by  a  Portuguese  navigator  named 
Cabral,  who  took  possession  of  the  country  for  the  crown  of  Portugal, 
although  the  coast  had  been  visited  previously  by  one  of 


Discovery.         the  Companions  of  Columbus.     Settlements  were  after- 

'    ward  made  along  the  coast  by  the  Portuguese,  in  whose 

possession  the  country  continued  until  its  independence  was  acknowl- 
edged in  1825.  (See  page  621.)  The  empire  wns  governed  succes- 
sively by  Dom  Pedro  I.  and  Dom  Pedro  II.,  till  in  1889  it  was  de- 
clared !i  republic. 

14.  Peru.     After  Balboa  had  crossed  the  isthmus  of  Darien.  in  1513, 
he  turned  to  the  southward  and  penetrated  many  miles  into  the  country. 
Subsequently,  Francisco  Pi-znr^ro,  a  brave  but  cruel  leader. 


Pizarro.  who  had  accompanied  Balboa  in  the  previous  expedition, 

sailed  from  Panama  with  a  company   of  less  than  200 

men,  and  landed  on  the  western  coast  of  Peru— the  wealthiest  and 
most  powerful  state  in  America  at  the  time  of  its  discovci-y.  By  means 
of  the  basest  treachery  and  the  most  revolting  cruelties,  Pizarro  sue 
ceeded  in  effecting  the  conquest  of  the  country,  altl»otigh  the  unfor- 

conquests.  His  capital  was  Samarcand.  He  i>erisluHl  in  an  expedition  across  the 
Jaxartea  Ur  ^<05.  His  descendant  Rat>ef  was  tlie  founder  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  in 
India. 


American  States,  657 


tunate  natives  defended  their  liberties  with  admirable  spirit  and  valor 
(1533).  The  monster,  Pizarro,  was  afterward  assassinatea  (1541).  After 
Pizarro's  conquest  Peru  became  the  chief  seat  of  the  Spanish  empire  in 
America,  and  Lima  {le'mah),  its  capital,  rose  to  a  very  high  degree  of 
magnificence.  It  received  from  Pizarro  the  appellation  of  the  City  of 
the  Kings. 

15.  Chili,  Venezuela,  etc. — Chili,  which  originally  belonged  to  the 
native  Peruvian  empire,  was  conquered  by  two  of  the 


Chili 


successors  of  Pizarro,  one  of  whom  founded  Santiago 
{sahn-teah'go)  in  1541.     Southern  Chili  was  so  bravely 
defended  by  the  Indians,  that  it  resisted  for  centuries  the  rule  of  the 
invaders.     Venezuela    {ven-e-zwe' lah)    was    so  called  by 


Venezuela. 


Vespucci  and  Ojeda  (o-ha'dah),  the  latter  one  of  the  com- 
panions of  Columbus,  who,  near  the  Lake  of  Maracaybo 
(mah-rah-ki'bo),  discovered  an  Indian  village  built  on  piles  in  the  water. 
Hence,  they  named  it  Venezuela,  or  Little  Venice  (1499). 


Colonies 
independent. 


The  interior  of  the  country  was  not  conquered  till  the  La  Plata. 

middle  of  the  next  century.     The  Rio  de  la  Plata  was    

explored  in  1530,  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  then  in  the  service  of  Spain; 
and,  in  1580,  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  (bo'nus  a'riz)  was  founded  by  the 
Spaniards. 

16.  Thus,  nearly  all  South  America,  except  Brazil,  fell  into  the 
possession  of  Spain,  and  was  retained  under  her  rule  until  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  when,  by  a  series  of  revolutions, 
commencing  in  Chili,  this  extensive  region  was  wrested 
from  her,  and  formed  into  independent  states.  Peru  was 
the  last  to  secure  her  independence,  which  was  acknowl- 
edged In  1836.  The  most  prominent  individual  connected  with  these 
movements  was  the  patriot  Bolivar,  in  honor  of  whom  the  republic  of 
Bo-liv'i-a  received  its  name.  Nine  states  now  occupy  the  territory  for- 
merly included  in  the  several  Spanish  viceroyalties  of  South  America: 
Peru,  Bolivia,  Ecuador  {ek-wah-dore'),  Co-lom'bia,  Venezuela,  Chili, 
the  Argentine  Republic,  Paraguay  {pah-rah-gwi'),  and  Uruguay 
{oo-roogwi').  These  states,  since  their  formation,  have  been  under 
republican  governments,  but  have  been  very  much  disturbed  by  internal 
dissensions  and  civil  war.  Recently  a  war  has  been  waged  between 
Peru  and  Bolivia  and  Chili,  in  which  the  latter  has  gained  several  im- 
portant victories.  Its  armies  now  occupy  the  territories  of  the  defeated 
republics,  including  the  Peruvian  capital  Lima  (1882). 


INDEX 


General  Rules  for  the  Proitoncla.tion  of  Greek  and  Latin  Names.— The 
diacritical  marks  used  are  the  same  as  those  employed  in  Webster's  Dictionary; 
and  the  pronmiciation,  when  indicated,  agrees  with  that  authority. 

The  sound  of  c  before  a,  o,  and  u  is  the  same  as  k;  before  e,  i,  and  y,  the  same 
as  s.  The  sound  of  g  is  hard,  as  in  go,  before  a,  o,  and  u;  and  soft,  like  j,  before  e, 
i,  and  y.  Quite  general  usage,  however,  in  pronouncing  Greek  and  Latin  at  present 
gives  to  c  the  uniform  sound  of  k,  and  to  g  the  hard  sound. 

Ch  xmiformly  has  the  sound  of  k.  S,  when  final  and  preceded  by  e,  has  the  sound 
of  z,  and  the  e  is  long;  thus  es  is  pronoimced  eez  as  in  Andes. 

Initial  x  has  the  sound  of  z;  initial  p  before  s  and  t,  m  and  c  before  n,  t  before 
m,  and  ph  before  a  mute  consonant,  are  silent. 

T,  s,  and  c  before  ia,  ii,  io,  iu.  and  eu  preceded  immediately  by  the  accent,  are 
pronounced  like  sh;  except  when  the  t  follows  s,  t,  or  z,  or  when  the  accent  falls 
on  the  syllable  ending  with  the  letter  i;  as,  Ae'tius  =  A-e'she-us,  Milti'ades  =  Mil- 
ti'a-des.    In  the  termination  tion,  t  retains  its  proper  sound. 

^milius  Paulus,  completes  the  conquest 

of  Macedonia,  215. 
^-ne'id,  plot  of,  182. 
M-ne'Sis,  Trojan  prince,  182. 
^E-o'h-ans,  migrations  of,  86,  89,  92. 
.(E'qvu-ans,  deieated  by  Cincinnatus,  194. 
^schines  {es'ke-nez),  Athenian  orator. 


Ab'bas,  king  of  Persia,  655. 

Abbasides  (ab-bas'e-deez),  329. 

Abd-el  Ka'der,  588. 

Ab'e-lard,  391. 

Ab-er-crom'by,  Sir  Ralph,  514. 

Aboukir  {ak-boo-keer'),  battle  of,  578. 

A' bra-ham,  66. 

Abu-Bekr  {ah'boo-bekr'),  caliph,  326. 

Abyssinian  War,  522. 

Academic  School,  158. 

Ac-ar-na'ni-a,  85. 

Ac'cad,  28,  35. ' 

A-chas'an  League,  how  and  when 
formed,  130. 

A-chae'ans,  their  migrations  and  settle- 
ment, 89,  92,  93. 

Achaemenes  (a-kem'e-nez),  founder  of 
the  Persian  monarchy,  74. 

Achaia  (a-ka'ijah),  one  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  states,  85;  twelve  cities  of,  131. 

Achaia,  Roman  province  of,  133. 

Achilles  (a-kil'lez),  89. 

Acre  (ah'ker),  412,  416,  578. 

A-crop'o-hs,  106. 

Actium  (ak'she-um),  battle  of,  243. 

Ad'di-son,  507. 

A-dol'phus,  king  of  the  Groths,  286; 
founds  the  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths, 
286. 

A-dri-an-o'ple,  battle  of,  284. 

Ad-ri-an-o'ple,  309,  458. 

Ad-ri-at'ic,  wedding  of  the,  441, 

yE-gos-pot'a-mos,  battle  of.  111. 

iE-mil-i-a'nus,  emperor,  288. 

^mil'i-us,  Roman  consul,  210, 


^schylus  (es'ke-lus),  the  rounder  of 
Greek  tragic  poetry,  156. 

^s-cu-la'pi-us,  150. 

A-e'tius  (she-us),  defeats  the  Huns,  287. 

^-to'li-a,  85. 

iEtolian  League,  its  formation,  131. 

.iEtolians,  '  igration  of,  92. 

Af-ghan  is  tan',  English  driven  from,  519; 
English  war  in,  523;  history  of,  655. 

Africa,  Roman  province  of,  217. 

Ag-a-mem'non,  king  of  Mycenae,  90,  144. 

A-gath'o-cles,  king  of  Syracuse,  204,  206. 

Age  of  Despots,  99. 

A-ges-i-la'us,  king  of  Sparta,  gains  a  vic- 
tory at  Coronea.  114;  defeated  byEpa- 
minondas,  115;  his  death,  116. 

Ag'in-court  (a/-),  battle  of,  368,  396. 

A'gis,  king  of  Sparta,  defeated  by  An- 
tipater,  125, 

Agis  (III.),  attempts  to  reform  the  Spar- 
tan manners,  131 ;  his  death.  131,  n. 

Agnadello  (ahn-yah-del'lo).  battle  of,  542. 

Agrarian  Laws  in  Rome.  193,  221,  222. 

Agriculture,  among  the  Assyrians.  37; 
among  the  Egj'ptians,  51 ;  in  England, 
374,  477. 

Ag-n-gen'tum,  87;  taken  by  the  Romans, 


Index. 


Ah'ri-man,  principle  of  evil  in  the  relig-   I 
ious  system  of  the  Persians,  80.  i 

A-hu'ra  Maz'da,  worshiped  by  the  Per- 
sians, 80;  explanation  of,  80. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  {akes-lah-sha-pel'),  cap- 
ital of  Charlemagne,  319;  treaty  of, 
510,  568. 

Akbar  (ak'ber),  327. 

A'ken-side,  Mark,  522. 

Alans',  298. 

Al'a-ric,  invades  Italy,  285;  captures 
Rome,  285. 

Al'ba  Lon'ga,  183,  184,  185. 

Al'be-marle,  duke  of.    See  Monk. 

Albert  I.,  emperor,  427,  437. 

Albert  11.,  emperor,  430. 

Albert,  prince,  519,  521. 

Albert  Du'rer,  435,  641. 

Al-bi-gen'ses  (-jen-),  383,  384. 

Al'boin,  king  of  the  Lombards,  304. 

Al-cae'us,  a  Greek  poet,  155. 

Al-ci-bi'a-des,  his  conduct  during  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  110;  his  character 
and  death,  110,  n. 

Alcuin  (al'kwin),  319. 

Al-e-man'ni,  defeated  by  the  Romans, 
284;  by  the  Franks,  316;  overrun  Switz- 
erland, 437. 

Al-ex-an'der  the  Great,  ascends  the 
throne  of  Macedon,  119;  destroys 
Thebes,  119;  defeats  the  Persians,  120; 
takes  Tyre  and  Gaza,  122;  gains  a  vic- 
tory at  Ai-bela;  122;  other  victories, 
123;  dies  at  Babylon,  1;^;  his  charac- 
ter, 124. 

Alexander  I.,  czar  of  Russia,  630. 

Alexander  II.,        "  "       630. 

Alexander  III.,      "         "       681. 

Alexander  III.  of  Scotland,  .359. 

Alexandria,  its  foundation,  122;  its 
greatness  under  the  Ptolemies,  ViG; 
the  library  at  burnt,  2:3(i;  taken  by  the 
Saracens,  305;  taken  by  Napoleon,  578. 

Al-ex-an'dra,  princess  of  Wales,  625. 

A-lex'i-us  Com-ne'nus,  312. 

Alfleri  {(il-fe-a're),  645. 

Al-fon'so  VI.  of  Castile,  450. 

Alfonso  X.       "        "       451. 

Alfonso  XII.  of  Spain,  619. 

Alfonso  III.  of  Portugal,  450. 

Alfred  the  Great,  ;«4. 

Algarve  (al-gar'va),  conquest  of,  450. 

Algiers,  conquest  of,  5HH. 

Al-nam'bra,  |>alaceof,*il ;  fortress  of, 450. 

AH  (nk'lct'),  caliph,  827. 

Al'i-son,  Archibald,  5:^6. 

Al'li-a,  battle  of,  197. 

Al'ina,  battle  of,  519. 

Al  Man-sour'  (soor),  caliph,  329. 

Alphabet,  Phcenician,  64. 

Alsace  (al-saliAH'),  conquest  of,  66C. 

Al'va,  duke  of,  612. 

Am-a-de'u8  I.,  king  of  Spain,  619. 

Amalfl  (ahmal'fee),  443,  445. 

A-ma'sis,  reiiern  of,  in  Egypt,  BO. 

A-mer'l-ca,  discovery  of,  460. 

American  colonies  of  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, 637. 


Amerigo  Vespucci  {ah-ma-re'go  vea- 
puot'che),  620. 

Am'i-ens,  treaty  of,  514,  579. 

Am'mon,  Jupiter,  temple  of,  visited  by 
Cambyses,  76;  by  Alexander,  122. 

Am-phic-ty-on'ic  Council,  91. 

Am-phip'o-lis,  battle  of,  109. 

Am'u-rath  (or  ah-moo-rat'),  sultan  of 
Turkey,  309,  458. 

A-na'cre-on,  odes  of,  155. 

An-ax-ag'o-ras,  158. 

An-co'na,  444,  445. 

An'cus  Martins  {mar'she-us),  defeats 
the  Latins,  185;  length  of  his  reign,  186. 

Andersen,  Hans  Christian,  646. 

An-dro-ni'cus,  257. 

An'ge-lo,  Michael,  641. 

Angles,  invasion  of  Britain  by,  322. 

Anglo-Saxon  civilization,  336. 

Anglo-Saxons,  government  of, 3.36;  dwdll- 
ings,  3;^6;  science,  337;  commerce,  337. 

Anjou  (atui'joo),  350,  379. 

Anna  Com-ne'na,  312. 

Anne,  queen  of  England,  500,  501,  502. 

Anne  Boleyn  {hul'en),  465,  466,  467. 

Anne  of  Austria,  556. 

Anne  of  Brittany,  400. 

Anne  of  Cleves,  467. 

Anson,  expedition  of,  .508. 

An-tal'ci-aas,  treaty  of,  115. 

An-tig'o-nus,  enters  into  league  against 
Penliccas,  126;  war  against,  127;  his 
defeat  and  deAth,  127. 

Antigonus  Doson,  takes  Sparta,  132. 

Antigonus  Go-na'tas,  tyranny  of,  130. 

An'ti-och,  foundation  of,  131 ;  taken  by 
the  Seljuks,  30vS,  409;  by  the  Mame- 
lukes, 41.5. 

An-ti'o-chus  I.  (Soter),  defeats  the  Gauls 
and  afterward  defeated  by  them,  135. 

Antiochus  II.,  134. 

Antiochus  III.  (the  Great),  reign  of,  185. 

An-tip'a-ter,  regent  in  .Macedonia,  120; 
defeats  the  Athenians  inThessaly,  136; 
his  death.  127. 

An-to-ni'nus,  Marcus  Aurelius,  274;  per- 
secutes the  Christians,  280;  repulses 
the  barbarians,  28;i;  date  and  length 
of  rtMgn,  288. 

Antoninus  Pius,  one  of  the  "  five  good 
emperors,"  274;  date  and  length  of 
reign,  288. 

An'to-ny.  Mark,  his  oration  over  Caesar's 
body,  2:W;  master  of  Rome,  239;  joins 
the  se<'ond  triumvimt4>,  2<1 ;  tak«'s  part 
in  the  bottle  of  IMiilippi,  2»2;  nlliaiue 
with  Cleopatra,  243;  defeat  and  death, 
243. 

Ant'werp,  380. 

A-os'ta,  duke,  king  of  Spain,  337. 

A-pel'les,  his  genius  as  a  portrait- 
painter,  160. 

Aph-ro-di'te,  h-r  characteristics  and 
worship,  149. 

A-pol'Io,  different  names  of,  his  wor- 
ship, characteristics,  etc.,  147. 

Ap-ol-io'ni-us,  a  noted  mathematician, 
161 


Index. 


661 


Apollonius  Rhodius,  his  poem  on  the 
Ar^onautic  expedition,  1(50. 

Ap'pi-an  Way,  the  construction  of,  203. 

Ap'pi-us  Clau'di-us,  one  of  the  decem- 
virs, his  tyranny,  195;  his  death,  196. 

Appius  Claudius  Caecus,  203. 

Aqueducts,  among  the  Chaldeans,  36; 
among  the  Romans,  203,  252. 

Aquitaine  (ak-ive-tain'),  317,  379. 

Ar'a-dus,  61. 

Ar'a-go,  588. 

Ar'a-gon,  kingdom  of,  448;  invaded  by 
Philip  in.,  ^;  foreign  possessions  of, 
449. 

A'ram,  65. 

A-ra'tus  of  Sicyon,  takes  the  lead  of  the 
Achaean  league,  131 ;  his  death,  132. 

Ar-be'Ja,  battle  of,  122. 

Ar-ca'di-a,  85. 

Arcadians,  become  subject  to  Sparta,  95. 

Ar-ca'di-us,  becomes  emperor  of  the 
East,  285;  his  character,  301, 

Arch,  invention  of,  182,  n. 

Archaeology,  relation  to  historv,  17. 

Ar-chil'o-chus,  inventor  of  the  elegy, 
155. 

Archimedes  (ar-ke-me'dez),  when  he 
flourished,  206;  aids  in  the  defense  of 
Syracuse,  211;  his  death,  211,  n. 

Architecture,  among  the  Chaldeans,  27, 
35;  among  the  Medes,  41 ;  among  the 
Egyptians,  57;  among  the  Persians,  79; 
among  the  early  Greeks  (Cyclopean), 
145;  the  later  Greeks,  163:  the  three 
orders  of,  163;  among  the  Etrurians, 
182;  among  the  Romans,  255;  the  Tus- 
can order  of,  256;  Byzantine,  313; 
Saracenic,  331;  ItaUan,  445;  orders  of , 
446;  French,  565. 

Archon  (ar'kon),  office  of  in  Athens,  97. 

Ard-e-shir',  revolt  of  the  Persians  under, 
276. 

A-re-op'a-gus,  court  of,  97. 

A'res,  the  god  of  war  among  the  Greeks, 
147. 

A-re-the'mi-us,  Roman  emperor,  290. 

Argentine  (ar-jen-teen' )  Republic,  657, 

Ar'gives,  subject  to  Sparta,  95. 

Ar'go-lis,  85;  Egyptians  settle  in,  90. 

Ar-go-nau'tic  Expedition,  date  of,  89;  its 
object,  89. 

Ar'gos,  one  of  the  ancient  kingdoms  of 
the  Peloponnesus,  89;  settlements  in, 
90. 

A-ri'on,  the  poet  and  musician,  story  of, 
155. 

Ar-i-os'to,  447. 

A-ris-tar'chus,  the  critic,  160. 

Ar-is-ti'des,  his  moderation,  100,  n. ;  at 
Plataea,  103;  acquires  the  chief  com- 
mand, 104;  rival  of  Themistocles,  104; 
called  the  Just.  105;  his  death,  105. 

Ar-is-tip'pus,  philosopher,  158, 

Ar-is-to-bu'lus,  becomes  king  of  Judea, 
69. 

Ar-is-to-gi'ton,  aids  in  expelling  the  ty- 
rants from  Athens,  98. 

Ar-is-toph'a-nes,  his  comedies,  159. 


Aristotle  (.ar-is-tot'l),  tutor  of  Alexander, 
119;  his  birth,  education,  and  school 
of  philosophy,  119,  n,;  his  lectures  in 
the  Lyceum,  159. 

Aries  (arl),  320. 

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard,  .527. 

Ar-me'ni-a,  one  of  the  Minor  Kingdoms, 
becomes  independent,  136;  its  history, 
142;  taken  from  the  Parthians,  274. 

Arne,  Thomas  Augustine,  Dr.,  529, 

Arnold,  Thomas,  535. 

Arnold  of  Win'kel-ried  (-reed),  438. 

Ar-sin'o-e,  sister  of  Cleopatra,  walks  in 
Caesar's  triumph,  237. 

Arsinoe,  wife  of  Seleuous,  130, 

Arsinoe,  port  of,  139. 

Art,  Assyrian,  36,  37;  Egyptian,  55,  59; 
Phoenician,  63;  Hebrew,  69;  Persian, 
79;  Greek,  166,  172;  Etruscan,  255;  Ro- 
man, 255;  Byzantine,  313;  French,  402; 
ItaUan,  446;  in  England,  505,  589;  in 
France,  566;  general  progress  of  in 
Europe,  639. 

Ar-ta-pher'nes,  exi)edition  of,  100. 

Ar-tax-erx'es  I.  (Longimanus),  makes 
peace  with  the  Greeks,  78;  date  of  his 
reign,  84. 

Artaxerxes  II.  (Mnemon),  expedition 
against,  113;  date  of  reign,  84. 

Artaxerxes  III.  (Ochus),  his  reign,  84. 

Ar'te-mis,  how  represented,  148. 

Arthur,  brother  of  Henry  VIH.,  463, 

Arthur,  king,  a3S. 

Arthur,  prince,  355. 

A'runs,  conflict  of  with  Brutus,  189. 

Ar'yans,  one  of  the  great  races,  18;  lan- 
guage of,  19;  descendants  of,  20;  mi- 
gration of,  70,  79,88;  conquering  tribes 
of,  299. 

Ar'ya-a-var'ta,the  home  of  the  Aryans,70 

As'ca-lon,  61.  66;  battle  of,  413. 

As'cham  (-kam),  Roger,  468,  477. 

Ash-an-tee'  War,  522. 

Ash'dod,  66. 

Asia  Minor,  kingdoms  of,  41. 

As-mo-ne'an  Dynasty,  69, 

As-pa'si-a,  172, 

As'pem,  battle  of,  582. 

Asshur  (ash'ur),  31,  38, 

As'shur-ba'ni-pal,  33. 

As-syr'i-a,  its  situation,  26. 

Assyrian  Canon,  21. 

Assyrian  Empire,  foundation  of,  31 ;  his- 
tory of,  31,  32,  33,  M. 

As-tra-chan'  (-kan),  632. 

Astrology,  402. 

Astronomy,  among  the  Chaldeans,  37; 
among  the  Egyptians,  59;  as  taught 
by  Pythagoras,  156;  Ptolemaic  sys- 
tem, 161.    See  Science. 

As-tu'ri-as,  kingdom  of,  448. 

As-ty'a-ges,  reign  of,  40;  court  of,  41. 

A-the'ne,  described,  148;  how  repre- 
sented, 148;  temple  of,  148. 

Ath'ens,  aids  in  the  revolt  of  the  lonians, 
77;  last  king  of,  96;  taken  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  Persians,  103;  long 
walls  of  built,  107;   plagxie   at,  109; 


662 


Index. 


schools  at,  171,  n.;  market  scene  at, 
173,  n. 

Atlantic  Cable,  laying  of  the,  521. 

At'ta-lus,  king  of  Pergamus,  his  alliance 
with  the  Romans,  141. 

Attains  III.,  bequeaths  Pergamus  to  the 
Romans,  141. 

At'ti-ca,  85. 

At'tila,  leader  of  the  Huns,  286;  invades 
Italy,  287;  invades  the  Greek  Empire, 
301. 

Augs'burg,  confession  of,  600;  diet  of, 
602. 

Augustan  Age,  of  English  literature,  502; 
of  French  literature,  561,  566. 

Au-gus'tu-lus,  Romulus,  resigns  the  of- 
fice of  Emperor  of  the  West,  287. 

Au-gus'tus  Ueesar,  acquires  absolute  au- 
thority, 243;  his  reign,  271;  his  death, 
272. 

Au-re'li-an,  emperor,  defeats  Zenobia, 
277;  defeats  the  Alemanni,  284;  date 
of  his  reign  288. 

Aurungzebe  (o-rung-zabe'),  654. 

Aus'ter-litz,  battle  of,  5V9. 

Aus-tra'si-a,  317. 

Aus'tri-a,  foundation  of,  427;  an  heredi- 
tary empire,  605;  history  of  modern, 
608. 

Austrian  Succession,  war  of,  509,  562,  604. 

Austro- Hungarian  monarchy,  608. 

A-vars',  299,  303,  318. 

Avignon  {ah-veen'yong),  384.  444. 

A-vi'tus,  emperor,  date  of  his  reign,  288. 

A-zo'tus,  66. 

Az'tecs,  656. 


Baal'bec,  ruins  of,  134. 

Bab'y-lon,  early  history  of,  27;  descrip- 
tion of,  29;  taken  by  Cyrus,  29. 

Bab-y-lo'ni-a,  its  situation  and  fertility, 
25,3.5. 

Babylonian  monarchies,  27. 

Habylonians.  civihzation  of,  85. 

Bac-cha-iia'li-a.    See  Dionysia. 

Bac'chus,  150. 

Bach  ibahk),  Sebastian,  639. 

Bacon,  Lord,  50<). 

Bacon,  Roger,  »«,  375. 

Bactrian  kingdom,  134;  its  history,  143. 

P.ag-dad',  329,  3i0. 

liailly  (ba'le,  or  hak'ye),  572. 

Baj'a-zet  I.,  310,  458. 

Baiazet  II.,  631. 

Balaklava  {bah-lah-klah'vah\  battle  of, 
519. 

Bal-bi'nus,  emperor,  288. 

Bal-bo'a,  «i56. 

Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  808,  413. 

liahlwin,  prince  of  Kdessa,  410. 

Ba'll  ol,  .John,  359,  860. 

Ballot  Act,  522. 

Bal'ti-more,  Lonl,  503. 

Balzac'   568. 

Ban'nock-hurn,  battle  of,  861. 

Bar-ba'does.  493. 

Barbauld.  Anna  Letitia,  536. 


Bar-ce-lo'na,  commerce  of,  451. 
Bar'di-us,  76. 
Barnet,  battle  of,  371. 
Basques  {basks),  299,  318. 
j    Bastile  {bas-teel'),  taking  of,  572. 
Ba-ta'vi-a,  637. 
Batavian  Republic,  613. 
Bay'ard,  chevalier,  542,  543,  544. 
Bayonet,  565. 

Ba-zaine',  marshal,  590,  591. 
Beaeonsfield,  earl  of  (Disraeli),  522,  523» 

537. 
Beat'tie,  James,  532. 
Beauf oi-t  (bu'/ort),  duke  of,  493. 
'Beaumarchais  {bo-mar-sha'),  594. 
Beamnont  (bo'mont),  506. 
Becket,  Thomas  a,  351. 
Bedford,  duke  of,  368,  396. 
Beethoven  (ba'tu-iKn),  640. 
Be'his-tun,  rock  of,  27,  n.,  80. 
Belgium,  history  of,  613. 
Bel-^rade',  battle  of,  604;  taking  of,  632. 
Bel-i-sa'ri-us,  defeats  the   Vandals   and 

Goths,  302;  conquest  of  Italy,  303. 
Bellini  {bel-le'ne),  640. 
Bel-shaz'zar,  30;  feast  of,  30,  n. 
Ben-e-ven'to,  battle  of,  443. 
Ben-e-ven'tum,  battle  of,  202. 
Bengal,  conquest  of,  511. 
Ben-ha'clad,  65. 

Ben-ve-nu'to  Cellini  (chel-e'yte),  641. 
Beranger  {ba-rahn-zha'),  5i>5. 
Berbei-s,  subdued  by  the  Saracens,  838. 
Ber-e-ni'ce,  port  of,  139. 
Beresina  (ber-e-ze' nah),  battle  of,  583. 
Bergen,  433. 
Benin,  treaty  of,  523,  634;  entered  by 

Napoleon,  580. 
Berlin  Decree,  580,  581. 
Berlioz  ibare-le-o'),  641. 
Ber-na-dotte'  (dot),  62:3. 
Be-ro'sus,  lists  of,  28;  life  of,  28. 
Biblp,  English,  printing  of,  467;  transla- 
tion of.  4H\. 
Bill  of  Rights,  498. 
Bi'on,  pastoral  poet,  160. 
Birniingliaiii,  5(V4. 
Bismarck,  WKi,  (K»7. 
Bi-thyn'i-a,    history   of,    142;    Ottoman 

kingdom  of.  3(K). 
Black,  chemist,  530. 
Black  Death,  in  Germany.  429. 
Black  I'lagut^  in  France,  392. 
Bhiek   Prince,  at  Crecy,  363;  at  Poitiers, 

361;  death  of,  '.Wi. 
Blake,  admirai.  JN9.  490,  491. 
Blanche  of  Ca.stile.  3K1. 
Blen'heini  {-hime),  battle  of,  500.  , 

Blucher  {bloo'kcr)  r^m,  611. 
Bo-ab-dil'  i-dcrt),  king  of  Qrauada,  450. 
Boccaccio  (bok-kat'cho),  447. 
Bavo'ti-a.  W;  PIxiMiician  settlements  in, 

5X);  rebellion  in.  lOH. 
Bo-he'mi-a,  a  fief  of  Germany,  421 ;   a 

kingdom,  42.'i ;  religious  war  m,  4?0, 602. 
Bo'he-raond.  count,  409. 
Boileau  (bwahlo'),  567. 
j  Bok-ha'ra,  666. 


Index, 


663 


Bo-les'las,  609. 

Bol'i-var,  657. 

Bo-iiv'i-a,  657. 

Bologna  {bo-lone'yah),  445. 

Bombay,  504. 

Bo'na-parte,  Jerome,  581. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph,  ^,  581. 

Bonaparte,  Loms,  613. 

Bonaparte,  Louis  Napoleon.  See  Napo- 
leon III. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon.    See  Napoleon  I. 

Bon'i-t'ace  Vlli.,  pope,  385. 

Book  of  Common  Prayer,  468. 

Book  of  the  Dead,  55. 

Books  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  162;  of  the 
Romans,  264,  n. 

Borussi  {bo-roos'se),  609. 

Borodino  (bor-o-de'no),  battle  of,  583. 

Bos'ni-a,  history  of,  456;  insm*rection  in, 
630. 

Bossuet  (bos-sica'),  568. 

Bosworth  Field,  battle  of,  372. 

Both'ni-a,  623. 

Bothwell,  earl  of,  472. 

Bourbon  (booi-'bon),  constable,  543,  544, 
545. 

Bourbon,  house  of,  553. 

Bourbons,  restoration  of,  585. 

Bourdaloue  {boor-da-loo'),  568. 

Boyle,  505. 

Boyne,  battle  of  the,  499. 

Bozzaris  (bot'zah-ris),  635. 

Brad'dock,  general,  510. 

Bradshaw,  John,  487. 

Bra-gan'za,  Catharine  of,  493,  n. 

Braganza,  duke  of,  618. 

Brahe  (brah),  Tycho,  642. 

Brah'ma,  worshiped  by  the  Hindoos,  70. 

Brahmanism.  introduced  into  India,  70; 
religion  of  Iran,  79. 

Brandenburg,  duchy  of,  609. 

Bras'iKias,  victory  of.  109. 

Brazil,  discovery  of,  619;  history  of,  656. 

Brem'en,  city  of,  432. 

Bre'mer,  Frederika,  646. 

Brewster,  David,  537. 

Bridgewater,  duke  of,  528. 

Brindley,  James,  528. 

Bristol,  504. 

Britain  probably  visited  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians, 63;  invaded  by  Caesar,  233;  war 
against  the  Scots  in,  275;  wall  built  by 
Hadrian,  275;  by  Seveiois,  276. 

Britons,  323. 

r.rit'ta-ny,  323. 

Bron'te,  Charlotte,  536. 

Brougham  (broo'am).  Lord,  517,  535. 

Browning,  Elizabeth  B.,  536. 

Browning,  Robert,  536. 

Bruce,  David,  363. 

Bruce,  Robert,  359. 

Bruce,  Robert  (younger),  360. 

Bru'ges  (hroo'jis),  432. 

Brunswick,  city  of,  432;  duke  of,  562; 
house  of,  .508. 

Brussels,  612. 

Bru'tTis,  Junius,  made  consul,  188;  le- 
gends concerning,  189. 


Brutus  (the  Younger),  conspires  against 

Caesar,  238;  his  defeat  and  death,  242. 
Buchanan,  George,  480. 
Buckingham,     duke    of,     minister     of 

Richard  HI.,  372;  minister  of  James  I,, 

480,  481,  482,  505. 
Buckle,  Henry  T.,  537. 
Bu'da,  taken  by  the  Tm-ks,  632. 
Buddha  {bood'dah),  foimder  of  a  new 

religion,  71. 
BuddJaism,  its  foundation  and  doctrines, 

71,  n. 
Buenos  AjTes  {bo'nus  a'riz),  657. 
Buff  on  {boof-fony),  569. 
Bul-ga'ri-a,  kiugtlom  of,  306;  history  of, 

45Ji;  insurrection  in,  630. 
Bulgarians,  -HXi,  304. 
Bulwer  i,Lord  Lytton),  536. 
Bunyan,  John,  507. 
Bm-gundians,  297,  316,  437. 
Bm-'gun-dy,  316,  317,  320,  379,  394,  422 
Bm-ke,  Edmund,  513,  533. 
Bumey,  Charles,  529. 
Bm-ney,  Frances,  535. 
Burns,  Robert,  532. 
Bushire  (boo-sheei-'),  taking  of,  520. 
Bute,  Lord,  512. 
Butler,  Samuel,  502,  507. 
Byron,  Lord,  517,  533, 635. 
Byz'an-tine  Civilization,  310. 
By-zan'ti-um,  taken  by  Pausanias,  103; 

becomes  the  capital  of  the  Eastern 

Empire,  278. 


Cabal,  the,  494. 

Cab'ot,  John  and  Sebastian,  463,  657. 

Ca-bral',  619,  656. 

Cabul  (kah-bool').  insurrection  in,  519. 

Cade,  Jack,  369. 

Ca-de'si-a,  battle  of.  327. 

Cad-mei'ans,  driven  out  bj*  the  Thessa- 
Hans,  92. 

Cad'mus  brings  the  Phoenician  alphabet 
into  Greece,  64;  founder  of  Thebes,  91. 

Capsar,  Augustus.  See  Octavius  and 
Auffustus  Coesar. 

Caesar,  Juhus,  rise  of,  232;  forms  the 
first  triumvirate,  233;  proconsul  of 
Gaul,  2*^;  his  campaigns.  233;  crosses 
the  Rubicon .  234 ;  defeats  Pompey ,  235 ; 
defeats  Pharnaces,  236 ;  gains  the  bat- 
tles of  Thapsus  and  Mimda.  237;  mas- 
ter of  Rome,  237;  his  triumph,  237; 
assassinated,  2:^;  his  character,  239; 
his  Commentaries,  258;  first  of  the 
Twelve  Caesars,  272.     ' 

Caesars,  the  Twelve,  272,  n. 

Caesars,  under  Diocletian  and  his  suc- 
cessors, 277. 

Cairo  (ki'ro),  building  of,  329;  entered  by 
Napoleon,  578. 

Ca-la'bri-a,  181. 

Ca'lah,  ancient  capital  of  Assyria,  al ;  its 
ruins,  32. 

Calais  (kal'is),  363,  469,  547. 

Cal-de-ron'  de  la  Barca,  044- 


664 


Index, 


Cal'e-do'ni-ans,  defeated  by  Septimius 
Severus,  275. 

Ca-lig'u-la,  one  of  the  Twelve  Csesars, 
272;  date  of  reign,  288. 

Cal-lim'a-chus,  Greek  poet,  his  hymns 
and  elegies,  160. 

Callimachus,  Greek  sculptor,  suggests 
the  Corinthian  capital,  IW. 

Cal'neh,  28. 

Calvin,  John,  614. 

Cam' bray,  league  of,  542;  treaty  of,  545. 

Cam-by 'ses,  his  conquests,  76;  his  atroci- 
ties in  Egypt,  70;  his  death,  76. 

Ca-mil'lus,  takes  Veii,  196;  his  exile.  197; 
vanquishes  the  Gauls,  197 ;  made  dic- 
tator, 198 ;  dedicates  a  temple  to  Con- 
cord, 200. 

Cft-mo'ens  (or  cam'o-ens),  C44. 

Cam-pa'ni-ans,  invoke  the  aid  of  the  Ro- 
mans, 201. 

Campbell  (kam'el),  Sir  Col'in,  520. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  534. 

Campo  For'mi-o,  treaty  of,  577. 

Ca'naan-ites,  66. 

Can'a-da,  insurrection  in,  518;  taken  by 
the  British,  562. 

Canal  Navigation  in  England,  628. 

Ca-na'ries,  visited  by  the  Phoenicians,  63. 

Can'nae,  battle  of,  210. 

Cannon,  first  use  of,  362,  393,  402. 

Canon  of  Ptolemy,  29. 

Ca-no'va,  Antonio,  641. 

Can-ton',  taken  by  the  English,  521. 

Ca-nute'  the  Dane,  king,  334. 

Ca'pet  (or  kah-pa'),  Hugh,  379 

Capetian  Dynasty,  379. 

Ca'po  d'Istria,  Count,  635. 

Cap-pa-do'ci-a,  history  of,  142. 

Car-a-cal'la,  emperor,  his  character,  276; 
date  of  reign,  288. 

Car'dan,  642. 

Ca-ri'nus,  emperor,  date  of  reign,  288. 

Car'lo  Dolci  (dtWche),  641. 

Car'lo-man,  318. 

Carlovingian  Dyna-sty,  318,  879. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  537. 

Caroline  of  Bnuiswick,  517. 

Carr,  Robert,  480. 

Carracci  {kar-rat'chee),  641. 

Car'thage,  a  Phoenician  or  Tyrlan  col- 
ony, 61;  when  settled,  61,  204;  her 
power,  204;  war  of  Agathocles  with, 
206;  wars  with  the  Romans,  206,  209, 
215;  destruction  of,  217;  capital  of  the 
kingdom,  of  the  Vandals,  287,  298; 
taken  by  the  Saracens,  328. 

Cas-san'der,  son  of  Antipater,  war  with 
Polysperchon,  127:  king  of  Greece  and 
Macedonia.  128;  his  death,  129. 

Cas'i-mir,  John,  king  of  Poland,  626. 

CassinI  (kahs-se'nf),  .WO,  (\\2. 

Cassius  (kash'e-tm).  lieutenant  of  Craa- 
sus,  284;  conspires  against  Cffisar,  238; 
defeat  and  death,  242. 

Castile  (kahs-teel'),  kingdom  of,  448. 

Casfilian  Dialects,  451;  writers,  451. 

Catharine  I.,  empress  of  Russia,  6W. 

Catharine  U.,       *'       "       "       629. 


Catharine  of  Aragon,  463. 

Catharine  de'  Medici.    See  Medici. 

Ca-thay',  empire  of,  72. 

Catholic  Chui-ch,  311. 

Catholics,  disabilities  of  removed,  517. 

Cat'i-line,  Lucius,  character  of,  231 ;  his 

plot    frustrated,    231;    defeated    and 

slain,  232. 
Ca'to,  Porcius,  the  Censor,  his  hatred  to 

Carthage,  216. 
Cato,    the   Stoic,   commits  suicide    at 

Utica,  237. 
Ca-tul'lus,  Roman  poet,  258. 
Cau'ca-sus,  630. 
Cau'dine  Forks,  battle  of,  201. 
Cavaliers  or  Royalists,  485,  502. 
Cavendish,  530. 
Cawn-pore',  520, 
Cax'ton,  William, 376. 
Cecil  (ses'iT),  Lord  Burleigh,  470,  477. 
Ce'crops,  founder  of  Athens,  91. 
Cellini  {chel-le'nc),  Benvenuto,  641. 
Cel-ti-be'ri-ans,  war  with,  217. 
Celts,  299. 

Censors,  establishment  of,  196. 
Central  America.  656. 
Centiu-ies,  assembly  of,  196. 
Ce-phis'sus,  92. 
Cere  a'li  a,  261. 
Ce'res.    See  Demeter. 
Cer-van'tes,  644. 


Ceylon  {se'lon),  reached  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians, 63;  conquest  of  by  the  Portu- 
guese, 620. 


Cha?-ro-ne'a,  battle  of,  119. 

Chal-de'a,  situation  and  fertility  of,  25, 27. 

Chal-dees',  or  Chaldean.s,  progress  in  the 

arts,  etc.,  27;  an  architectural  people, 

35;  their  commerce,  36. 
Champagne  (sli(in(i-j)ahn').  379. 
Charlemagne  {shar-le-mahn'),  emperor, 

318;   character,  319;  defeats  the  Sara- 
•  cens,  ^J8. 

Charles  All)ert  of  Sanlinia,  615. 
Charles  of  Anion,  3S5,  386,  426,  443. 
Charles,  arclKlnke,  582. 
Charles  the  Bold.  399,  404.  4-38. 
Charles  1.  of  F.ngland.  reign  of,  481;  exe 

cution  of,  487;  chanieter,  4F8. 
Charles  11.  of  England,  188,  492. 
Charles  the  Fat,  320. 
Charles  IV.  of  France,  im. 
Charles  V.  "  395. 

Charles  VI.         "  3J>5. 

Charles  VH.        "  3JH'.. 

Charles  VIIL      "  3%. 

Charles  IX.         "  MH. 

Charles  X.  "  M7. 

Charles  IV.  of  Gennany,  428. 
Charles  V.  "  698. 

Charles  VI.  •*  604. 

Charles  vn.  '*  6(M. 

Charles  of  Lnx-etiiburg,  428. 
Charles  >Iancl,:ur,m 
Charles  flic  I'reteiider,  509,  610, 
Charles  the  Simple,  821. 
I   Charles  I.  of  Spain,  616. 
1   Charles  U.        ^'        618. 


Index. 


665 


Charles  XI.  of  Sweden,  622, 

Charles  XII.         "  623,  628. 

Charles  Xm.        "  623. 

Charles  XIV.        "  623. 

Charles  XV.  "  623. 

Charles  of  Valois  {val-wah'),  387. 

Cha'ron,  174. 

Chartists,  518. 

Chateaubriand  (shah-to-bre-ahng')y  595. 

Chatham,  earl  of.    See  Pitt. 

Chatterton,  Thomas,  532. 

Chaucer  (chaw'ser),  Geoffrey,  367,  376. 

Chemi  {ka'me),  ancient  name  of  Egj-pt, 
51. 

Chenier  {shen-ya'),  Andr6,  594. 

Cheops  (ke'ops),  builder  of  the  Great 
Pyramid,  58. 

Cherbourg  (sher'boorg),  594. 

Chevy  Chace,  battle  of,  367. 

Chil'der-ic  (chil'der-ic),  318. 

Children's  Crusade,  414. 

ChiU  {chil'e),  657. 

China,  origin  of  the  name,  72;  ancient 
history  of,  72;  modern  history  of,  652; 
war  with,  521 . 

Chinese,  history  of,  72;  civilization  and 
language,  73;  religion,  74. 

Chios  (ke'os),  86. 

Chivalry,  or  Knighthood,  345. 

Christian  Church,  311. 

Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  602,  634. 

Christian  IX.  "  625. 

Christian,  duke  of  Brunswick,  602. 

Christianity,  its  rise  and  progress,  279; 
embraced  by  the  Franks,  316;  intro- 
duced into  Germany,  431;  into  Bul- 
garia, 452. 

Christina  {kris-te' nah\  queen  of  Sweden, 
622. 

Chronology,  20. 

Churchill,  John  (IVIarlborough),  500,  n. 

Cic'e-ro,  education  and  history,  2:31 ,  n. ; 
denounces  Catiline,  231;  causes  the 
conspirators  to  be  put  to  death,  232; 
his  Phihppics,  240:  assassinated  by 
order  of  Anton v,  241. 

Cid,  exploits  of  the,  451. 

Cilicia  {se-lish'e-ah),  kingdom  of,  41. 

Cimabue  (che-mafi-boo'a),  446. 

Cimarosa  (che-mah-ro'sah),  640. 

Cim'bri,  defeated  by  Marius,  224,<225. 

Ci'mon,  his  victory  over  the  Pei-sians, 
106;  his  character,  106,  n. ;  his  admin- 
istration, 106,  107;  his  death,  106. 

Cin-cin-na'tus,  dictator,  194. 

Cin'na,  consul  with  Marius,  228. 

Cisalpine  Republic,  577. 

Citiura,  (slsh'e-wn),  siege  of,  106. 

Civilization,  Chaldean,  Babvlonian,  and 
Assyrian,  35;  Median.  41 ;  Egyptian,  45; 
Phoenician,  63;  Hebrew,  69;  Chinese, 
73;  Persian,  78;  Grecian,  143;  Roman, 
249;  Byzantine,  310;  Saracenic,  3:i0: 
Anglo-Saxon,  336;  Norman,  342;  Eng- 
lish, 373,  474,  .502,  5^4;  French,  398,  401, 
5.50,-563,592;  German,  431 ;  Italian,  445; 
progress  of  in  Spain  and  Portugal, 
451 ;  progress  of  in  modem  Europe,  636. 


Clarence,  duke  of,  371. 

Clarence,  duke  of  (William  IV.),  517. 

Clarendon,  earl  of.    See  Hyde. 

Claude  Lorraine',  569. 

Clau'di-us  I.,  one  of  the  Twelve  Csesars, 

272;  date  of  his  reign,288. 
Claudius  II.,  2^,  288. 
Cle-ar'chus,  a  Spartan  general,  enters 

the  service  of  Cyrus,  113. 
Clement  VII.,  pope,  465,  545. 
Clement,  assassin  of  Henry  III.,  550. 
Cle-om'e-nes,  king  of  Sparta,  131. 
Cle'on,  successor  of  Pericles,  109. 
Cle-o-pa'tra,  last  of  the  Ptolemies,  141, 

236,  242,  243. 
Clepsydra,  set  up  in  Rome,  220. 
Clermont,  council  of,  408. 
Clis'the-nes,     his     administration     at 

Athens.  98. 
Cli'tus,  killed  by  Alexander,  123. 
Clive,  Lord,  511,  512. 
Clo'di-us,  234, 
Clon-tarf,  battle  of,  353. 
Cloth  Manufacture  in  England,  476. 
Clo'vis,  316,  317. 

Clu'si-vmi,  attacked  by  the  Gauls,  197. 
Cnidus  (ni'dus),  battle  of,  114. 
Code  Napoleon,  593. 
Co'drus,  last  king;  of  Athens,  96. 
Coe'le-Sj^ria,  its  situation,  135. 
Coffee,  mtroduced  into  France,  566. 
Colbert  (kol-bare'),  558,  5&4. 
Colchis  {kol'kis),  89. 
Cole'ridge,  Samuel  T.,  534. 
Coligni  (ko-leen'ye),    admiral,   547,    548, 

Col-la-ti'nus,  188. 

Collins,  William,  531. 

Cologne  {ko-lone'),  432. 

Co-lom'bi-a,  657. 

Col-os-se'um,  or  Flavian  Amphitheater, 
description  of,  254,  ?i.;  completed  by 
Titus,  274. 

Co-los'sus  of  Rhodes,  147, 148,  327. 

Co-lum'bus,  Christopher,  450,  4ft3. 

Commerce,  of  the  Clialdeans,  36;  of  the 
Egyptians,  55;  of  the  Phoenicians,  62; 
of  the  Hebrews,  67;  of  the  Hindoos, 
71  \.  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies, 
136,  139;  of  the  early  Greeks,  144;  of 
Athens,  172;  of  the  Greek  Empire,  312; 
of  the  Saracens,  aso,  331 ;  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  :337;  in  England,  374,  425,  503, 
525;  in  France,  390,  564. 

Com'mo-dus,  emperor,  288. 

Commonwealth,  English,  488. 

Commune,  insurrection  of  the  Paris, 
591. 

Communes,  in  France,  382. 

Com-ne'na,  Anna,  312. 

Comte  {kongt),  595. 

Con'd6,  prince  of,  547,  548,  M9. 

Cond6  the  Great,  5.57. 

Confederation  of  the  Rhme,  580. 

Conformity,  Act  of,  470. 

Con-fu'ci-us,  his  teachings,  73;  works 
compiled  by,  74. 

Con'greve,  507. 


666 


Index. 


Co'non,  defeated  by  the  Spartans,  111; 
gains  a  victory  at  Cuidus,  114;  thrown 
into  prison,  115. 

Con'rad,  author  of  Song  of  Roland,  434. 

Conrad  I.  (of  Francouia),  emperor,  418, 

Conrad  II.,  emperor,  \£i. 

Conrad  III.,  emperor,  411,  424. 

Conrad  IV.,  emperor,  426. 

Constance,  comicil  of,  429;  peace  of,  439. 

Con'stans,  emi)eror,  288. 

Con'stan-tine  1.  (the  Great),  saluted  em- 
peror, 278;  his  conversion,  278;  re- 
moves the  capital,  278;  issues  the  edict 
of  Milan,  271);  his  measures  in  favor  of 
Christianity,  282;  his  death,  282. 

Constantine  II.,  288. 

Constautine  (Pal-aj-ol'o-gus),  310. 

Con-stan-ti-no'ple,  the  capital  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire,  278;  besieged  by  the 
Saracens,  300,  327;  taken  by  the  Turks, 
310;  commerce  of,  312;  taken  by  the 
Crusaders,  308,  414. 

Con-stau'ti-us  I.,  278. 

Constantius  II.,  288. 

Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  351. 

Consulate  and  Empire,  578. 

Consulship,  Roman,  established,  188; 
plebeians  admitted  to,  196. 

Coo-mas'sie,  522. 

Co-pen-ha'gen,  battle  of,  514,  624. 

Co-per'ni-cus,  435,  642, 

Cop'tos,  139. 

Cor-cy'ra,  island  of,  85;  difllculty  with 
Corinth,  109. 

Cor'day,  Charlotte,  576. 

Cor'do-va,  caliphate  of,  329;  city  of,  331. 

Cordova,  Gonsalvo  de,  541. 

Corinth,  under  Periauder,  99;  taken  by 
the  Romans,  215. 

Co-rin'thi-a,  85. 

Corinthian  Order  of  Architecture,  164. 

Co-ri-o-la'nus,  account  of,  194. 

Comeille  (kor-iiale'),  566,  567. 

Corn  Laws,  repeal  of,  519. 

Cornwallis,  surrender  of,  51.1. 

Cor-o-ne'a,  defeat  of  the  Athenians  at, 
108;  victory  of  Agesilaus  at,  114. 

Correggio  {kirr-red'jo),  641. 

Cor'tez,  6,56. 

Co-run'na,  battle  of,  515. 

Co8-80'va,  battle  of,  309,  454. 

Cos'ter,  Laurens,  435. 

Costume,  Greek,  169;  Roman,  547;  in 
France,  391,  403,  567,  593;  in  Germany, 
433,  551. 

Cotton  Manufacture,  in  France,  566;  of 
the  Normans,  844;  in  England,  374, 376. 

Cousin  (koo-zdiig'),  595. 

Covenant,  Scottish,  4^3,  486. 

Covenanters,  defeated  by  Cromwell,  488. 

Coverdah*.  Miles,  467, 

Cowley,  Abraham,  .507. 

Cowptir.  William.  532. 

Cranmer,  archbishop.  405,  466,  468.  469. 

Cras'sus.  (lefeats  SparUicus,  22^i;  his 
great  wealth,  2-*J0:  joins  the  first  tri- 
umvirate, 23:3;  defeated  and  slain  by 
tbe  Tarthians,  234. 


Crat'e-rus,  with  Antipater  defeats  the 

Athenians,    125;    enters    the    league 

against  Perdiccas,  127. 
Crebillon  (krt-be'ymiy),  594. 
Crecy  {,kres'e),  battle  of,  362. 
Cri-me'an  War,  519. 
Cro-a'ti-a,  conquest  of,  455. 
CroB'sus,  king  of  Lydia,  his  immense 

wealth,     43;      defeated     and     taken 

prisoner  by  Cyrus,  43;   alUance  witn 

Egypt,  50. 
Cromwell,  OUver,  486,  488,  490,  491. 
Cromwell,  Richard,  492. 
CYo'ton,  87. 

Cro-to'na,  battle  of,  442. 
Crusades,  :W7,  308;  cause  of,  407;  first, 

408;   second,  411;    third,  412;    tourtu, 

413;  subsequent,  415;  influence  of,  416. 
Clesias  (te'sht-as),  his  account  of  Sar- 

danapalus,  31. 
Ctes'i-phon,  274,  275. 
Cul-lo'den,  battle  of,  509. 
Cu'maj,  87. 
Cu-ma'ni-a,  45.5. 
Cumans,  invasion  of,  455. 
Cumberland,  duke  of,  509,  510,  518. 
Cu-nax'a,  battle  of,  113. 
Cu-ne'i-form  Inscriptions,  27,  36,  80. 
Cu-re'tes,  88. 
Curfew  Bell,  338. 

Cu'ri-us  Den-ta'tUo,  defeats  Pyrrhus,  202. 
Curtius,  646. 
Cy-ax'a-res,  king  of  the  Medes,   takes 

and   destroys  Nineveh,   34;   iiia  con- 
quests, 40. 
Cyc'la-des,  85,  92. 
Cyclopean  Architecture,  88.  145. 
Cyn-os-ceph'a-la>,  battle  of,  132,  214. 
Cyprus  taken  by  Sargon,  32;   siege  of. 

106;  taken  by  the  Saracens,  327;  ceded 

to  Great  Britain,  522. 
Cy-re-na'i-ca,  province  of,  87;  subdued 

by  Ptolemy  I.,  137. 
Cy-re'ne,  87. 

Cyril  {sir'il),ot  Alexandria,  311. 
Cyrus  the  Great,  his  V)irt.h,  40;  subdues 

Media,  40;  his  rapid  concjuests,  75;  his 

death,  75. 
Cyrus  the  Younger,  his  expedition  inU> 

Persia,  113;  his  death,  113. 
Cyz'i-cus,  87. 


Da'ci-a,  given  up  to  the  Goths.  284;  oc- 
cupied by  the  Bulgarians  and  Avars 
304. 

D'Alembert  (<!ahloiuj-harc'),  569. 

Dal-ma'ti-a.  ac(iiiirt*d  by  Venice,  410; 
conqueretl  by  Hungary,  456, 

Dal'ton,  John.  530. 

Da-mas'cus.  Syria  of,  66, 

Damascus,  taken  by  the  Saracens,  805, 
826. 

Dam-i-et'ta,  taken  by  the  Crusaders. 
415;  by  I^iuis  IX.,  415. 

Dan'do-lo,  doge  of  Venice.  418.  441. 

Danes,  invade  England,  33:3,  334, 


Index. 


667 


Danish  East  India  Company,  637.  i 

Dante  (dan'ta),  426,  447.  I 

Danton  {dahn-tong' ),  575,  576.  I 

Dantzic,  432.  t 

Daph-ne-pho'ri-a,  festival  of,  152.  1 

Da-ri'us  1.  (Hys-tas'pes),  elected  king  of   I 

Persia,  76;  his  reign,  77. 
Darius  II.  (Nothus),  date  of  reign,  84.  j 

Darius  III.  (Codomannus),  subdued  by 

Alexander  the  Great,  78;  battles  fought 

by,  120,  122,  123. 
Darnley,  Lord,  472. 
Darwin,  Charles,  537. 
Da'tis,  expedition  under,  100. 
Dauphin,  392. 

Dauphiny  (dau-fe-ne'),  392, 
Dav'e-nant,  Sir  William,  507. 
David,  king,  his  victory  over  the  Syrians 

of  Damascus,  65;  his  reign,  66. 
Davis,  voyage  of,  475. 
Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  529. 
De-cem'virs,  appointed,  195;  abolished, 

196. 
De'ci-us,  emperor,  persecutes  the  Chris- 
tians, 280;  defeated  and  slain  by  the 

Goths,  2&1. 
De  Foe,  507. 

De  Genlis  (zhahng-le'\  Madame,  495. 
Delhi  (del'le).  520,  654. 
Delisle  (duh-teel'),  569. 
De'li-imi,  battle  of,  109. 
Delorme  (duh-lorm'),  Philibert,  552. 
De'los,  confederacy  of,  104. 
Del'phi,  temple  of,  164. 
Delphic  Oracle,  154. 
De-me'ter,  worship  of,  149,  150. 
De-me'tri-us,  son  of  Antigonus,  his  treat- 
ment of  the  Athenians,   128,  n.;   his 

death,  129. 
Demetrius.    Pha-le'ri-us,    his     rule    at 

Athens,  127. 
De-moc'ri-tus,  his  doctrines,  158. 
De  Mont'fort,  Simon,  358. 
De-mos'the-nes,    his    orations     against 

Philip,  119;  his  exile,  125;  his  death, 

126,  n.  160. 
Denmark,  history  of,  624. 
Den-ta'tus,  Lucius  Si-cen'ni-us,  murder 

of,  195. 
De  Ruyter  (ri'ter),  489,  493,  558,  559. 
Des  Cartes  (da  cart),  569. 
Deseze  (duh-saze'),  575. 
De  Stael  (stah'el)  Madame,  595. 
De  Thou  {too},  568. 
Det'ting-en,  battle  of,  509. 
De  Witt,  John  and  Cornelius,  558,  559. 
Di=-a'na.    See  Artemis. 
Diaz  (de'az),  Bartholomew,  450. 
Dickens,  Charles,  536. 
Dictator,  office  of,  189,  n. 
Diderot  (de-dro'),  569. 
Did'i-us  Ju-li-a'nus.  his  purchase  of  the 

Roman  empire,  275 ;  date  of  reign,  288. 
Di'do,  founds  Carthage,  61. 
Dieskau  (dees'kow),  baron,  510. 
Di-o-cle'ti-an,  emperor,  accession  of,  277 : 

resigns  the  empire,  278;  persecution  of 

the  Christians  by  ,280;  date  of  reign,288. 


Di-o-do'rus  Sic'u-lus,  his  history,  45,  161 
Di-og'e-nes,  his  singular  character  and 

behavior,  120,  n. ;  his  teachings,  158. 
Di-o-me'des,  145. 
Di-o-ny'si-a,  festival  of,  152. 
Di-o-ny'si-us,  king  of  Syracuse,  204. 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  his  histoiy. 

161. 
Di-o-ny'sos,  worship  of,  150. 
Directory,  French,  577. 
Disraeli  (diz-ra'el-e),   Benjamin,  earl  <  f 

Beaconsfield,  522,  523,  537. 
Divination,  practice  of  by  the  Greeks, 

154;  by  the  Eti-uscans,  182;  by  the  Ro- 
mans, 259. 
Dod'dridge,  PhUip,  525,  532. 
Do-do'na,  oracle  of,  154. 
Dol'o-pes,  88. 
Domesday  Book.  339,  340. 
Domitian    (do-misU'e-ari),    one    of   the 

Twelve   Caesars,    272;   his   character, 

274;  date  of  reign,  288. 
Dom  Miguel  (ine-gJieV),  621. 
Dom  Pedro  {pa'dro),  621. 
Don  Carlos  I.  of  Spain,  616. 
Don  Carlos,  claimant   to   the   Spanish 

throne,  619. 
Don  Carvalho  {kftr-val'yo),  621. 
Donizetti  {don-e-zei'te),  640. 
Do'ri-an  Colonies,  86. 
Dorians,  their  influence,  89;  migrations 

of,  92. 
Do'ris,  85. 

Douglas,  Scottish  chief,  367. 
Dra'co,  his  la«  s.  96. 
Drake,  Sir  Francis,  471, 
Drama,  French,  402, 
Dres'den,  battle  of,  584, 
Dryden,  John,  507, 
Du  Bois  {bu-ah},  Abbe,  561. 
Dudley,  Lord  Guilford,  468. 
Du  Guesclin  {ga-klahny'),  395. 
Du-il'li-us,  victories  gained  by,  207. 
Dumas  {du-mah'),  Alexandre,  595. 
Dumouriez  (du-moo-re-a').  General,  575 
Dunbar,  battle  of,  360,  488. 
Dunkirk,  491,493. 
Du  Quesne  {kane),  fort,  510. 
Durazzo  {doo-rat'zo),  443. 
Du'rer,  Albert,  435,  641. 
Durham,  university  of,  525. 
Dutch  East  India  Company,  637, 
Dutch  Republic,  613, 
Dwelling-nouses,  among  the  Greeks,  107, 

among  the  Romans,  262. 


Eastern  or  Greek  Empire.  288;  extent 
of,  299;  foimdation  of,  301;  invaded 
by  the  Huns,  301 ;  attacked  by  the  Sara- 
cens, 305,  306:  end  of,  310. 

Eastern  War  of  1877-8  522,  634. 

East  India  Company,  British,  513,  521. 

East  India  Trade,  504. 

Ec-bat'a-na,  royal  palace  at,  41 ;  capital 
of  Darius,  77;  ruins  at,  79. 

Eck'muhl,  battle  of,  582. 


m8 


Index, 


Ecuador  (ek-irah-dore'),  657. 

Etlgehill,  battle  of,  485. 

Edgeworth,  Maria,  535. 

Education,  among  the  Egyptians,  53; 
among  the  Greeks,  171;  among  the 
Romans,  263;  in  France,  390;  in  Eng- 
land, 525. 

Edward  I.  of  England,  359,  415,  416. 

E  Iward  II.  "         361. 

Edward  III.  "  362, 365. 

Edward  IV.  "         370. 

Edward  V.  "         371. 

Edward  VI.  *'         468. 

Edward  the  Black  Prince,  363,  364,  365. 

Edward  the  Confessor,  2:U. 

Edward,  prince  of  Wales,  358,  359. 

Edward,  prince,  son  of  Henry  VI.,  371. 

E-gal'i-t6,  Philip,  576. 

Eg'bert,  king  of  England,  324,  333. 

E'gypt,  origin,  chronology,  sources  of 
its  history,  45;  dynasties,  early  his- 
tory, 47;  Hyksos,  48;  subsequent  his- 
tory, 49,  50;  topography  and  civiliza- 
tion, 51,  52;  under  the  Ptolemies,  136; 
becomes  a  Roman  province,  243;  con- 
quered by  the  Saracens,  305,  326;  by 
the  Fatlmites,  330. 

Ek'ron,  66. 

E-la-gab'a-lus,  emperor,  288. 

El'ba,  island  of,  516,  585. 

Eleanor,  duchess  of  Guienne,  350,  353, 354, 
382. 

E-leu'sis,  mysteries  of,  1.52, 15a 

El'i-ot,  George  (Mrs.  Lewes),  536. 

Eliot,  Sir  John,  482,  483. 

E'lis,  85. 

Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  461. 

Elizabeth,  queen,  469;  revenue  of,  475; 
poems  of,  478. 

Elizabeth  Gray,  370. 

E-man'u-el  the  Fortunate,  619. 

Empire  of  the  West,  revival  of,  319. 

EncyclopaHlie.  French,  569. 

England,  oriyrin  of  the  name.  324;  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  3«;  under  the  Tudora, 
478;  under  the  Stuarts,  461 ;  under  the 
house  of  Brunswick,  508. 

England  and  Scotland,  imlon  of,  502. 

English,  mlildle.  376;  modem,  477. 

English  Literature,  first  era  of.  376. 

En'ni-us,  time  of,  220;  his  poems.  2.57. 

E-p  im-i-non'das,  defeats  the  Spartans, 
115;  his  character,  116;  tutorof  Philip, 
117. 

Eph'e-sus,  Its  importance,  86. 

Ep-ic-te'tus,  writer  on  the  Stole  philoso- 
phy, 159. 

Ep-i-cu'rus,  his  doctrines,  158. 

E-pl'rus,  85;  migration  of  races  from. 


■s: 


E-ras'mus,  477,  648. 
E'rech,  28. 

E-sar-had'don,  conquests  of.  33. 
-        ;k    - 


:,  earl  of,  474;  lejuler  of  the  parlia- 
mentary forces.  4K5. 
E-thi-o'pi-ana,  history  of,  60,  61. 
Ethnology,  17;  synopsis  of,  SM,  300 
«-tru'ri-a,  183. 


E-trus'cans,  or  Etrurians,  occupy  the 
plain  of  the  Po,  182;  confederacy  of, 
182;  their  character,  182. 

Eu-boe'a,  island  of.  85. 

Eu'clid.  Greek  mathematician,  160. 

Eugene,  Prince,  501,  604,  633. 

Euler  (yoo'ler),  642. 

Fu-rip'i-des,  tragedies  of,  157,  159. 

Eu-ry-bi'a-des,  commands  the  Greci&ns 
at  Salamis,  103. 

Eu-rym'e-don,  battle  of,  106. 

Eves'ham,  battle  of,  358. 

Exodus,  date  of,  48. 

Eylau  {i'low\  battle  of,  580. 

E'zi-on-ge'ber,  situation  of,  67. 


Fa'bi-an  Family,  usurpation  of  the,  198: 

Fa'bi-us  Maximus,  dictator,  210;  his 
policy,  211. 

Fah'ren-heit,  643. 

Fairfax,  Lord.  486. 

Fairfax,  Sir  Thomas,  486. 

Falkirk,  battle  of,  mi. 

Falkland  (fawk'lnnd).  Lord,  486. 

Far'a-day,  Michael.  5;i0. 

Fa'roe  Islands,  colonized  by  the  Nor- 
mans, 321. 

Fas'ti  Cap-i-to-li'nl,  22. 

Fat'i-mites,  origin  of.  329;  conquests  of, 
330;  end  of,  m,  412. 

F6n61on  {fa-na-lomf),  568. 

Fe-ra'li-a,  261. 

Ferdinand  I.,  emperor,  602. 

Ferdinand  II.,        '*         602, 608. 

Ferdinand  III.,       "        604. 

Ferdinand  Til.  of  Spain.  618. 

Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  Ml. 

Feudal  Castle,  description  of,  848. 

Feudalism,  in  England,  374;  in  France, 
388;  in  Germany,  481. 

Feudal  System,  an  account  of,  84?,  431. 

Fez,  829. 

Fichte  ijlk'teh),  546. 

Fielding,  .ISS. 

Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  465.  ^4I. 

Fine  Arts,  among  the  Chaldeans.  36;  the 
Egyi>tians.  5<5:  the  Gn^f'ks.  162:  the 
Romans,  255;  in  England.  505.  .528.639; 
in  ItAly.  446;  in  mo<lern  Europe,  689. 

Finland,  623. 

Fins.  290. 

Flrdusi  (feer-doo'ne),  Persian  poet,  80. 

Fisher,  bishop,  466. 

Fla'mens,  261. 

Flam-i-ni'nus,  defeats  Philip  In  the  hat- 
tie  of  Cynos<;ephalfr.  211:  sent  to  de- 
mand the  i>ersoji  of  Hannibal,  218,  n. 

Flam-ma'ri-on.  50.5. 

Flanist4»e<l.  5<W. 

Flanders,  8W),  558. 

Flemings,  manufactures  of,  885;  revolt 
of,  386,  305. 

Fletcher,  506. 

Fleury  (  fluh're).  Abbfi  de,  868. 

Fleurv,  cardinal,  561,  .562. 

Flodden  Field,  battle  of,  464. 


Index, 


669 


Florence,  445,  446. 

Foix  {fwah),  Gaston  de,  542. 

Fontenaille  {fon-ta-nale'),  battle  of,  319, 

418. 
Fontenoy  (fon-ta-nwah'),  battle  of,  509. 
Fortification,  art  of,  565. 
Fox,  George,  503. 
France,  college  of,  552. 
France,  invasion  or,  362,  363;  provinces  of 

under  Hugh  Capet,  379;  history  of,  379, 

541. 
Franche  Comt6  {fransh  kong'ta),  558. 
Francis  I.  of  France,  543. 
Francis  II.  "        547. 

Francis  II.,  emperor,  605. 
Francis,  duke  of  Guise,  547. 
Francis  of  Lorraine,  605. 
Franco-German  War,  590,  607. 
Franconian  Emperors,  422,  423. 
Franklin,  Dr.,  530,  593. 
Franks,  origin  of,  315;  in  Germany,  418. 
Frederick  Barbarossa,  412,  425. 
Frederick  of  Austria,  428. 
Frederick,  elector-palatine,  602. 
Frederick,  elector  of  Saxony,  599,  601. 
Frederick  II.,  emperor,  415,  425. 
Frederick  III.,        "         430. 
Frederick  the  Great,  604,  610. 
Frederick  William  I.,  610. 
Frederick  William  III,,  611. 
Frederick  William  IV.,  611. 
Frederick  William,  the  Great  Elector, 

609. 
Free  Cities  of  Germany,  428,  432. 
French  Academy,  556. 
French  Language  and  Literature,  391. 
French  Revohition,  572,  592. 
Friedland  (freed'land),  battle  of,  581. 
Frob'ish-er,  Martin,  471,  47.5. 
Froe'bel,  646. 
Frois'sart,  Jean.  404. 
Fronde,  war  of  the,  557. 
Froude  (  frood),  James  A.,  537. 
Fuller,  Thomas,  507. 
Fulton,  Robert,  526,  n. 
Funeral  Ceremonies,  of  the  Egyptians, 

54;  of  the  Greeks,  174;  of  the  Romans, 

266. 
Furniture,  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  337;  in 

France,  567. 


Ga'des.  colony  of  the  Phoenicians,  61. 

Ga-la'ti-a.  a  settlement  of,  130. 

Gal'ba,  272,  n. 

Ga'len,  writings  of,  161. 

Ga-le'ri-us,  Caesar  under  Diocletian.  278; 

persecutes  the  Christians,  280;   edict 

of,  281. 
Gal-i-le'o,  642. 
Gall.  Dr..  643. 
Gal-li-e'nus,  emperor,  276;  bestows  the 

government  of  the  East  on  Odenathus 

and  Zenobia,  277;  date  of  reign,  288. 
Gal'lus  emperor.  288. 
Galvani  (grd-vah'ne\  643. 
Gama  (gah'mah),  Vasco  da,  451. 
6as'co-ny,  379. 


Gates,  general,  513. 

Gath,  66. 

Gau-ga-me'la,  battle  of,  122. 

Gauls,  invasion  by  the,  130,  197. 

Gay,  John,  529,  531. 

Gaza,  66;  taken  by  Alexander,  122. 

Ge-dro'si-a,  124. 

Ge-ne'va,  614. 

Genghis  ( jeng'ghis)  Khan,  309,  390. 

Genoa  {jen'o-ah),  441,  445. 

Gen'ser-ic,  king  of  the  Vandals,  takes 
and  plimders  Rome,  287. 

Geoffrey  (jef'fre)  of  Monmouth,  345. 

Georgia,  colony,  508. 

Georgia,  Russian  province,  655. 

George  I.  of  England,  508. 

George  II.  "         508. 

George  ni.  "         512. 

George  IV.  "         516. 

George  I.,  king  of  the  Hellenes,  636. 

Gep'i-dae,  299,  304. 

Gerbert  (gher'berf)  (Sylvester  H.),  421. 

Germanic  Confederation,  606,  607. 

Germany,  history  of,  418,  598;  state  of 
society  in,  431 ;  emperors  of,  436,  651. 

Gesler  (ghes'ler),  428. 

Ghent,  treaty  of,  516. 

Gibbon,  Edward,  533. 

Gibraltar,  328,  501. 

Giotto  i  jot' to),  446. 

Girondists  (zhe-rond'ists),  575. 

Gizeh  (ghe'zd),  site  of  Great  Pyramid,  53. 

Gladiatorial  Exhibitions  in  Rome,  253. 

Gladstone,  William  E.,  .523,  537. 

Glencoe,  massacre  of,  499. 

Gloster,  duke  of,  371,  372. 

Gluck  (glook),  639. 

Gly-ce'ri-u3,  emperor.  288. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon  (boo-yong%  409, 410. 

Godwin,  earl.  33.5. 

Goethe  (guh'teh),  646. 

Golden  Bull,  429. 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  ^V. 

Good  Hope,  Cape,  discovery  of,  451. 

Gor'di-an  I.,  emperor,  288. 

Gordian  IT.,  emperor,  288. 

Gordian  III.,  emperor,  288. 

Gor-di-e'um.  41. 

Gordon,  Lady,  462. 

Goths,  attack  the  Roman  empire,  283; 
defeated  by  Claudius,  284;  settle  in 
Dacia,  284;  in  Mnesia,  284;  defeat  the 
Romans  at  Adrianople,  284;  defeated 
by  Theodosius,  284;  invade  Greece,  285; 
invade  the  Eastern  Empire,  297,  298; 
Switzerland,  437. 

Gounod  (goo-no'),  641. 

Grac'chi,  their  attempts  at  reform,  221; 
their  character,  223. 

Grac'chus.  Caius,  223. 

Gracchus,  Tiberius,  223. 

Gra-na'da.  under  the  Moors,  881;  king* 
dom  of.  449. 

Gra-ni'cus,  battle  of,  120,  123. 

Grand  AlUance,  500. 

Gray,  Thomas,  532. 

Great  Pyramid,  construction  of,  53;  de- 
scription of,  57,  58,  n. 


670 


Index, 


Greece,  geographical  sketch  of,  a');  his- 
tory of,  88;  becomes  a  Rompii  prov- 
ince, 215;  invaded  by  the  Goths.  285; 
history  of  modem,  635;  independence 
of,  517.  - 

Greek  Church,  311. 

Greek  Colonies,  77,  86,  99. 

Greek  Empire.    See  Ikistem  Empire. 

Greek  Fire,  306. 

Greek  Language,  311. 

Greenland,  321. 

Gregory  the  Great,  333. 

Gregory  VII.,  pope,  408,  423,  44a 

Gr6vy,  president  of  France,  591. 

Grey,  Lady  Jane,  468,  477. 

Grote,  George,  537. 

Grotius,  Hugo,  644. 

Guelph,  424. 

Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  429. 

Guericke  (gher'ik-kd),  643. 

Guido  (gwe'do)  of  Arezzo  (ah-ret'zo),  447. 

Guienne  (g?ie-en'),  379,  388. 

Guiscard  {yhees-kar'),  Robert,  442,  443. 

Guise  (gweez),  duke  of,  547. 

Guizot  ighe-zo'),  595. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  479. 

Gus-ta'vus  Adolphus,  603,  622. 

Gustavus  IV.  of  Sweden,  623. 

Gustavus  Vasa  (vah'sah),  622. 

Gutenberg  {goo' ten-berg),  John,  435. 

Guy  Fawkes,  479. 

Gymnasium,  Greek,  170. 


Habeas  Corpus  Act,  496. 

Ha'des,  the  unseen  world,  150;  rivers  in, 
174,  n. ;  burial  requisite  for  entrance 
to,  266. 

Hades,  or  Pluto,  1.50. 

Ha'dri-an,  emperor,  274,  288, 

Hahn'e-mann,  Dr.,  643. 

Hal'i-don  Hill,  battle  of,  362. 

Hallam.  Henry,  535. 

Hal'ler,  643. 

Hal'ley,  .506. 

Ha'lys.  boundary  of  Lydla,  42. 

Hamburg,  432. 

Ha-mil'car.  defeat  of.  207;  genius  of,  208; 
hatred  of  tlie  RomMUS,  209, 

Ham'ites,  descendants  of  Ham,  18, 24, 46. 

Hamitie  nations.  20.  24. 

Hampden,  John,  484,  4R5. 

Hampden,  John  fJ»m.),  496. 

Hannel.  George  Fre<lerick.  529. 

Haii'ni-bal.  takes  an  oath  of  enmity 
against  the  Romans,  209;  in  command 
of  the  army,  209;  captures  Saguntum; 
crosses  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Alps, 
209;  defeates  the  Romans  at  the  Tici- 
nus,  the  Trebia,  and  Lake  Trasimenus, 
209:  his  victory  at  Cann«>,  210;  his  re- 
call and  defeat  at  Zania,  212;  assists 
Antiochus  again.st  the  Romans,  213; 
his  death,  213.  n. 

Hanover,  510,  518. 

Hansa.  or  Hanseatic  League,  482,  488. 


Hanse  Towns,  582. 

Hans  Saclis,  435. 

Hapsburg,  house  of,  427. 

Har'tleur,  368,  396. 

Hargreaves,  .James,  527. 

Har-mo'di-us,  98. 

Harold,  king  of  England,  a35. 

Ha-roun'  alHasch'id,  caliph,  329. 

Harpies,  150. 

Ha-rus'pi-ces,  260. 

Harvey,  506. 

Has'dru-bal,  brother  of  Hannibal,  de 

feated  and  slain,  212. 
Hasdmbal,  defense  of  Carthage  by,  217. 
Hastings,  battle  of,  335. 
Hastings,  Warren,  513. 
Hav'e-lock,  general,  520,  655. 
Hawkins,  admiral,  471. 
Haydn  (ha'dn),  640. 
Haz'a-el,  king  of  Syria,  65. 
He'be,  150. 
Hebrews,  a  Semitic  nation,  20;  histor; 

of,  66. 
Hec'tor,  son  of  Priam,  90. 
Hegel  {ha'get),  646. 
He  gira,  era  of  the,  21,  325. 
Heine  (hi'neh),  646. 
Helen,  wife  of  Menelaus,  90. 
He-li-op'o-lis.    See  Baalbec. 
Hel'las,  states  of,  a5. 
Hel-le'nes,  land  of  the,  85;  migration  of 

89. 
He'lots,  revolt  of,  107. 
Helvetians,  437. 
He'mans,  Felicia  D.,  534. 
Henrietta  Maria,  481. 
Henry  of  Burgundy,  450. 
Henry,  duke  of  I>ancaster,  366. 
Henry  L  of  England,  M\. 
Henry  H.  ^'  350. 

Henry  HL  "  858. 

Henr>'  IV.  "  367. 

Henry  V.  "  367. 

Henry  VI.  "  368. 

Henry  VII.         "  372, 461, 

Henry  VIII.       "  463. 

Henry  I.  of  France,  381. 
Henry  II.  "       546. 

Henry  III.  "        549, 62.5. 

Henry  IV.  "       5.58,  .5(J5. 

Henrv  I.  of  Germany,  419. 
Henry  II.  "  421. 

Henry  IH.  "  422. 

Henrv  IV.  "  423. 

Henry  V.  "  424, 432. 

Henry  Vn.         "  428. 

Henrv  of  Huntingdon,  »15. 
Henr\',  king  of  Ca.stile.  419. 
Henry,  prince,  the  Navigator,  450. 
He-pha's'tos.  worship  of,  147. 
Hep-tan'o-mis.  situation  of,  58. 
Hep'tar-chy,  82-1. 

Hpr-a-clei'cW.  return  of  the,  98,  98 
Her-a-cli'us,  emperor,  .'105. 
Her-cti-la'ne-uin.  destruction  of,  27& 
Her'«Mi-les.  89,  98;  worship  of,  150. 
Her'der.  645. 
He're.  worship  of,  148. 


Index. 


671 


Her'mann,  431. 

Hermann  the  Cripple,  434» 

Her'mes,  his  attributes  j  how  repre- 
sented, 148. 

Her'od  the  Great,  69. 

He-rod'o-tus,  2:2,  45;  visit  tO  Tyre,  63; 
his  history,  157. 

Herrick,  Robert.  507. 

Herschel,  Sir  Wiliiam,  530. 

Her'u-li,  287. 

He'si-od,  poems  of,  155. 

Hes'ii-a,  worship  of,  149. 

He-tae'rai,  character  of  the,  172* 

Hewson,  colonel,  502. 

Heyne  (Jii'neh),  645. 

Heywood,  John,  478. 

Hez-e-ki'ah,  taken  captive,  68. 

Hibernia,  352. 

Hi'e-ro,  king  of  Syracuse,  206,  211. 

Hieroglyphics,  for  what  used,  and  how 
written,  59:  how  deciphered,  59,  n. 

High  Commission,  court  of,  474. 

Hil'de-brand  (Gregory  VH.),  408,  423,  443. 

Hin'doos,  origin  of,  18;  history  of,  70; 
commerce  and  wealth  of,  71. 

Hin-do-stan',  peninsula  of,  653. 

Hip-par^chus,  97,  98. 

Hip'pi-as,  97,  98,  100. 

Historical  Records,  among  the  Chal- 
deans, 36. 

History,  defined,  17;  how  divided,  23; 
philosophy  of,  23. 

Hogarth,  William,  528. 

Ho-hen-lin'den,  battle  of,  579. 

Hol'bein  {-bine),  641. 

Holland,  history  of,  612. 

Hol'stein  (stine),  606,  624. 

Holy  League,  542. 

Holy  Roman  Empire,  580,  605. 

Ho'mer,  poems  of,  90;  Greek  manners 
described  by,  144;  account  of,  155. 

Hong  Kong,  521. 

Ho-no'ri-us,  emperor  of  the  West,  285; 
his  death,  286. 

Hood,  Thomas,  534. 

Hooke,  506. 

Hopital  io-pe-tahl')  chancellor  de  1',  548, 
552. 

Hor'ace,  poems  of,  258. 

Ho-ra'ti-us  Co'cles,  legend  of,  189,  190. 

Ho-she'a,  surrenders  Samaria,  68. 

Hospitallers,  knights,  410. 

Hotel  de  Ville  (vil),  565. 

House  of  Commons,  358,  373. 

House  of  Lords,  488. 

Household  Gods,  among  the  Greeks, 
168,  n. ;  among  the  Romans,  262. 

Howard,  Catharine,  467. 

Howard,  Henry,  467. 

Howard,  Lord,  admiral,  471. 

Hugh  the  Great,  379,  409. 

Huguenots,  547,  548,  549.  ,  560,.n. 

Humbert  I.,  616. 

Humboldt,  613. 

Hume,  David,  5.33. 

Hungarian  Insurrection,  630. 

Hungarians.  307,  422,  455. 

Hungary,  history  of,  455. 


Hunnish  Empire,  301. 

Huns,  yivade  Europe,  284,  297;  ravage 

the  Eastern  Empire,  and  invade  Gaul, 

286;  defeat  of ,  287. 
Hxmter,  John,  530. 
Htm-ya'di,  king,  456. 
Huss,  John,  429. 
Huxley,  Thomas  H.,  537. 
Huyghens  or  Huygens  Qd'ghens) ,  566, 642. 
Hy-das'pes,  123. 
Hyde,  Sir  Edward,  earl  of  Clarendon, 

492  ;  impeachment  of,  494;  an  author, 

507 
Hyk'sos,  shepherd  kings,  their  rule  in 

Egypt,  48. 
Hyph'a-sis,  124. 
Hyp'nos,  149. 


I-a-pyg'i-ans,  181, 182. 

I-ax'ar-tes,  123. 

Iceland,  321. 

I-cil'i-an  Law,  192. 

I-co'ni-um,  307. 

Xl'i-um,  90. 

Il-lyr'i-an  Pirates,  208. 

Independents,  487. 

India,  invaded  by  Alexander,  71, 1'Zh 

India  Trade,  313,  653. 

Indian  Mutiny,  520. 

Indo-Europeans,  18. 

Indus  River,  124. 

Industrial  Arts  In  England,  526. 

Ingelow,  Jean,  586. 

Inker-man',  battle  of,  519. 

Innocent  III.,  pope,  355,  356,  384,  413,  iH. 

Interregnum,  the  great,  427. 

Invincible  Armada,  471. 

I-o'ni-a,  92. 

Ionian  Colonies,  86;  revolt  of,  99. 

lonians,  86. 

Ionic  Order  of  Architecture,  164. 

Ip'sus,  battle  of,  127. 

Tran,  plateau  of.  18;  nations  of,  41. 

Ireland,  early  history  of,  352;  conquest 
of,  353;  reduced  by  Ireton,  499;  consti 
tutionally  united  to  Great  Biitain,  514 

Ire'ton,  489. 

I'ris,  150. 

Irish  Church,  disestablishment  of,  522. 

Irish  Land  Bill,  522,  523. 

Ir-koutsk'  {-kootsk),  foundation  of,  628. 

Iron  Crown  of  the  Lombards,  304. 

Isabella,  queen  of  Castile,  449. 

Isabella,  queen  of  England,  361,  362,  388. 

Isabella  II. ,  queen  of  Spain,  619. 

Islam,  326. 

Ismail  Pacha  {is-mah'eel  pa-shaw'),  634. 

I-soc'ra-tes,  orator,  160. 

Is-pa-han',  307. 

Is'ra-el,  kingdom  of,  66 ;  destruction  ot 
68. 

Israelites,  in  Egypt,  48. 

Is'sus,  battle  of,  120 

Isth'mi-an  Games,  153. 

Italian  Republics,  426. 

It'a-lo-Celtic  Races,  299. 


672 


Index. 


Italy,  early  history  of.  181,  439;  races  of, 
l»i  •,  conquest  of,  202;  popiiUftion  of, 
220;  northern,  439;  southern,  442;  pa- 
pal, 414;  state  of  society  in,  445; 
republics  of  northern,  439;  dialects  of. 
447;  modern  history  of,  615;  a  united 
kingdom,  CI6. 

Ith'a-ca,  90. 

Ivan  IIL  (c'-ran'),  628. 

Ivry  (eei/re),  battle  of,  553. 


Jacob,  66. 

Jac'o-bin  Club,  Paris,  574. 

Jac'o-bites,  508. 

Jacquard  {zliak-kar^,  639. 

Jacquerie  {zhak-re'),  394. 

Jaffa,  578. 

Jamaica,  taken  by  the  English,  491. 

James,  duke  ot  York,  defeats  the  Dutch, 
493;  king  of  England,  .4%;  flight  to 
France,  498;  defeated  in  Ireland,  499. 

James  I.  of  England,  478. 

James  II.   .       **  496. 

James  FV.  of  Scotland,  464. 

Jamestown,  settlement  of,  480. 

Ja-nic'u-lan  Hill,  fortified,  185. 

Ja'nus,  temple  of,  erected,  185;  con- 
stantly open  in  time  of  war,  204;  closed 
for  the  third  time,  243;  described,  250. 

Japan,  discovery  of,  !J20;  history  of,  652. 

Jean  de  Gerson  (zhdr-song%  404. 

Jeffrey,  Lord.  535. 

Jeffreys,  judge,  497. 

Jehan  de  Joinville  (zh7i}ahng-veel'\  392. 

Je-hoi'a-kim,  subdued  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, 29;  date  and  length  of  reign,  8;i. 

Je-hosli'a-phat,  reign  of,  68. 

Jemmappes  {zhem-map'),  battle  of,  575. 

Jena,  battle  at,  .580,  611. 

Jenner,  Etlward,  5:^0.. 

Jer-o-Jjo'ain,  firsfc  king  of  .Israel,  67. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  430. 

Je-ru'sa-lem,  plundered  by  Shi.shak,  49; 
taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  68;  temple 
of  rebuilt,  08;  taken  by  Pompey,  231; 
dastroyed  by  Titus,  2f3;  attetnpt  to 
rebuild  the  temple,  283,  n.\  taken  by 
the  Saracens,  306,  326;  by  the  Cnisad- 
ers,  410;  kingdom  of,  410;  taken  by 
Saladin,  412. 

Jews,  persecution  of,  888;  expelled  from 
Spain,  450. 

John  of  Damascus,  312. 

John,  Don,  of  Austria,  632. 

John,  king  of  England,  356. 

John,  king  of  France,  393,  894. 

John  of  Oaunt,  360,  3(57,  461. 

Jolin  of  Sual)ia,  428. 

John  I.,  king  of  Portugal,  460. 

John  II.  of  Portugal,  460. 

John  VI.  "  621. 

John  IV.,  duke  of  Braganza,  620 

Johnson,  general,  610. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  681,  682. 

Jones,  Inigo,  505. 

Joason,  Ben,  506. 


Joseph,  son  of  Jacob,  48. 

Joseph  I.  of  Portugal,  620. 

Josephine,  empress,  582. 

Jo-se'phus,  161. 

Josh'u-a,  66. 

Jo'vi-an,  Roman  emperor,  283,  288. 

Ju'ba,  king  of  Mauritania,  237. 

Ju'dali,  kingdom  of,  67,  68. 

Ju'das  Mac-ca-be'us,  revolt  of  the  Jetvs 
under,  69. 

Ju-de'a,  a  Roman  province,  69;  kingdom 
of  matle  subject  to  the  Romans,  231. 

Judicial  Combat,  349,  373. 

Ju-^ur'tha,  his  crimes,  22-3;  war  against 
him,  224;  his  capture  and  death,  224. 

Julia,  daughter  of  Cajsar,  given  in  mar- 
riage to  Pompey,  23A. 

Juli-an  the  Apostate,  his  education,  282; 
attempts  to  reinstate  jiagunism,  2*2: 
undertakes  to  rebuild  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem,  283;  his  death,  283. 

Ju'li-us  Cas'sar.    See  L'oisar. 

Julius  Nepos,  emperor,  288. 

Julius  n.,  pope,  542. 

Ju'no,  worship  of,  148;  temple  of,  1&4. 

Junot  {zhoo-no'),  general,  581,  621. 

Jupiter  Capitolinus,  temple  of,  ISd. 

Jury,  trial  by,  373. 

Jus-tin'i-an,  emperor,  302. 

Jutes,  :j22. 

Ju've-nal,  kioman  poet,  258. 


Kairwahn  {kare-toahn'),  827,  830. 

Kant,  (>45. 

Kar'nak,  great  hall  of,  48;  temple  of,  138. 

Keats,  John,  533. 

Kempis,  Thomas  A,  404. 

Kenilworth,  castle  of,  477. 

Kepler,  642. 

Kha'led,  826. 

Khiva  {ke'vnh),  conquest  of,  630,  665. 

Kho'kan,  65.'). 

Khor'sa-bad.  temple  at,  32;  ruins  of,  82; 

Jnscrii)tions  found  therein,  82. 
Khos'ni.  305. 
Kiel  {keel),  treaty  of,  624. 
Kingsley,  Charles,  536. 
Kleber  {kla'l>rr),  578. 
Klopstock,  (JJ.'). 
Knight-errantry,  349. 
Knight liood.  :Ur,,  316,  348. 
Knights,  IIospitAJlers,  410;  Templars,410 
Knowles.  J.  Sheridan,  634. 
Kon-rad'in.  426. 
Koran,  32«5. 

Kos-ci-us'ko,  Thaddeug,  688,  687. 
Kossuth  (kosh'oot).  608. 
Kranach  ikrak'niUc),  Ix>ui8,  641. 
Krou'os,  149. 


Lab'a-nim,  standard  of  the  troM   de* 

scripfion  of.  881.282. 
Lac-e-dut'inon,  conquered  by  the  Dor* 

ans.  93. 


Index, 


673 


La-co'ni-a,  one  of  the  states  oj  Pelopon- 
nesus, 85;  increased  by  the  annexa- 
tion of  Messenia,  95. 

Lae-vi'nus,  consul,  202. 

Lafayette  (lah-fa-et'),  573,  574,  587. 

La  Fontaine  (fon-tain'),  567. 

La  Hogue  {hog),  battle  of,  499. 

Lam'ar-tine  (-teen),  588. 

Lamb,  Charles,  535. 

Lambert,  Simnel,  462. 

La'mi-a,  battle  of,  125. 

Lamiau  War,  its  cause,  125;  termination 
of,  126. 

Landon,  Letitia  E  ,  534. 

Langton,  356. 

Language  and  Literature,  of  the  Egyp- 
tians. 59;  of  the  Phoenicians,  64;  of  the 
Hindoos,  70~;  of  the  Chinese,  73;  of  the 
Persians,  80;  of  the  Greeks,  154;  of  the 
Romans,  257. 

Languages,  classification  of,  19. 

Languedoc  ilong-gha-doc'),  ceded  to 
France,  384. 

Lantern  of  Demosthenes,  164. 

Laotse(Zoi«-<sa'),  religious  system  fovmd- 
ed  by,  74, 

La  Place  iplafis),  569. 

La  Plata  {plah'tah\  657. 

Laps,  2'J9. 

La'  res.  worship  of,  168. 

Lars  Por'sen-na,  war  of  against  Rome, 
189;  legends  relating  to,  190. 

Lat'i-mer,  469. 

Latin  Emperors.  308,  414. 

Latin  PrincipaUties  in  the  East,  410. 

Latins,  181;  tribes  of,  184;  customs  of, 
184,  n. 

Latium  'lal  ske-um),  headship  of,  184; 
annexed  to  the  Roman  territory,  201. 

Laud,  Archbishop,  48:3,  484. 

Lavater  (Inh-vah'ter),  643. 

Lavoisier  {lah-vwal',-ze-a'\  569. 

Law,  John,  562. 

Layard,  explorations  by,  27. 

League  of  the  Pubhc  Good,  399. 

Leai-ning,  Saracenic,  331 ;  Anglo-Saxon, 
337:  Norman,  345;  in  Grermany,  432;  in 
England,  468,  506.  531;  in  France,  402, 
594. 

Leeds,  504. 

Legendre  (luh-zhond''r'),  569, 

Legion,  Roman,  how  composed,  267; 
changes  in,  267,  n. 

Legionaries,  how  armed,  268. 

I^gnano  (len-yah'no),  battle  of,  425» 

Leibnitz  (libe'nits),  642. 

Leicester  (les'ter),  earl  of,  358,  477, 

Leipsic  (lipe'sic),  battle  of,  584. 

I-iel'e-ges,  88. 

Lem-u  ra'li-a,  262. 

Lenthall,  speaker,  484. 

Leo,  Bishop  of  Rome,  287. 

Leo  III.,  pope,  318. 

Leo  X..  pope,  465. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci  (vin'cJie),  446. 

Le-on'i-flas,  withstands  the  Persian  host, 
at  Thertnopylffi,  101:  his  death,  102. 

Leopold  I.,  emperor,  604. 


Leopold  I. ,  king  of  Belgium,  613. 

Leopold  II.,   "     "         "         613. 

Le-os'the-nes,  victories  of,  125;  defeat  of, 
126. 

Le-pan'to,  battle  of,  632. 

Lep'i-dus.  member  of  the  second  trixma- 
virate,  241 ;  deposed,  242. 

Ler'mon-toff,  Russian  poet,  646. 

Le  Sage  {sazh),  568. 

Les'bos,  island  of,  86;  revolt  of  from 
Athens,  109. 

Lescot  (les-co'),  Pierre,  552. 

Les'sing,  645. 

Leuc'tra,  battle  of.  115. 

Lew'es,  battle  of,  358, 

Libations,  151. 

Lib'i-us,  Severus,  emperor,  288, 

Lib'y-a,  under  the  rule  of  Ptolemy.  137. 

Li-cin'i-an  Laws,  passed,  196,  199;  re- 
vived b5'  Tiberius  Gracchus,  221;  at- 
tempt to  revive  them  by  Caesar;  237. 

Liebig  (le'big).  frl3, 

Li-gu'ri-ans,  ]8i. 

Lima  (le'mah).  657. 

Lind'say,  earl  of,  485. 

Lin'gard,  John,  535. 

Lin-nae'us,  643. 

Literature,  EgjT)tian,  .50;  Phoenician,  64; 
Chinese,  74;" Greek,  154;  Roman.  257; 
Byzantine,  316;  English,  345.  376,  478, 
506,  5:^1:  French,  3'J],  404:  German,  431: 
Italian.  446:  Spanish.  451:  Portuguese, 
451;  general  of  Europe,  (>43, 

Lith-u-a'ni-a,  625. 

Liverpool,  504. 

Livingstone,  Dr.,  522. 

Liv'y,-  Roman  historian,  258, 

Llewellyn  (floo-el'lin),  king  of  Wales, 
359. 

Locji  Lev'in,  473. 

Lo'cris,  East  and  West.  85. 

Lombard  League,  439,  441. 

Lombards,  299.  304,  318. 

Lombardy,  cities  of,  425;  league  of,  441  ^ 
ceded  to  Italy,  590. 

London,  432;  great  fire  at.  494;  popula- 
tion of,  504;  university  of,  525. 

Lon-gi'nus.  minister  of  Zenobia,  277 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici  (vied'e-che),  447. 

Lorraine',  cardinal,  547. 

Lorraine,  duke  of,  409. 

Lo-thaire',  320. 

Lothaire  of  Saxony,  424. 

Louis  of  Bavaria,  428. 

Louisburg.  fortress  of,  509, 

Louis,  count  of  Flanders,  395. 

Louis  le  D6bonnaire,  319. 

Louis  VI.  of  France,  382, 

Louis  VII.         "         382, 411. 

Louis  Vni.       "         384, 

Louis  IX.  "         384, 385, 415. 

Louis  X.  "         387. 

Louis  XI,  "         398. 

Louis  XII.         "         541. 

Louis  XIIL       "         555. 

Louis  XIV.        "         556. 

Louis  XV.         "         561. 

i^ouis  XVI.        "         570. 


674 


Index, 


Louis  XVII.  of  France,  585. 

Louis  XVm.         "  585,  586. 

Louis,  king  of  Gennany,  319. 

Louis  tile  Great,  king  of  Hungary,  456. 

Louis  Napoleon.     See  Napoleon  III. 

Louis  Phuippe  (fe-leep'),  587. 

Louis  I.  of  Portugal,  ii2l. 

Louvois  {loo-vwali'),  558. 

Lu'beck,  city  of,  432;  treaty  of,  G03. 

Lu-ca'ni-ans,  202. 

Lu'cl-an,  satirist,  161. 

Luck'now,  .520. 

Lu-cre'ti-us,  Roman  poet,  258. 

Lu-cul'lus,  his  victory  over  Mithi  idates, 
226 ;  mutiny  of  his  troops,  230. 

Lulli  (lool'le),  568. 

Lune'ville,  treaty  of,  579. 

Lu-per-ca'li-a,  261. 

Lu-si-ta'ni-ans,  subdued  by  the  Romans, 
217. 

Lu-te'ti-a,  or  Paris,  316. 

Luther,  Martin,  598,  599,  60L 

Lut'zen,  battle  of,  581,  603. 

Ly-ce'uni,  in  Greece,  1.59,  171:  in  France, 
593. 

Ly-cur'gus,  laws  of,  93. 

Lyd'i-a  and  the  Lydians,  history  of,  42; 
annexed  to  tlie  Persian  Empire,  43. 

Ly'ell,  Sir  Charles,  537. 

Ly-san'der,  victory  gained  by.  111. 

Lys'i-as,  orator,  160. 

Ly-sic'ra-tes,  monument  of,  164. 

Ly-sira'a-chu8,  .\sia  Minor,  assigned  to, 
128;  obtains  the  government  of  Mace- 
donia, 129;  defeated  and  slain,  129. 

Lytton,  Lord  (Bulwer),  5m. 


McCartney,  Lord,  652. 

Ma-cau'Iay,  Thomas  B.,  5.36. 

Mac'ca-bees,  69. 

Mac-ca-be'iLs.  Judas,  69. 

Macchiavelli  (rnak-e-ah-vel'le),  447. 

Mac-e-do'ni-a,  8):  early  history  of,  117; 
the  leading  state  in  Greece,  119;  his- 
tory under  Alexander,  120;  under  his 
successors,  126;  becomes  a  Roman 
province,  133.  214,  215. 

Mackintosh,  Sir  James,  53.5. 

McMahon,  Marshal,  .590.  .591. 

Ma-cri'nus,  emneror,  '2i^. 

Maileira  Islands,  visited  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians, 63. 

Ma-dras',  .504. 

Mre-ce'nas,  258. 

Ma-gel'lan,  475. 

Ma-gen'ta,  battle  of,  590. 

Magi,  their  influence,  41,   76;  corruptions 

Magianism,  system  of.  76.  n. 
Magna  Charta.  356,  .V)7.  373. 
Magna  OrnRcia.  oitlos  in.  87. 
Mag-ne'si-a.  battle  of,  136,  214. 
Magyars  {mod-ynrit'\  807,  455. 
Maintenon  (mdhn-ta-ncmn),  Madame  de, 

550. 
Ma-jo'ri-an,  emperor,  288. 


.   Malacca,  620. 

I    Malpla<iuet  {mal-pkih'ka),  V)attle  of,  501. 

Malslierbes  (>nal-zdrb'),  570,  594. 

Maltii,  6:32. 

Mani'e-lukes,  578. 

Mam'er-tines,  account  of  the,  206. 

Man-as'seh,  king  of  Judah,  taken  prison- 
er, 3S. 

Manchester,  city  of,  501. 

Mandeville,  Sir  John.  376. 

Man'e-tlio,  history  of,  22;  Egyptian 
dynasties  of,  45,  47. 

Manfred,  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  420, 
44^3. 

Mansard,  569. 

Mansfield,  count,  602. 

Mautchou  Tartai-s,  652. 

Man-ti-ne'a,  battle  of,  115. 

Mau'u-el  Com-ne'nus,  411. 

Manufactures,  among  the  Assyrians.  36, 
37;  anaong  tlie  Egyptians,  5.j;  the  Phce- 
nicians,  63;  the  Greeks,  172;  in  Eng- 
land, 476,  505. 

Mar-a-can'da,  taken  by  Alexander,  123. 

Marat  ( mah-rali')^  575,  576, 

Mar'a-thon,  battle  of,  100. 

Marcel,  3i)3. 

Mar-cel'lus,  the  Shield  of  Rome,  taking 
of  Syracuse  by,  211. 

Mar'co  Po'lo,  travels  of,  72,  441,  652. 

Mar'cus  Au-i*e'li-us,  a  stoic,  159;  one  of 
the  Ave  good  emperors,  274 ;  repels  the 
barbarians,  565. 

Mar-do'ni  us,  expedition  of  against  the 
Greeks,  100;  lieutenant  of  Xerxes,  102; 
army  of  defeated  by  the  Gi-eeks,  103 

Marengci,  battle  of,  .579. 

Maigaret  of  .Vnjou,  .3«)8,  .370,  ,371. 

Margaret  of  Denmark,  622. 

Margaret,  duche.ss  of  Burgundy,  468. 

Maria  da  Gloria.  621. 

Maria  Ijouisa,  582. 

Maria  Theresa,  .509,  604. 

Marie  Antoinette  {an-ttmh-net'),  571,  B7B. 

Marignano  {mah-reen-rjnh'no\  battle  of. 
,543. 

Marigny  (mah-reen'yp).  387. 

Mariotte  (mah-re-nf),  .5(50. 

Ma'ri-ua,  his  rise,  221;  carries  on  tlie  v*- 
agalnst  .Tugurtha,  221;  defeat.s  ''>  • 
CJmbri  and  Teutons,  224.  225;  his  exilo. 
227;  war  with  Sulla,  228;  his  death. 
228. 

Marlborottgh,  duke  of.  .500.  .501. 

Marot  dnnh-ro'),  Clement,  5.52. 

Marriage,  among  the  (Jreeks,  IH ;  among 
the  Romans.  263. 

Mai-ston  Moor,  battle  of,  486. 

Martin  V..  pope,  429. 

Martin  I^utner.    See  Lnther. 

Mary  of  Burginidy.  3i)9.  130. 

Marv,  queen  of  England.  468. 

M.irV.  niieen  of  Sects.  4?>.  473.  547. 

Mis  ill  is'sa.  king  n{  Niunidia,  216. 

Mass.whusefts,  .settlement  of,  483. 

Mas-sag'e-tii>.  75. 

3Ias-8iri-a,  Cn^clan  colony  of.  87. 

Mas.^illon  (tnas-sccl-pony'),  568. 


Index. 


675 


Massiuger,  Philip,  506. 

Matilda,  wife  of  Henry  I.,  341. 

Matilda,  queen  uf  England,  341. 

Mat'sys,  Quentin,  Wl. 

Mattluas,  kuig  of  Hungary,  45(j. 

Maiu-ice,  elector  of  fcjaxouy,  54G,  601. 

Mav-ro-cor-da'to,  6i5. 

Max-im'i-an,  emperor,  278,  288. 

Max-i-mil'i-an  1.,  emperor,  4;i0,  431,  464, 
598. 

Maximilian,  archduke.  590,  050. 

Max'i-inin,  emperor,  288. 

Max'i-mus  I.,  emperor,  28«. 

Maxim  us  11.,  emperor,  2<S8. 

Mayenne  {ina-eit'),  duke  of,  553. 

Mazarin  (mah-zah-reen'),  cai-diual,  557. 

Medes,  history  of,  40. 

Me'di-a,  40. 

Median  Civihzation,  41. 

Medici  {med'e-che),  Catharhie  de\  546, 
548,  549;  Lorenzo  de',  546;  Mary  de', 
555,  556,  567. 

Mee'rut,  mutiny  at,  520. 

Meg'a-ris,  85. 

Mehemet  Ail  (ma'hem-et  alc'le),  6o4. 

Meis'tersingei*s,  435. 

Me-lanch'thon,  Philip,  600. 

Mem'non,  statue  of,  52. 

Memnon,  the  Rhodiau,  120. 

Mem'phis,  city  of,  47;  capital  of  Hep- 
tanomis,  53. 

Me-nan'der,  comedies  of,  159. 

Meu'dels-sohn,  640. 

Men-e-la'us,  king  of  Sparta,  90. 

Men'shi-koff,  029. 

Mer'cu-ry.    See  Hermes. 

Mer'i-vale,  Rev.  Charles,  537. 

Mer'o-e,  city  of,  60. 

Mer-o-vin'gians,  317. 

Mer-o-vae'ws,  317. 

Mes'mer,  643. 

Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a,  situation  of,  27;  con- 
quest of  bv  the  Romans,  278. 

Mes-sa'na,  8"7;  taken  by  the  Mamertines, 
206. 

Mes-sa'pi-a,  181. 

Mes-se'ne,  captured  by  the  Aehaeans,133. 

Mes-se'ni-a,  85. 

Messenians.  revolt  of,  133. 

Messenlan  Wars,  95. 

Met-a-sta'si-o,  615. 

Me-tel'lns,  consul.  207. 

Methodists,  rise  of,  524. 

Metz,  surrender  of.  591. 

Mexico,  occupied  by  the  French,  590; 
history  of,  656. 

Meyerbeer  (mi'er-har),  640. 

Michael  An'ge-lo,  641. 

Michelet  {meesh'ln).  595. 

Mi-cip'sa,  king  of  Numidia,  223. 

Mi'das,  king  of  Phrygia,  41. 

Middle  English.  376'. 

Mil'an.  taken  by  the  French.  541 . 

Mi-le'tus,  importance  of.  86;  insurrec- 
tion at,  99;  taken  bv  the  Persians,  100. 

Military  School,  French,  566. 

Military  System  of  the  Romans,  266, 

Military  Tribunes,  196. 


MiU,  John  Stuart,  537. 

Milleuniimi,  era  of,  381. 

MiUer,  Hugh,  5:37. 

Mil-ti'a-des,  defeats  the  Persians  at  Mar 

athon,    100;    his   career   and    death, 

101,  n. 
Milton,  John,  490,  507. 
Minden,  battle  of,  562. 
Mi-ner'va.    See  Athene. 
Min'ne-singers,  434. 
Minstrel,  >iorman,  345.   - 
Mirabeau  {me-rah-bo'),  572. 
Mississippi  Scheme,  561. 
Mis-so-lon'ghi  (,-y/te),  siege  of,  635. 
Mith-ri-da'tes,  kmg  of  Pontus,  136;  his 

character  and  accomplishments,  225; 

war  with  the  Romans,  226;  his  defeat 

and  death,  226. 
Moawiyah  {mo-ah-we'yah),  327. 
M(je'si-a,  annexed  to  the  Roman  Empire, 

2^2;  attacked  by  the  barbarians,  284. 
Mogiils,  652. 

Mo-ham'med,  324,  325,  326. 
Mohammed  U.  (the  Conqueror),  310,  458, 

631. 
Mol-da'vi-a,  456,  519. 
Moliere  {rno-lyure'),  567. 
Moram'sen,  646. 
Monckton,  colonel,  510. 
Mongols,  309. 

Monk,  general,  489.  492,  494. 
Monmouth,  duke  of,  496.  497. 
Montaigne  {mon-tain'),  Michel  de,  552. 
Montcalm  (mont-kahm'),  marquis  of,  510. 
Montesquieu  (mon-ies-kii'),  569. 
Montgomery,  James,  534. 
Mont-mo-ren'cy,  duke  of.  Constable,  547; 

execution  of,  556. 
Moore,  Sir  John,  515. 
MooTe,  Thomas,  534. 
i'^  ,ors,  sack  of  Rome  by,  287;  origin  of, 

328;  in  Spain,  331;  expulsion  of,  617. 
Moral  Plavs,  376,  402. 
More,  Sir  Tliomas,  466,  478. 
Mo-re'a,origin  of  the  name,31 3;  acquired 

by  Venice,  441. 
Moreau  (mo-ro'),  general.  579,  584. 
Mor'gar-ten,  battle  of,  4-*38. 
Moi"se,  profes.sor,  5:30. 
Mor'ti-mer.  Edmimd,  367. 
Mortimer,  English  baron,  362. 
Mos'chus,  poems  of,  160. 
Moscow,  burning  of,  583. 
Moses,  66. 

Mos'heim  i-hime),  644. 
Moslems,  326. 

Mount  Tabor,  battle  of,  578. 
Moimtain  Party,  575. 
Mo'zart,  640. 

Mu'ci-us  Scae'vo-la,  legend  of,  189, 190. 
Muhl'berg.  battle  of,  601. 
Miiller.  John,  4.35. 
Mum'mi-us,  takes  Coiinth,  t33. 
Murat  (mu-rah'),  general.  578;  king  of 

Naples,  581 ;  execution  of,  586. 
Mu-ra-to'ri  (-re),  644. 
Murillo  (moo-reeV yo\  641. 
Murray,  regent  of  Scotland,  473. 


676 


Index, 


Musa,  Saracen  general,  328. 
Music,  among  tlie  Greeks,  173;  in  Italy 
and  (Jermauy,  447,  448;    progress  in. 

Musical  Composers,  039,  640. 

Myc'a-le,  battle  of,  103. 

My-ce'nai,  ancient  kingdom  of,  89;  ruins 
of,  145;  i-emains  found  at,  1(52;  gate- 
way of  the  ancient  city  of,  165. 

My'ron,  sculpture  of,  105. 

Mysteiies,  or  Miracle  Flays,  376,  402. 

Mythology,  of  the  Greeks,  146;  of  the 
Roi 


)mans,  258. 


N 


Na-bo-na'di-us,  defeat  of,  80. 

Na-bo-nas'sar,  era  of,  21,  29. 

Na-bo-po-las'sar,  reign  of,  29;  joins  with 
the  Medes  against  Nineveh,  34. 

Na'dir  Shah,  655. 

Nai'vi-us,  Roman  poet,  220. 

Nana  Siihib  (sah'ecb),  ri20, 

Nancy,  battle  of,  399. 

Nantes  {tiantu),  edict  of.  554,  560,  564. 

Napier  {nu'pe-er).  Sir  Cnarles,  519. 

Naples,  400,  442,  541. 

Napoleon  1.,  562,  577,  578,  579,  586. 

Nai)olecn  II.,  589. 

Napoleon  lU.,  588,  589. 

Nar'ses,  303. 

Nar'va,  battle  of,  628. 

Nase'by,  battle  of,  486. 

Na-si'ca,  PubUus  Sci^no,  220. 

National  Assembly,  l^rench,  571. 

National  Convention,  French,  574. 

Nations,  origin  of,  299. 

Navarino  (nah-vah-re'no),  battle  of,  517, 
(iHi,  6:i'i. 

Navarre  (nah-var'),  province  of,  ^li^ 

NavaiTcte  («a/(-?-a7--?a' fa), battle  of,  .'"^k'' 

Navigation  Act,  489. 

Ne-an'der,  646. 

Ne-ar'chu8,  voyage  of,  124. 

Neb-u-chad-nez'zar,  his  conquests,  29; 
his  death,  30. 

Ne'cho,  or  Ne-ka'o,  reign  of,  50. 

Neck'er,  571,572. 

Nelson,  514,  578,  624. 

Ne-me'an  Games,  153. 

Nep'tuiie.    See  Poneidon. 

Nero,  emperor,  272,  «. 

Ner'va,  one  of  the  "  Five  Good  Empe- 
rors," 274. 

Nes'tor,  145. 

Netherlands,  4:30;  history  of,  612;  king- 
dom of,  613. 

Netherlands,  New,  taken  by  the  English, 
493. 

Netherlands,  Spanish,  494. 

Nen'.Htri-a.  317. 

Neville's  Cross,  battle  of,  863 

Newbury  battle  of,  486. 

New  Ora  na'da,  618. 

New  Netherlands,  493. 

New  Rome,  278. 

Newspapei-H,  567. 

Newton,  506. 


Ney  (wa).  Marshal,  584,  585,  586. 

Nice  (nees),  comicil  of,  282;  capital  of 

lloum,  307;    taken   by  the  Crusaders, 

307,  409;  battle  of,  4U9;  capital  of  the 

Greek  emperors,  308. 
Nicholas  of  Cusa,  *i5. 
Nicholas,  emperor  of  Russia,  630. 
Ni'ci-as,  defeat  of,  110. 
Nic-o-me'des,  king  of  Tergamus,  142. 
Ni-cop'o-Hs,  battle  of,  430. 
Niebelungen-lied    ( ne-bel-oon'gen-lved ), 

434. 
Niebuhr  (ne'boor).  646 
Nihili-sls,  631. 

Nile,  battle  of  the,  514,  578. 
Nin'e-veh,  situation  of,  81;  destructioD 

of,  34. 
Nis'sa,  battle  of,  430. 
Normandy,  settlement  of,  321;  dukes  of, 

321;  province  of,  379;  conquest  of,  396. 
Normans,origin  of,  3xX);  mode  of  warfare, 

343;    expel  the  Saracens  from  south 

Italy,  439. 
Noreemen,  or  Northmen,  821. 
Northampton,  battle  of,  370. 
Northern  War,  623. 
North  Gennan  Confederation,  607. 
Northumberland,  duke  of,  468, 
Norway,  history  of,  624. 
Norwich  {nor'rij),  504. 
Notables,  assembly  of  the,  568. 
Noureddin  (noor-ed-deen'),  411,  412. 
Nov-go-rod',432,  627. 
Nu'ma  Pom-pil'i-us,  reign  of,  185,  187. 
Nu-man'ti-a,  t«.ken  by  the  Romans,  119. 
Nu-mid'i-a,  a  Ronmn  province,  237. 
Nu'rem-berg,  peace  or,  600. 


Gates,  Titus,  495. 

Obelisk,  57,  n. 

Observatory,  Paris,  566. 

O-ce'a-nus,  149. 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  517. 

Oc-ta'vi-us  Ca'sjir,  heir  to  .Julius  Cu'sar, 
240;  forms  the  sei-tmd  triumvirate, 241 ; 
with  Antony  defeats  Rrutus  and  Cas- 
sius,  242;  defeats  Antony  and  Cleo- 
patra, 243;  receives  the  title  of 
Augustus,  243.    See  Av(pistu.<i  Ciisar. 

Od-e-na'thus,  prince  of  Palmyra,  2^6. 

O-do-a'cer,  king  of  Italy,  287,  :W2. 

O'Donnell,  general.  r.8«i. 

Oersted,  or  Oi-sted  ier'sttd),  643. 

O'gle-thorpe,  general,  508. 

Oie<la  (o-lia'dah),  (»7. 

Oliver  Clisson  (kUrs-innni),  39R. 

O-lyb'H-us,  empenjr.  28H. 

O-lym'pl-a,  9:1;  oracle  t»f,  154. 

Olympiads,  21,93. 

Olympic  Festival,  152. 

Olvnijtus,  go«Is  of,  146. 

O-lyn'thuH,  Uiken  by  Philip,  118. 

Ominlvades  {om-vu-'yahdj<),  887. 

O-nei'ros.  149. 

Oracle.s,  Greek,  IM. 

Ordeal,  of  the  Saxons,  349. 


Index, 


677 


Orders,  military.  349. 

Orellana  (o-rel-yah' nah),  G56. 

i)-res'tes,  287. 

Orleans,  duke  of  (figalite),  576. 

Orleans,  siege  of,  390. 

Or'muzd,  80. 

O-ron'tes,  128. 

Os'caus,  181. 

Oscar  I.,  king  of  Sweden,  623. 

Oscar  II.,  "      "        "         623. 

Os'ti-a,  building  of,  185. 

Ostracism,  98. 

Ostrogoths,  284,  298,  301. 

Oth'man,  327. 

Otho,  German  emperor.    See  Otto. 

O'tho,  Roman  emperor,  272,  n. 

Otho  I.,  king  of  Greece,  635. 

Ot'ter-burn,  battle  of,  367. 

Otto  I.  (or  Otho  I.),  emperor,  420,  439. 

Otto  II.,  emperor,  420,  442. 

Otto  in.,  emperor,  421. 

Otto  the  Illustrious,  418. 

Ot'to-car,  king  of  Bohemia,  427. 

Ot'to-mans,  309,  457. 

Otway,  507. 

Oude  (oMJd),  520. 

Oudenarde  {ow'den-ar-da\  battle  of,  501. 

Oudinot  {oo-de-no'),  general,  589. 

Ov'id,  Roman  poet,  258. 

Owen  Glendower,  367. 

Ox'en-stiern,  022. 

Oxford,  imiversity  of,  334. 


Paes'tum,  remains  of,  164. 

Painted  Porch  (Poe'ci-le  Sto'a),  166. 

Painting,  among  the  Assyrians,  36; 
among  the  Egyptians,  56;  the  Per- 
sians, 79;  the  Greeks,  163,  165;  in 
France,  402;   Italian,  446. 

Pal-ae-olo-gus,  emperor,  308. 

Palais  (pah-la)  Royal,  565. 

Pal'a-tine  Hill,  184. 

Pal'es-tine,  66. 

Pal-my'ra,  67;  becomes  independent, 
277;  ruins  of,  277. 

Pan-a-then-a'ic  Festival,  152. 

Pandects  of  Justinian.  311. 

Pan-no'ni-a,  attacked  by  the  barbarians, 
283;  Avars  in.  318. 

Pantheon,  building  of.  566. 

Papal  Power,  in  Italy,  590. 

Paph-la-go'ni-a,  history  of,  142. 

Paraguay  {pah-rah-gvn'),  657. 

Pariahs,  70. 

Parian  Marble.  21. 

Paris,  son  of  Priam,  90. 

Paris,  city  of,  316.  403,  584. 

Parliament,  English,  under  Charles  I., 
482;  Long,  48:^;  Barebone's,  490. 

Parliament,  of  Paris,  563. 

Par-men'i-des,  doctrines  of,  156. 

Parr,  Catharine,  467. 

Par-rha'si-us,  paintings  of,  166. 

Par'sees,  80. 

Par'the-non,  106, 165. 


Par'thi-ans,  kingdom  of  the,  formation 

of,  134;  history  of,  143;  victoiy  over 

Crassus,  2:^3;  defeated  by  Cassius,  234; 

defeated  by  Severus,  275;  overturned 

by  the  Pei^sians,  276. 
Pa-sar'ga-dae,  tribe  of  the,  75;  city  of,  79. 
Pas-cal',  508. 

Passau  ipas'sotv),  treaty  of,  546,  601. 
Passion  Play,  402. 
Paul  HI.,  pope,  600. 
Paul,  emperor  of  Russia,  080. 
Pau-sa'ni-as,  assassinates  Philip,  119. 
Pausanias,  trea.son  of,  103;  death  of,  104 
Pavia   ipah-m'ah),    taken  by  the  bar 

barians,   287;    capital    of    the    Lorn 

bards,  304;    burnt  by  Henry  II.,  422: 

battle  of,  544. 
Peace  of  God,  422. 
Pedro  v.,  king  of  Portugal,  621. 
Pekin,  taken  by  the  English  and  French, 

521. 
Pe-las'gi,  88. 

Pelissier  ( pa-lis-se-a')^  marshal,  589. 
Pe-lop'i-das,  115. 
Pel-o-pon-ne'si-an  War,  108. 
Pel-o-pon-ne'sus,  85. 
Pe'lops,  91. 

Pe-lu'si-imi,  battle  of,  51. 
Pe-ua'tes,  168,  n. 
Peninsular  War,  515,  582. 
Penn,  admiral.  491. 
Penn,  WiUiam.  503. 
Pep'in  dHeristal  (da-ris-tahV)^  8i7. 
Pepm  the  Short,  318. 
Percy.  Harry  (Hotspur),  367. 
Per-dic'cas,  regent,  124;  league  against 

him,  126;  assassinated,  127. 
Per'gamus,  kingdom  of,  136,  141. 
Pe-ri-an'der,  tyrant  of  Corinth,  99. 
Per'i-cles,  administration    of,    106;   his 

genius,  107;  description,  107,  n. 
Per-i-pa-tet'ic  School,  159. 
Perkin  Warbeck.  462. 
Perrault  (;?er-ro'),  Claude,  -569. 
Perry,  commodore,  653. 
Per-seph'o-ne,  153. 
Per-sep'o-lLs,   description  of,  79;    taken 

by  Alexander,  123. 
Per' sens  (suse),  deified  hero,  150. 
Perseus,  the  last  king   of    Macedonia, 

taken  prisoner  by  the  Romans,  133 

215. 
Per'se-us,  Roman  poet,  258. 
Persia,  defeated  by  Heraclius.  305;  con- 

quei-ed  by  the  Saracens,  305,  327;  ^ar 

between  England  and,    520;    moderu 

history  of,  654. 
Persian  Monarchy,  Now,  143;  overturns 

the  Parthian  Empire,  276. 
Persians,  origin  of,  74:  revolt  from  the 

Medes.  75:  empire  of  founded  by  Cy 

rus,  75;  civilization  of,  78. 
Per'ti-nax,  emperor,  288. 
I   Peni,  650. 

]   Pes-ta-loz'zi  (-lot'ze),  645. 
I   Peter  of  Aragon,  383. 
!  Peter  the  Cruel,  448. 
I   Peter  the  Great,  628. 


678 


Index. 


Peter  the  Hermit,  408,  409. 

Petition  of  Ki^lit,  48:^'. 

Petrarcli  (  pc'trark),  444,  447. 

Phar-na'ces,  detViited  by  Cassar,  386. 

Pha'ros,  desenption  of,  138. 

Phar-sa'li-a,  battle  of,  2;i5. 

Phi'di-as,  works  of,  1G4,  165. 

Pliilip,  emperor,  :i88. 

Philip  I.  of  France,  ;382. 

Philip  II.  "        382, 383, 412. 

Philip  III.        "        385, 386. 

Philip  IV.        "        386. 

Philip  V.  "        388. 

Philip  VI.         "        392. 

Philip,  king  of  Maeedon,  rise  of,  116; 
education,  117;  intrigues  of.  118;  inter- 
ference in  the  affairs  of  Greece,  118; 
general  of  the  Amphictyons,  119;  as- 
sassinated, 119. 

Philip  II.  of  Maeedon,  his  schemes  of 
conquest,  214;  defeated  ly  the  Ro- 
mans, 215. 

Philip  II.  of  Spain,  469,  471,  612,  617,  620. 

Philip  III.        "         618. 

Philip  IV.        "        618. 

Philip  V.         "         618. 

Philippa,  queen,  363. 

Philippe  de  Comines  {fe-leep'  dvh  ko- 
vieen'),  404. 

Phil-ip'pi,  battle  of,  242. 

Phil-ip-pop'o-lis,  battle  of,  284 

Phil-is'ti-a,  66. 

Philistines  (fe-lis'iins),  61,  66. 

Philology,  Comparative,  its  application 
to  history,  17. 

Phil-o-p(je'men.  his  career,  132;  his  death 
and  ciiaracter,  i:«. 

Pho'ci-ans,  war  against  the,  118. 

Pho'ci-on,  his  administration  at  Athens, 
12.5. 

Pho'cis,  a5.  ,118. 

Phoe-ni'ci-a,  situation,  cities,  and  colo- 
nies, 61;  conquest  of  by  the  Assy- 
ri«\ns,  62;  commerce  of,  63;  civiliza- 
tion of,  64. 

Phry'gi-a,  kingdom  of,  41. 

Phy'le.  foi-tress  of,  taken  by  Thrasybu- 
lus.  111. 

Piccini  ( p('et-che.'ne)y  640. 

Pillars  of  Ilercnles.  63. 

Pin'dar.  poems  of,  156. 

Pins,  maKJng  of.  476, 

V'\Ha,  { pe' Z(ih),  446. 

Pisano  ( pc-zah'no),  Nicola,  446. 

IM-Ris-trat'i  <ln»,  rule  of,  97;  conspiracy 
against,  98. 

PI  sis'tra-tus,  usumation  of,  97. 

Pitj.  William,  earl  of  Chatham.  510,  612. 

Pitt.  William,  tlie  Younger,  514. 

Pins  VII.,  pcpe,  582. 

Plus  IX.,  poP*>,  .588,  .589. 

Pi-zar'ro,  Francisco,  6.57. 

Pla-cid'i-a,  mother  of  Vnlentinian.  286. 

Plague,  in  Kngland.  3(«.  494. 

Plan-tag'e-net  (-tnj-),  fleoffrey,  841. 

Plantjigi-net,  Henry,  312. 

pla-tn>'a.  battle  of,  103;  defense  Of 
ftgainst  the  SportanEt.  109. 


Pla'to,  disciple  of  Socrates,  118;  his 
teachings  and  writings,  158. 

Plau'tus,  cuMiedies  of,  22U,  257. 

Playing  C;ards,  invention  of,  408. 

Plu'tarch,  his  LiceSy  161. 

Plu'to.    See  Hades. 

Plymouth,  settlement  of,  481. 

Poitiers  {poi-tt'crz'),  battle  of,  364. 

Poland,  a  kingdom,  421 ;  connected  with 
Hungary,  4.^6;  partition  of,  611;  his- 
tory of,  625;  insurrection  in,  630. 

Pole,  cai-dinal,  4(i9. 

Pollok,  Robert  5;i4. 

Poltava  (pOl-tcth'rah),  battle  of,  623,  629. 

Po-lyb'i-u.s,  his  character  of  Philopui- 
men.  i;«;  his  writings,  161. 

Pol-y-cle'tus,  165. 

Pol-yg-no'tus,  165. 

Pol-y-spei-'chon,   regent  of  Macedonia, 

Pom'pa-dour,  Madame  de,  56^3,  566. 

Pompeii  ( pom-pa' ye),  destruction  of,  273. 

Pom'pey  the  Great,  overcomes  Tigraues 
andMithridates,  226;  his  rise  to  power, 
230;  reduces  Pontus.  Syria,  and  Judea, 
231;  his  triumi)h,  2.i2;  member  of  the 
first  triumvirate,  2;W;  master  of  Rome, 
234;  defeated  by  Ctesar,  285;  assasisi- 
nated,  2^35. 

Po-ni-a-tow'ski,  prince,  680. 

Pon'tus,  histery  of,  142. 

Pope,  Alexander,  507. 

Pope's  Kaiser,  429. 

Popish  Plot,  495. 

Por'ci-us  Cato,  216. 

Por'sen-na  or  Por-sen'na,  189. 190. 

Portugal,  history  of  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
4.50;  maritime  enteri)rises  of,  451;  de- 
clared a  French  province,  581 ;  modem 
history  of.  619. 

Portuguese  literature.  451 . 

Po'nis.  defeated  by  Alexander,  128. 

Po-sei'don,  worship  of,  147. 

Po.stal  Service  in  France.  566. 

Potatoes,  introduction  of,  477. 

Po-tem'kin,  629. 

Poussin  ( /«»o.s-.vo7jy/'),  .568. 

Prii'torian  (luards,  institution  of,  271; 
strengthened  by  Tiberius,  274 ;  power 
of,  275. 

Prax-it'l-les.  165. 

PresV)tirg.  treaty  of,  5801 

PresbvleriauR,  48'/. 

Prid.'."  colonel,  487. 

Priestley,  .5:«). 

Prim,  general.  619. 

Piinee  Imperial.  French,  528. 

Printing.  intro«hn!ed  into  Kngland,  876; 
into  France.  103;  invention  of ,  485. 

Pro-co'pi-u.s  312. 

Pro-p<M''ti-us,  Roman  j>oet.  258. 

Pros'er-i>ine.     See  Prrnrphone. 

Proti'stunllsm.    See  lic/onnntion. 

l»rot4'.»<tants.  in  France,  5.55;  In  Germany, 
599.  tKX),  (501. 

Provence  { pro-xHihns'),  S'ifl. 

Provincial  Svhtem,  Uoman,  estabUsh 
meat  of,  219. 


Index, 


679 


Provincials  and  Romans,  dlstinctioD  be- 
tween abolished,  276. 

Pru'sa,  ;30'.i. 

Prussia,  histoiy  of,  609. 

Psam-mtMi'i-tiis,  reign  of,  50. 

Psam-uiet'i-clius  (-fcus;,  reign  of,  50. 

Ptoi-e-mu'is.  KfJ. 

Ptol'e-niies,  kingdom  of,  139. 

Piol'e-niy,  the  astronomer  and  geo- 
grapher, 1(31. 

Ptolemy  Ce-i-au'nus,  130. 

Ptolemy  E-piph'a-nes,  59,  n, 

Ptolemy  Eu-er'ge-tes,  140. 

Ptolemy  Lagi,  i-eign  of,  137. 

Ptolemy  Phil-a-del'pbus,  139. 

Pub-lil'i-an  Law  of  Volero,  193. 

Pill,  reign  of,  :^H. 

Punic  Wars,  206,  209,  215. 

Pun 'jab.  war  in,  519. 

Puritans,  origin  of,  470;  emigration  of, 
481,  48:3;  character  of,  502. 

Push'kin,  616. 

Pyd'na,  battle  of,  laS,  215. 

Pyramid,  the  Great,  situation  of,  53; 
desci-iption  of,  57. 

Pyramids,  battle  of  the,  578. 

Pyr'rhus,  king  of  Epirus,  obtains  pos- 
session of  Macedonia,  129:  invades 
Italy,  201;  defeated  by  the  Romans, 
202. 

Py-thag'o-ras,  doctrines  of,  156. 

Pyth'i-a,  utterances  by,  154. 

Q 

Quakers  or  Friends,  rise  of,  503:  perse- 
cution of,  503;  settlement  of  in  Nortli 
America.  503. 

Quebec,  taken  by  the  English,  510. 

Qucn'tin  Mat'sjs,  641. 

Que-ve'do.  644. 

Quince}',  Thomas  de,  535. 

Quir-i-na'li-a,  261. 


Rabelais  (rah-he-la'),  Francis,  552. 

Racine  (rah-see^i'),  567. 

Raikes,  Robert,  .525. 

}laleigh  (rair'lr).  Sir  Walter,  471,  477, 506. 

Ra-me'ses  I.,  son  of,  48. 

Ramesf's  IT.,  reign  of.  49. 

Ramillies  (rom'c-leez),  battle  of,  501. 

Ram'ni-ans.  or  Romans,  184. 

Raphael  {rah'fa-H),  &41. 

Ravaillac  (rah-rnl-7/ak'),  .555. 

Ravenna.  302,  .S03.  .304,  318,  440. 

Raymond,  count  of  Toulouse.  409. 

Raymond  VI.  of  Toulouse.  .383.  384. 

Reformation,  rise  of  in  England,  466; 

in  Oermanv,  599:  progress  of,  599.  600; 

in  Switzerland.  614;  in  Sweden,  622. 
fleform  Bill,  in  England,  517:  second,  520. 
Re-gil'lus,  Lake,  battle  of.  189.  190. 
Reg'u-lus.  defeat  of,  207;  his  patriotism, 

207;  death,  208. 
Re-ho-lio'am.  cartouche  of,  49;  insolence 

^d  tyranny  of,  67. 


Reign  of  Ten-or,  in  France,  576,  577. 
Religion,  of  the  Chaldaeans  and  Assyri- 
ans, 38;  of  the  Medes,  41;  Egyptians. 
54>;  Pha?nicians,  64;  Hiniloos,  70;  Chi- 
nese, 74;  Persians,  79;  U reeks,  145;  Ro- 
mans, 258. 
Religious  Festivals,  among  the  Greeks, 

151 ;  among  the  Romans,  261. 
Rem'brandt,  641. 
Re'muS;  183. 
Renaissance,  550. 
Renan  {re-nahng'),  Ernest,  595. 
Retz  (ratez),  cardinal  de,  557. 

Revolution,  American,  512;  French,  572j 
English  of  1688,  498. 

Reynolds.  Sir  Joshua,  529. 

Rhe'a,  Sil'via,  18:3. 

Rhine,  confederation  of  the,  605. 

Rhodes,  327,  632. 

Rialto  (re-aJiI'to),  440. 

Richard  I.  of  England,  354,  412,  413. 

Richard  II.  "         365, 366. 

Richard  UI.  "         372. 

Richard,  duke  of  York,  369. 

Richardson,  533. 

Richelieu  {reesh'e-lu\  hlb,  556,  603. 

Richmond,  earl  of,  372. 

Richter  (rik'tn-),  John  Paul,  645. 

Ridley,  468,  469. 

Ri-en'zi,  429,  444. 

Rizzio  (rit'se-o),  472. 

Robert,  count  of  Flanders,  409. 

Robeit,  duke  of  Normandy.  340,  341,  409. 

Robert,  king  of  France,  .381. 

Robertson,  "William,  533. 

Robespierre  {ro'bes-peer),  575,  576,  577. 

Rochefoucauld  (rom-foo-ko),  568. 

Roehelle  (ro-nhel'),  5.55. 

Roderick,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  328. 

Roemer  (i-o'rnei-),  566. 

Roger  I.  of  Sicily,  443. 

Roger  II.        "        443. 

Roland,  318. 

Roland,  Madame,  576. 

RoUo,  duke,  ;:21. 

Roman  Emjiire,  founded  by  Augustus, 
271;  divided  bj' Theodosius,  285;  wes- 
tern, 297. 

Roman  Kingdom,  184. 

Roman  Pontiff,  temporal  dominion  of, 
318. 

Roman  Republic,  187. 

Romans,  origin  of  the,  184. 

Rome,  foundation  of,  183;  early  govern- 
ment, 184;  traditionary  historj',  185; 
destruction  of.  249;  burning  of,  274; 
taken  by  the  Goths,  285;  by  the  Van- 
dals, 287;  sacked  by  the  Imperialists, 
545;  history  of,  444;  capital  of  Italy, 
616. 

Rom'u-lus,  birth  and  education  of,  183, 
n.;  reign  of,  185. 

Romulus,  Au-gus'tu-lus,  last  empei'or  of 
the  West,  287. 

Ron'ces-val'les,  battle  of,  318. 

Rosamond  Clifford,  .3.54. 

Rosebecgue  (rose  beck),  battle  of,  895, 

Rosetta  stone,  22,  59,  n. 


680 


Index, 


Rosse,  Lord,  530. 

Roueu,  3%. 

Roum  {room),  sultanate  of,  307. 

Roundheads,  4«j,  50JJ. 

Rousseau  {roo-so'),  5GH,  670. 

Rox-a'na,  marriecl  by  Alexander,   123; 

put  to  (leath,  127,  n. 
Royal  Library,  at  Paris,  3^5,  403. 
Royal  Oak,  Am. 
Ru'bens,  505,  G41. 
Ru'bi-con,  51G. 
Rudolf,  Agiicola,  435. 
Rudolf  I.  of  Hapsburg,  emperor,  427, 437. 
Rudolf  of  Suabia,  423. 
Run'ny-mede,  350. 
Rupert,  emperor,  429. 
Rupert,  prince,  4a5,  486,  4»1 
Ruskin,  John,  537. 
Russell,  admiral,  499. 
Russell,  Lord  John,  517. 
Kussell,  Lord  William,  496. 
Russia,  history   of,  G27;    commerce  of 

with  England,  475. 
Russians,  307. 
Rye-House  Plot,  496. 
Rys'wick,  treaty  of,  499. 


Sa-ba'co,  or  So,  49. 

Sa-bel'li-ans,  181. 

Sa'bines,  181 ;  defeated  by  the  Romans, 
186. 

Sacred  Mount,  secession  of  the  Romans 
to,  192. 

Sacred  War,  118. 

Sad'o-wa  (-loah),  battle  of,  607. 

Sa-gun'tum,  taken  by  Ilaimibal,  209. 

St.  Albans  (awl'hans),  battle  of,  369, 

St.  Au'gus-tine  (-tine),  333. 

St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  massacre  of,  549. 

St.  Bei-'nard,  391,  411. 

St.  Francis  Xavier  (zav'e-er),  652. 

St.  Genevieve  (jen-e-veev'),  566. 

St.  George,  clievalier  of,  508. 

St.  Gennain(2/wtr-//itt/i.7j</'),palaceof,  565. 

St.  He-le'na,  5«6. 

St.  Mark,  440. 

St.  Patrick,  ;i52. 

St.  Petersburg,  628. 

St.  Pierre  (  pear'),  Bernardin  de,  595. 

St.  Quentin,  battle  of,  547, 

St  Sophia,  churtih  of,  313. 

Sa'is,  chief  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  53. 

Sal'a-din,  *W,  412,  413. 

Sal-a-man'ca,  battle  of,  515, 

Sara-mis,  battle  of,  102, 

Sa-ler'no,  424,  442. 

Salian  Franks,  316. 

Sal'c  Law,  :W8. 

Sal'lust,  Roman  historian,  258. 

Sa-lo'na,  residence  of  Diocletian  at,  278. 

Sal-va'U>r  Ro'sa,  611,  (M4. 

Sa-ma'ri-a,  taken  by  Sargon,  32,  68;  cap- 
ital of  Israel,  67. 

Sam-ni'tes,  IKl ;  defeat  the  Romans,  201; 
submit  to  the  Romans,  202;  take  up 
arms  against  Sulla.  228, 


Sam'ni-um,  202. 

Sam'u-el,  the  last  of  the  Judges,  66. 

San-cho-ni'a-thon  or  San-chu-ui'a-thonf 
fragments  of  his  history,  22. 

Sancroft,  i>rimate  of  England,  497. 

Santa  Anna,  656. 

Santiago  isahn-te-ah'yo),  657. 

Sappho  (saf'fo),  poems  of,  155. 

Saracen  Empire,  ;i2y,  ;i;W. 

Saracenic  Civihzation,  :i:iO,  3;^1. 

Saracens,  attack  the  EasUirn  Empire, 
305;  conquest  of  Pei-sia  by,  305 1  de- 
feated by  the  Franks,  317;  origin  of 
the  name,  324 ;  conquests  of,  3^,  327, 
328;  commerce,  3;i0,  3;}1;  learning, 
331 ;  invasion  of  southern  Italy  by,  439, 
442, 

Sar'a-cus,  king  of  Assyria,  perishes  in 
the  burning  of  Nineveh,  34, 

Saratoga,  surrender  of  the  English  at, 
513, 

Sar-dan-a-pa'lus,  33. 

Sai  danapalus  II.    See  Saracus. 

Sar-din'i-a,  island  of,  taken  by  the  Ro- 
mans, 208;  kingdom  of,  615, 

Sar'dis,  taken  by  Cyrus,  43;  burned  by 
the  Greeks,  77. 

Sar'gon,  reign  of,  32. 

Sas-san'i-des,  dyntisty  of,  276;  end  of, 
305. 

Sat-ur-na'lia,  261. 

Saul,  66. 

Sav'oy,  duchy  of,  615. 

Saxe  (s(ur),  marshal,  509. 

Saxons,  299,  318,  322. 

Scal'i-ger,  644. 

Scarron  (skar-ron;;'),  567. 

Schamyl  (shah' mil),  ChiO. 

SchelUng  (tihel'limi),  046. 

Schiller  (shil'ler),  645. 

Schles'wig  or  Sles'wick,  606,  624. 

Schlie'niann  {side-),  explorations  by, 
145. 

Schools,  402,  525.  552,  565,  611. 

Schubert  {.thoo'bert),  640. 

Schumann  (shoo'man),  640. 

Schwaraenberg(»/it«irte'e»-6crflr),prince, 
585. 

Schwytz  (shvitrz),  487, 

Science,  among  the  Chaldeans,  87; 
among  the  Egyi>tians,  59;  among  tlie 
Greeks,  161;  among  the  .\nglo-Sa.\on8, 
.837;  in  England,  375,  505,  5.30;  in  mo- 
dem F^urope,  641. 

Scinde  (8ind),  reduction  of,  519. 

Scip'i-o,  consul,  defeated  by  Uanibal, 

m. 

Sciplo,  defeated  at  Thajwus,  by  Julius, 
Caesar.  237. 

Scipio  iE-mil'i-a-nas,  takes  Numantia, 
219,  n. 

Scipio,  Lucius  Aslaticu.s,  214. 

S<-ipio,  Njusica.  222. 

Scipto,  Publius  Cornelius  Africanus, 
destroys  tlie  ('artliaginlan  power  in 
Spain,  210;  defeats  the  Carthaginians 
at  Utica,  2i;>;  vanquishes  Hannibal  at 
Zama.213;  his  death.  215. 


Index. 


681 


Scotland,  360,  361,  503. 

Scots,  360,  361,  363. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  534. 

Sculptui-e,  Grecian.  165;  in  Italy,  446;  in 
modern  Europe,  641. 

Scyth'i-ans,  invade  Assyria,  34;  war 
against  by  Darius,  77;  defeated  by 
Alexander,  133. 

Sebastian  III.  of  Spain,  630. 

Se-bas'to-pol,  519,  589. 

Sedan  i_sa-dung'),  battle  of,  590. 

Sedgemooi-,  battle  of,  497. 

Se-leu'ci-a,  built  by  Seleucus,  134 ;  taken 
bv  Trajan,  374 ;  by  Severus,  375. 

Se-leu'ci-dae,  kingdom  of  tlie,  133. 

Se-leu'cus,  obtains  a  division  of  the  em- 
pire of  Alexander,  138;  acquires  near- 
ly the  whole  empire,  139;  assassmation 
of,  130. 

Selim  I.,  6:33. 

Selim  II.,  6:33. 

Sel'juks  {-jooks),  307,  330. 

Semi-Saxon,  376. 

Sem'ites,  or  Shem'ites,  18. 

Se-mit'ic  Nations,  24. 

Sem'pach,  battle  of,  438. 

Sem-pro'ni-us,  consul,  defeated  by  Han- 
nibal, 309. 

Sen'e-ca,  Roman  philosopher,  258. 

Sen-nach'e-rib,  reign  of,  32. 

Sen-ti'num,  battle  of,  201. 

Sep'tu-a-gint,  140,  n.,  161. 

Se-ra'pis,  temple  of,  138. 

Se'res,  land  of  the,  73. 

Serfdom,  in  England,  344,  373;  abolition 
of,  366,  373;  in  France,  389;  in  Ger- 
many, 433. 

Ser'ra-no,  general,  619. 

Ser-to'ri-us,  astablishes  a  power  in 
Spain ;  his  death,  239. 

Ser'vi-a,  history  of.  454 ;  insurrection  in, 
630. 

Ser'vi-us  Tul'li-us,  reign  of,  186. 

Se-sos'tris,  reign  of,  48. 

Se'ti,  reign  of,  48. 

Seven  Sages  of  Greece.  96,  n.,  156. 

Seven  United  Provinces  of  the  Nether- 
lands, revolt  of  the,  613. 

Seven  Weeks'  War.  (07. 

Seven  Years'  War.  510.  562,  605,  610. 

Se-ve'rus.  Alexander,  reign  of,  276. 

Severus,  Sep-tim'i-us,  reign  of,  275. 

Sevigne  {sa-veen'  ifn),  Mailame  de,  568. 

Seymour,  Jane.  467. 

Shaillot  ishd-yo').  .566. 

Shakespeare.  William,  506. 

Shal-man-e'ser  I.,  reign  of,  31. 

Shalmaneser  IV.,  32. 

She'chem  (she'kem),  67. 

Sheffield.  504. 

Shelley.  Percy  Bysshe.  533. 

She'shonk.  reign  of,  49. 

Shi'ites.  327. 

Ship  Money,  482. 

Shi'shak,  49. 

Shrewsbury,  battle  of,  367. 

Shri'f  u,  builder  of  the  Great  Pyramids, 
58. 


Siberia,  conquest  of,  628. 

Sibylline  Books,  359. 

Sicilian  Vespei-s,  massacre  of,  385,  443. 

Si'ci-ly,  colonies  in,  87;  becomes  a  Ro- 
man province,  308;  modem  history  of, 
443. 

Sic-y-o'ni-a  (sish-),  85. 

Sidney,  Algernon,  496. 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  478. 

Si'don,  city  of,  61,  63. 

Sigismund  (sif  is-mund)  of  Hungary 
emperor  of  Germany,  439. 

Sigismimd  I.  of  Poland,  635. 

Sikhs  {siks).  war  with,  519. 

Si-le'si-a,  invasion  of,  610. 

Silk-making,  in  England,  374. 

Silk-W^orm,  313. 

Simon  de  Montfort,  384,  413. 

Sis-mon'di,  595. 

Si-mon'i-des,  poems  of,  156. 

Si-no'pe,  city  of,  87. 

Siva  (se'vah),  70. 

Slavery,  among  the  Greeks,  167,  172; 
among  the  Romans,  330,  «,.,  221,  230; 
abolished  in  the  English  colonies,  517. 

Sla-vo'ni-aus,  303,  306. 

Sla-vs,  399. 

Smal'cald,  league  of,  600. 

Smer'dis,  the  Magiau,  76. 

Smolensk',  battle  of,  583. 

Smol'lett,  533. 

So.     See  Sabaco. 

So-bi-es'ki  {-ke),  John,  604,  626,  633. 

Social  War,  Greek,  118;  Roman,  225. 

Soc'ra-tes,  condemnation  and  death  of, 
111;  character  of,  113,  n.\  account  of 
by  Xenophon,  157. 

Socrates,  church  historian,  311. 

Sof'far,  654. 

Sof-far'i-des,  654. 

Sog-di-a'na.  133. 

Solferino  (sol-fa-re' no\  battle  of,  590. 

Sol'o-mon,  reign  of,  67. 

So'lon,  his  laws,  96;  effect  of,  97. 

Sol'y-man.  sultan  of  Roima,  409. 

Solyman  the  Magnificent,  6:32. 

Som'er-set,  duke  of.  468. 

Soph'o-cles,  tragedies  of,  157,  159. 

Sorbonne  {sor-bon'),  Robert  de,  391. 

South'ey,  Robert,  5*4. 

So-zo'men,  311. 

Spain,  increavse  of  the  Carthaginian 
power  in,  208:  subjugated  by  the  Ro- 
mans, 310;  invaded  by  Charlemagne, 
318;  conquered  by  the  Saracens,  338; 
history  of  in  the  Middle  Ages,  548; 
maritime  enterprises  of.  450;  dialects 
in,  451 ;  modem  history  of,  616. 

Spanish  Independence  in  America,  618. 

Spanish  Language  and  Literature.  451. 

Spanish  Succession,  Avar  of.  500,  560. 

Spar'ta,  ancient  kingdom  of.  89;  institu- 
tions of,  93;  wars  waged  by,  95;  war 
with  Athens,  108;  saved  from  capture 
by  Agesilaus,  115;  corrupted  and 
enervated,  117;  taken  by  Antigonus, 
132. 

Spfvr'ta-cus,  revolt  under,  229. 


682 


Index, 


Spencer,  Herbert,  537. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  478. 

Spinoza  (spc-no'zah),  644. 

Spire,  diet  of,  591), 

Spui-s,  battle  of,  4G4,  W3. 

Stamp  Act,  ^A'-i. 

Stan'is-las,  king  of  Poland,  562,  623,  626. 

Stanley,  Lord,  872. 

Stanley,  Sir  William.  372. 

Star  Chamber,  court  of,  474,  482. 

States-General  of  France,  assemblage 
of,  387,  :i88,  393,  400,  401,  548,  553,  555, 
571,  5S)2;  order  of  opening,  401. 

Steam  Navigation,  .526. 
.  Steele,  507. 

Stephen,  king  of  Eh'gland,  341. 

Stephenson,  George,  528. 

Sterne,  Laurence,  533. 

Stewart,  Dugald,  535. 

Stil'i-cho  (-ko),  285. 

Stocking-Knitting,  639. 

Stoics,  school  of  the,  158. 

Stonehenge,  32:1 

Stra'bo,  the  geographer,  161. 

Stra-del'la,  040. 

Strasburg,  taken  by  the  French,  559. 

Stuart,  Arabella,  478. 

Stuart,  Mary,  47'2. 

Styx,  river,  174. 

Sua'bi-a,  or  Svvabia,  298. 

Sue-to'nl-us,  Roman  historian,  258, 

Sueves  or  Hwevi,  297,  298. 

Sue'vi,  settlement  of  in  Spain,  286. 

Suez  Canal,  522. 

Suger  isoo-zha'),  Abb6,  392. 

Sul'la,  defeats  Mithridates,  226;  war  with 
Marius,  227;  massacre  by,  228;  perpet- 
ual dictator,  229;  his  death,  229. 

Sul'ly  (or  soo-yc'),  duke  of,  551,  555,  561. 

Sunday,  institution  of,  282. 

Sunday-schf)ols,  525. 

Sun'nites.  327. 

Suo-ve-tau-ril'i-a,  261. 

Su'phis,  58. 

Sui)remacy,  Act  of,  470. 

Surr<'y,  earl  of,  4(54,  495. 

Su'sa,  capilal  of  the  empire  of  Darius, 
77;  taken  by  Alexander,  123. 

Su-Hi-a'na,  134. 

8u-var'off.  g«-neral,  578,  626,  629,  633. 

Sweden,  history  of,  622. 

Swe'den-borg.  (V44. 

Swevti  {sinnir},  'Wi. 

Swi^t,  .Jonathan,  .507. 

Swinburne,  Algernon  C,  536. 

Swiss  Confedenujy,  438. 

Swiss,  insurrection  of,  427,  437. 

Switzerland,  history  of,  4:^7,  614. 

Syb'a-ris,  87. 

Sylvester  IL,  pope,  421, 

Syn-cel'Ius,  312. 

Syr'a-cuse,  hi.story  of,  204 ;  independent 
of  Carthage,  208;  taken  by  the  Ro- 
mans, 211. 

Syr-i'a,  situation  and  liistory,  65;  sub- 
dued by  th»*  Sarac!ens,  305,  ga«;  In- 
vaded by  Napoleon,  678,  034, 

Syrian  Kingdom,  133, 


Ta'ci-tus,  en»i>«M-or,  2?<8. 

Tacitus,  liistoriuii.  2r>«. 

Tad'mor  or  I'almyra.  07. 

Tai'ping  Rebellion,  052. 

Talavera  (tali-lah-ia'rah),  battle  of,  515. 

Tal'ley-rand,  585. 

Tam'er-lane.    See  Timour. 

Tancred,  409. 

Tau'ites,  dynasty  of,  49, 

Ta'ou-ism,  73. 

Tapestry  Weaving,  639. 

Ta-ren'tum,  city  of,  87;  war  against,  201; 
taken  by  the  Romans,  202;  taken  by 
the  emperor  of  Germany,  412. 

Tarik  {tah-reek'),  328. 

Tar-pei'an  Rock,  199. 

Tar-quin'i-us  Priscus.  reign  of,  186, 

Taniuinius  Superbus,  180. 

Tar'shisk,  a  PhcLmician  colony,  61 ;  mines 
of,  04. 

Tar'sus,  foundation  of,  41, 

Tar'tai-s,  incursions  of,  ?2. 

Tas'so,  i)oet,  (»44. 

Taylor,  Jei'emy,  507, 

Teh'rak,  50. 

Tell,  William,  story  of.  428. 

Templai-s,  knights,  410;  suppression  ol 
in  France,  l^O. 

Ten'ny-son,  Alfred,  Ty.V>. 

Ter'encts  cinnedies  of,  220. 

Test  Act,  49.5. 

Teutonic  Order,  knights  of  the,  000,  025. 

Teu'tons,  defeated  bv  Maiius.  221,  225. 

Tewksbury,  battle  of,  371. 

Thack'e-ray,  William  M.,  r;30. 

Tha'les  of  Af  ilctus.  doctrines  of,  1.56. 

Thap'sus,  battle  of.  2:^0. 

Thebes,  capital  of  Ufiper  Fg.vpt,  de- 
scription of,  52;  most  fk>uri.shing 
period  of,  Kl 

Thebes,  in  Bu^otia,  foundation  of,  91; 
war  with  Sparta,  115;  invites  tlie  in- 
terference of  Philij),  118. 

The-mis'to-<'les,  his  <-ourse  at  the  battle 
of  Salamis.  103;  rivalship  with  Aris- 
tides.  104;  banished  by  the  ostnicLsni, 
104;  his  death.  KM. 

The-oc'ri-tus,  poems  of,  160. 

The-od'o-ric.  king  of  the  Ostrogoths.  301. 

The-o-do'si-us  the  (Jreat,  rrign  of.  2S5. 

TIkhmIosIus  II..  Roman  einiK*ri»r,  JJOl. 

The-o-phv-lact',  312. 

Ther-nioi/y-lic,  Imttle  of,  102;  second 
battle  of  136,  214. 

Thestnis  (tne'niise).  89. 

The8-mo-i)ho'ri-a,  festival  of,  l.'i2. 

Thes'pis,  founder  of  (irevk  tragedy,  V.l^. 

Tlie-s-sii'li-ans,  migration  of,  92. 

Thes'sa-ly,  K5. 

Thiers  [tr-dr'),  president  of  the  French 
republic,  6»li  author,  595. 

Thierrv  (tf-dr'rr),  .595. 

Third  i^lstatc.  creation  of,  387;  in  conflict 
with  the  king,  401,  571,  692. 

Thirty  Tyrants,  in  Athens,  111. 
,  Thirty  YuarB'  War,  602,  008,  604. 


Index, 


683 


Thomson,  James,  531. 

Thorwaldsen  (tor'wald-sen),  641. 

Thoth'mes  111.,   conquests  of,  48;    ooe- 
iisks  erected  by,  57,  n. 

Thothmes  IV.,  builder  of  the  Sphinx,  48. 

Thou  (too),  Auguste  de,  568. 

Thras-y-bu'his,  111. 

Three  Henries,  war  of,  549. 

Thu-cyd'i-des,  historian,  111,  157. 

Ti-be'ri-us,  emperor.  272. 

Ti-bul'lus,  Roman  poet,  258. 

Ti-ci'nus,  battle  of,  209. 

Tig'lath-pileser  I.,  31. 

Tiglath-pileser  II.,  32. 

Ti-gra'nes,  defeated  by  the  Romans,  136, 
226. 

Ti-gran-o-cer'ta,  battle  of,  226. 

Til'ly,  general,  602,  603. 

Til'sit,  treaty  of,  581. 

Ti-mo'le-on,  freedom  of  Syracuse  les 
tored  by,  204, 

Timour  (te-moor*),    or  Tamerlane,  310, 
4.58,  6.54. 

Tir-ha'kah,  reign  of,  50. 

Ti'ryns,  ruins  of;  145. 

Tir'zah,  capital  of  Israel,  67. 

Tis-sa-pher'nes,  110. 

Ti'tans,  149, 

Titian  (tish'an),  641. 

Ti'tus,  takes  Jerusalem,  273;  reign  of, 
273. 

Titus,  colonel,  491. 

Tobacco,  introduction  of,  477;  an  article 
of  commerce,  504. 

To'ki-o,  653. 

ro-lo'sa,  battle  of,  448. 

Tom'y-ris,  75, n. 

Tonnage  and  Poundage,  482. 

Torricelli  (tor-re-sel'le),  643. 

Tos'tig,  :i35. 

Tot'i-la,  king  of  the  Goths,  303. 

Toulouse  (too-loose'),  siege  of,  384. 

Tournament,  348. 

Tours  (toor),  battle  of,  317. 

Towns  in  France,  chartered,  382. 

Tow'ton,  battle  of,  370, 

Traf-al-gar',  cape,  battle  of,  515. 

Tra'jan,  emperor,  his  character  and  con- 
quests, 274;  column  erected  by,  275. 

Transvaal,  republic,  522. 

Tran-syl-va'ni-a,  4.55. 

Tras-i-me'nus.  Lake,  battle  of,  209. 

Treb'i-a,  battle  of,  209. 

Trent,  council  of,  600. 

Tri-bo'ni-an,  312. 

Tribunes,  Roman,  creation  of,  192. 

Iriple  Alliance,  558. 

Triumvirate,  first,  233;  second,  341. 

Trojan  War,  89,  90. 

Troubadours,  391,  447. 

Trouv6res  (troo-vare'),  391. 

Troy,  90. 

Troyes  (trwah\  treaty  of^368,  396. 

Truce  of   God,  in  France,  381 ;  in  Ger- 
many, 422. 

Tu'dor,  Edmund,  461. 

Tudor,  Henry,  372. 

Tudors.  character  of  the,  474 


Tuileries  {t^O€el're)y  storming  of  the,  574, 

587. 
Tul'lus,  Hos-til'i-us,  reign  of,  185. 
Tu-ra'ni-an  Languages,  19. 
Turanians,  35. 

Turenne  (tu-ren'),  marshal,  557,  559. 
Turgot  itoor-go'),  570. 
Turkey,  trade  with,  476;  history  of  mc 

em,  631. 
Turkish  Empire,  history  of,  457. 
Turkistan  (toor-kis-tan'),  630,  655. 
Turks,  303,  307. 
Tuscan  Architecture,  182,  n. 
Tuscan  Dialect,  447. 
Tuscans,  182. 
Tus'cu-lum,  189. 
Twelve  Tables,  laws  of  the,  195. 
Tyn'dale,  William,  467. 
Tyn'dall,  John,  537. 
Tyre,  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  29 ;  its 

government,  61;    revolt  of  from  the 

Babylonians,  62;  taken  by  Alexander, 

62,  122. 
Tyr-tae'us,  elegies  of,  155. 

U 

Ulm,  battle  of,  579. 

U-lys'ses,  90,  145. 

Um'bri-ans,  181,182. 

Umbro-Sa-bel  'li-ans,  181 . 

University  College,  Bristol,  525. 

University  of  Oxford,  3^4;  of  Paris,  390, 

402. 
Universities,  in  France,  390;  of  Heidel 

berg,  Vienna,  and  Prague,  429. 
Unterwalden  {oon-ter-wal'den\  437. 
Ur,  28. 

U'ra-nos,  149. 
Urban  n.,  pope,  408. 
Uri  {oo're),  canton  of,  437. 
Uraguay  (oo-roo-gua'),  6.57. 
U'ti-ca,  61 ;  capital  of  Africa,  217. 
U'trecht,  treaty  of,  561. 
Uz'becks,  655. 


Valens,  emperor,  defeated  by  the  Goths, 

284. 
Val-en-tin'i-an  I.,  288. 
Valentinian  II.,  288. 
Valentinian  III.,  286. 
Va-le'ri-an.    emperor,    persecutes    the 

Christians,  280. 
Valois  (val-wah'),  branch  of,  388. 
Valois-Orleans  Branch,  .541. 
Van  Artevelde  iar-ia-veW),  Philip,  395. 
Vandals,  join  the  Goths,  284;   settle  in 

Spain,  286:  pass  into  Afiica,  286,  298. 
Van  Dyke  (dike),  505,  641. 
Vane.  Sir  Henry,  486. 
Van  Tromp,  489,  490,  558,  559. 
Var'ro,  consul,  defeated  by  Hannibal 

210. 
Vasco  da  Gama  (gah'mah\  619. 
Vauban  (vo-bahng'),  559. 
Ve'das,  age  of,  70. 
Ve'ga,  Lope  de,  644. 


684 


Index, 


Veil  (ve'yi),  war  of  against  Rome.  198; 
taken  by  Caniillus,  196. 

Ve-las'quez,  641. 

Ven'a-bles,  admiral,  491. 

Ven'e-ti,  attacked  by  the  Huns,  287; 
cities  of  the,  440. 

Ven-e'ti-a,  ceded  to  Italy,  616. 

Venetians,  181,  'SOU. 

Venezia,  440. 

Venezuela  (ven-e-zwe'lah),  618,  657. 

Venice,  republic  of,  420;  history  of,  440; 
city  of,  440;  commerce  of,  441;  decline 
of,  442;  manufactures  of,  443;  war  be- 
tween France  and,  542. 

Ve'nus.    See  Ajihrodite. 

Verdi  {vdr'de),  640. 

Verdun  (vdr-duhng'),  treaty  of,  319. 

Vei-gniaud  (vdrn-yo'),  57'5. 

Ve-ro'na,  battle  of,  285. 

Versailles  {ver-sales'),  palace  of,  566. 

"Ves-pa'si-an,  reign  of,  272,  n.,  283. 

Ves'ta.    See  Hestia. 

Ve-su'vi-us,  eruption  of,  273. 

Victor  E-man'u-el,  615,  616. 

Victor  Hu'go,  595. 

Victoria,  queen  of  England,  518,  519,  521. 

Vi'kings,  or  sea-kings,  321. 

Vil-la-fran'ca,  treaty  of,  590. 

VillainM,  in  Englauff,  344. 

Villiers  (vil't/erz),  George,  duke  of  Buck- 
injrham.  480.  481,  482.  r)05. 

Vimeira  (ve-ma'e-roA),  battle  of,  516. 

Vi-na'11-a,  261. 

Vinci  (vin'che),  Leonardo  da, 446,  550, 641. 

Vir'gil,  Roman  poet,  258, 

Virginia,  discovery  of,  471;  settlement 
of,  480. 

Vlr-l-a'tu8,  defends  Lusitania  against 
the  Romans,  217. 

Vlsh'nu.  70. 

Vis'i-goths,  2R4:  kingdom  of  in  Spain, 
286  298;  defeated  by  the  Franks,  317. 

Vi-tel'11-us,  emperor,  272.  n. 

Vi-tru'vi-us,  Rf)man  architect-  446. 

Vit-to'ri-a,  battle  of,  515. 

Voiture  (inmh-ture'),  567. 

Vol'e-ro,  Pub-Ul'i-us,  193. 

Vol'ney,  594. 

Vol'sci-ans,  194. 

Vol'ta.  043. 

Voltaire*,  .569.  611. 

Von  Molt'ke,  generdl,  590. 

Vul'can.    See  Hephaestoi, 

W 

Wag'oer  (or  vnhq'ner),  6401 
Wa'gram,  battle  of,  582. 
WakeflcM,  battle  of,  370. 
Wales,  ronquest  of.  :W9. 
Wales,  prince  of,  y)9. 
Wallace,  William,  360. 
Walla'chl-a,  450.  634. 
Wal'len -stein,  Albert,  602,  OOS. 
Wal'lis,  506. 
Walpole,  Horace,  538. 
Walpole.  Sir  Robert,  508. 
Walter  the  Penniless,  409. 


Walworth,  mayor  of  London,  366. 

War  of  the  Roses,  370,  373. 

War'saw,  taking  of,  626. 

Warwick  {war'rik),  earl  of,  the  King 
Maker,  369,  370,  371. 

Warwick,  earl  of,  the  Younger,  461,  4C8 
463. 

Washington,  George,  513. 

Waterloo,  battle  of,  516,  586. 

Wat  Tyler,  insurrection  of,  365,  366. 

Watt,  James,  527. 

Watts,  525. 

Weaving,  6:38. 

Weber  (wa'ber  or  va'ber),  640. 

Wedgewood,  Josiah,  528. 

Weins'burg,  taking  of  by  Conrad,  434. 

Wellesley,  Sir  Arthur.  See  Wellington 

Wellington,  duke  of,  51.5.  516. 

Wen'ces-las,  emperor,  429. 

Wentworth,  Sir  Thomas,  482,  483. 

Wesley,  John,  .524. 

West-pha'li-a,  king  of,  581. 

Westphalia,  treaty  of,  .557,  604. 

Whewell  (/at'cZ),  William,  537. 

Whitefield  (hwW field),  George,  531 

Wick'lilTe,  John,  367,  376. 

Wie'land,  645. 

William,  archbishop  of  Tyre,  412. 

William,  duke  of  Normandy,  :381;  con- 
quers England.  335;  William  I.,  king, 

William  II.  of  England,  840. 
William  III.  '^  499. 

William  IV.  "  517. 

William  and  Mary,  498. 
William  III.  of  Holland.  618. 
William  of  Malmsbury,  34.5. 
William  I.  of  the  Netherlands,  613. 
William  of  Orange,     Stadtholder,  495, 

612. 
William  I.  of  Prussia,  606;  emperor  of 

Germany,  (iOS.  611. 
William  II.  of  Sicily,  443. 
Wit-en-a-ge-mote'  {-ghe-\  388. 
Wolfe,  general,  510. 
Wolsey  {nH)ol'z<'\  Thomas.  468,  465. 
Wolseley  (vuwl'zlec).  Sir  Garnet,  522,  528. 
Women,    treatment    of    by    the    early 

Greeks,  144;  by  the  later  Greeks.  171, 

costume  of  among  the  Romans.  2(55 
Wonders  of  the  World,  Seven,  i:38,  n. 
Wool,  trade  in,  3<55. 
Worcester  (mxts'ter),  battle  of,  489. 
Wordsworth,  William,  634. 
World's  Fair,  .527,  5M. 
Worms,  diet,  of,  .599. 
Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  605. 
Wych'er-ly,  or  Wycherley,  607. 


Xan-thlp'pufl,  assists  the  Canhiuflnian\ 

207. 
Xavier  (znv'e-cr),  St.  Francis.  662. 
Xen-o«*'ra-tes.  philosopher,  158 
Xen-oj)h'a-nes.  of  F^lea,  15<5. 
Xen'o-phon.  111.  112;  engaged  in  the  e3^ 

sedition  of  Cyrus,  113;  writings  of,  167. 


Index, 


685 


Xei-x'es  I.,  king  of  Prussia,  78, 101, 102. 
2Qiueues  (ze-me'nees),  616. 


\ed'o,  cltyof,  653. 
Yo-ko-ha'ma,  city  of,  653. 
York  Minster,  519. 
Yorktown,  surrender  of,  513. 
Young,  Edward,  531. 


Zach'd-ry,  pope,  318. 
Zft'ma,  Cattle  of,  212,  213. 
Za-ra-thus'tra,    See  Zoroaster. 
Zed-e-ki'ah,  last  kingdom  of  Judah,  29; 

made  captive  by  Nebuchadnezzar,    68. 
Zend-a-ves'ta,  doctrines  of,  41 ;  meaning 

of  the  term,  80. 


Ze'no,  teachings  of,  156;  school  of,  158; 
taught  in  the  painted  porch,  166. 

Zeno,  Greek  emperor,  3^. 
.  Ze-no'bi-a,  character    and   accomplish- 
ments of,  277;  made  captive  by  Aure- 
lian,  277. 

Zen'ta,  battle  of,  604,  633. 

Zeus  (zusc),  worship  of,  146;  temple  ol 
at  Elis,  165. 

Zeux'is,  paintings  of,  166. 

Zie'la,  battle  of,  236. 

Zi-pan'gu,  652. 

Zis'ca,  John,  430. 

Zom'dorf,  battle  of,  611. 

Zo-ro-as'ter.  doctrines  of,  4l;  period  in 
which  he  lived,  41,  n.;  meaning  of  the 
term,  79;  religion  taught  by,  80. 

Zulus  (zoo'looz)^  war  with,  523. 

Zu'rich,  614. 

Zwingli  (ziving'glee),  614 


14  DAY  USE 

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